ATOMS

 The basic and smallest unit or particle of a chemical element which still remains the property of that element
 An atom is a particle that consists of a nucleus of protons and neutrons surrounded by an electromagnetically-bound
cloud of electrons
 The chemical elements are distinguished from each other by the number of protons that are in their atoms
 Mass number is the total number of protons and neutron in its nucleus
 Subtracting the atomic number from the mass number yields the number of neutrons in an atom
 All atoms have the same number of protons but not necessarily the same number of neutrons
 Atomic weight is the average mass of all atoms in an element

COMPOSITION OF AN ATOM

 Proton and Neutrons form the central nucleus

 Proton = positive charge
 Neutron = no charge
 Negatively charged Electrons surround the nucleus (an electron is essentially weightless)

 P = atomic no.
 N = mass number - atomic number (differ in isotopes)
 e- atomic number (always the same as P)
 Elements in the periodic table are indicated by symbols Atomic mass is found at the upper corner and the atomic number
is found at the lower corner.
 Electron trade constitutes the currency of chemical reactions. The number of electrons in a neutral atom (that is, the atomic
number) gives the element its unique identity. No two different elements have the same atomic number
 The periodic table is arranged by order of increasing atomic number which is always an integer
 In contrast to atomic number, different forms of the same element can have different masses (isotopes)
 When the number of protons equals the number of electrons, the atom is electrically neutral; that is it has no net charge
 The atomic mass reported in the periodic table for any given element is actually a weighted average of the masses of its
isotopes.
 COMPOUNDS

 Any substance composed of identical molecules consisting of atoms of two or more chemical elements
 Atoms cannot be subdivided, created, or destroyed
 Atoms of different elements can combine, separate, or rearranged
 Salt:
o A chemical compound consisting of an ionic assembly of positively charged cation and negatively charged anions,
which results in a compound with no net electric charge
o Salt consists of two position ion (cation) of a base and the negative ion (anion) of an acid
o The reaction between an acid and a base is called a neutralization reaction
 Compounds can be classified as any of two types
o Ionic - compounds are formed by combination of a metal and a nonmetal. The smallest particle of ionic
compound are ions
 Cations with positive charge
 Anions with negative charge
o Molecular (covalent) - compounds are formed by combination of 2 or more nonmetals. The smallest particles of
molecular compounds are molecules
 Molecules composed of two or more elements

ISOTOPES

 Are distinct nuclear species of the same element

 They have the same atomic number and position in the periodic table, but differ in nucleon numbers due to different
numbers of neutrons in their nuclei

COVALENT COMPOUNDS

 Covalent bonds occur when electrons are shared between two atoms
 Covalent bonds occur between two non-metals
 The smallest particle of a covalent compound is a molecule
 Two types of covalent bonds exist:
o Polar – occur between different atoms. In these bonds the electron pair is shared UNEQUALLY between the two
protons. As a result, there is a charge separation in the molecule and partial charges on each atom
o Non-polar – covalent bonds occur between similar atoms. In those bonds the electron pair is shared equally
between the two protons

IONS

 Atoms or molecules that have gained or lost electrons, resulting in an electric charge
 An atom or group of atoms that carries a positive or negative charge as a result of having lost or gained one or more
electrons
 Types of ions:
o Cations – loses e- and are positively charged
o Anions – gain e- and negatively charged
 Formula of an ionic compound indicates the number and kinds of ions that make up the ionic compound
 The sum of the ionic charges in the formula is always zero, which indicates that the total number of positive charges is
equal to the number of negative charges
 Ionic compounds contain ionic bonds which occur when electrons are transferred between two atoms
 Ionic bonds occur between metals and non-metals
 Atoms that lose electrons (metals) form positive ions (cations)
 Atoms that gain electrons (non-metals) for negative ions (anions)
 The smallest particles of ionic compounds are ions (not atoms)
 Binary Ionic Compounds (type I)
o Contain only two elements
o Are those cations that form only one ion
o Charges of the cations must equal the charges of the anions since the net charge is 0
o Subscripts are used to balance the charges between cation and anion
o In naming, name the cation first then anion
o The anion name takes the root of non-metal and the ending “ide-“
 Binary Ionic Compounds (type II)
o Are those cations that form more than one ion
o When naming compounds formed from these ions, include the ionic charge as a roman numeral in parenthesis
after the metal’s name
o Cations with the higher charge ends in –ic while cations with the lower charge in –ous
 Ionic charges:
o The ionic charge of an ion is dependent of the number of electrons lost or gained to attain a noble gas
configuration
o For most main groups elements, the ionic charges can be determined from their group number
 Polyatomic ions
o Some ionic compounds contain polyatomic ions, an ion composed of several atoms bounds together
o Some common polyatomic ions:
NH4 ammonium OH- hydroxide
NO3- nitrate CN- cyanide
SO42- sulfate C2H3O2- acetate
PO43- phosphate HCO3- bicarbonate
CO32- carbonate
 When writing formulas for compounds containing polyatomic ions, treat the polyatomic ion as one group
 Polyatomic ionic compounds are named by naming the cation first followed by the polyatomic ion

VALENCE ELECTRONS

 Electrons in the outermost shell of an atom

 Ways to determine charge:
o Periodic table grouping
o Octet rule of valence electrons
 Octet rule of valence electrons:
o If an atom has valence e- < 4 it loses e- and becomes a cation
o If an atom has valence e- > 4 it gains e- and becomes an anion

VALENCE ELECTRONS: OCTET RULE

 A wave function for an electron is an atom is called an atomic orbital. This atomic orbital describes a region of space in
which there is a high probability of finding the electron.
 Energy charges within an atom are the result of an electron changing from wave patter with on energy to a wave patter
with a different energy
 Most elements, except noble gases, combine to form compounds: compounds are the result of the formation of chemical
bonds between two or more different elements
 In the formation of a chemical bond, atoms lose, gain or share valence electrons to complete their outer shell and attain a
noble gas configuration
 This tendency of atoms to have eight electrons in their outer shell is known as the octet rule
 This function can be used to calculate the probability of finding any electron of an atom in any specific region around the
atom’s nucleus
 Mathematically describes region around a nucleus in an atom or molecule may contain zero, one, or two electrons
 Electrons arrange themselves in cloudlike regions around the nucleus called orbitals

VALENCE ELECTRONS: OCTET RULE

 INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF ATTRACTION

 Intermolecular forces of attraction between oppositely charges particles present in ionic compounds give rise to ionic
bonds
 Covalent compounds with relatively weaker intermolecular forces may only exist as liquids
 Substances with no appreciable intermolecular forces have their molecules freely moving around and less contained by
the attraction of other surrounding molecules; hence they usually exist as gases
 Van der Waals forces:
o Dipole-dipole forces
o Hydrogen bonding
o Ion-dipole
o London dispersion forces
I. Dipole-dipole forces
 Exist between polar molecules
 Permanent dipole moment attributed to the difference in electronegativeness of their component atoms and how
these atoms are arranged in space
 Each polar molecule has unequal electron densities, resulting in a dipole (a partial positive + end and a partial
negative - end
 When two polar molecules are brought close together, the partial positive charge of one molecule will be
attracted to the partial negative charge of the neighboring molecule
II. Hydrogen bonds
 Is a special type of dipole-dipole interaction that exists only in molecules that contain a hydrogen atom bonded
to a small, highly electronegative atom such as N, O, or F
 The more electronegative atom pulls the electron toward itself and gains a relatively large partial negative
charge. In turn, the hydrogen acquires a similarly large partial positive change that strongly attracts the partial
negative charge of a neighboring electronegative atom
 Hydrogen bond is 5/10 times stronger than other dipole-dipole attractions
 Unlike covalent bonding where electrons are involved and shared between atoms, hydrogen bond is not a real
chemical bond participated in by electrons
 Covalent bond Is a type of intramolecular force of attraction while hydrogen bond is intermolecular
III. Ion-dipole forces
 Acts between an ion (either positive or negative) and a polar molecule
 Such is the case for the aqueous solution of sodium chloride, where Na+ and Cl- ions are dispersed amidst polar
water molecules
 The degree of ion-dipole interaction depends on the size and charge of the ion and on the size and dipole
moment of the polar molecule.
 Cations interact more strongly with dipoles than anions of the same magnitude of charge since they are smaller
 This means that between Na+ and Cl-, sodium will have greater interactions with water than Cl-
 Ion-dipole becomes stronger either as the charge of the ion increases or as the magnitude of the dipole moment
of the polar molecule increases.
IV. London dispersion forces
 Aka dispersion forces are intermolecular forces of attraction that exist between all atoms and molecules
 Only forces acting on non-polar molecules
 Arise from the continuous movement of electrons in particles
 Nonpolar molecules have zero dipole moment because their electron density is uniform and symmetrical.
Nevertheless, the electrons have some freedom to move about the molecule; therefore, at any instance, the
molecule momentarily acquires a non-uniform electron density, resulting in a temporary dipole (also called
instantaneous dipole)
 The size of a molecule can affect the London dispersion force between two molecules. The bigger the molecule
(molecule has greater surface area) the stronger the attraction between two molecules
 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS

 The law of conservation of mass dates from Antoine Lavoisier’s 1789 discover that mass is neither created nor destroyed
in chemical reactions
 The mass of any one element at the beginning of a reaction will equal the mass of that element at the end of the reaction
 If we account for all the reactants and products in a chemical reaction, the total mass will be the same at any point in time
in any closed system
 To conserve mass in any chemical reaction, balance the chemical equation

LAW OF DEFINITE PROPORTIONS

 Sometimes called Proust’s law or the law of constant composition

 States that a given chemical compound always contains its component elements in a fixed ratio and does not depend on
its source and method preparation
 Example: water from a lake and water in a glass both have a chemical formula of H2O

LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS

 States that if two elements form more than one compound, then the ratios of the masses of the second element which
combines with a fixed mass of the first element will always be ratios of small whole numbers
 An atom can form different ratios of a component element in a compound
 Example: CO and CO2 where C can form multiple proportions with another element in a compound

DALTON’S THEORY

 Scientific theory on the nature of matter put forward by the English physicist and chemist John Dalton in the year 1806
 All matter was made up of small indivisible particle known as ‘atoms’
 According to Dalton all substances are made up of atoms which are indivisible and indestructible building units
 While an elements atoms were all the same size and mass, various elements possessed atoms od carrying sizes and
masses
 Postulates of Dalton’s theory:
1) All matter is made up of tiny indivisible particles called atoms
2) All atoms of a specific element are identical in mass, size, and other properties. However, atoms of different
elements exhibit different properties and vary in mass and size
3) Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed. Furthermore, atoms cannot be divided into smaller particles.
4) Atoms of different elements can combine with each other in fixed whole-number ratios to form compounds
5) Atoms can be rearranged, combine or separated in chemical reactions
 Limitations of Dalton’s theory
1) It does not account for subatomic particles
o Subatomic particles such as protons electrons and neutrons disproved this postulate
2) It does not account for isotopes
o Different isotopes of elements have different atomic masses
3) It does not account for isobars
o It is possible for two different elements to share the same mass number
4) Elements need not combine in simple, whole-number ratios to form compounds
o Certain complex organic compounds do not feature simple ratios of constituent atoms
o i.e. sugar and sucrose
5) the theory does not account for allotropes
o the differences in properties of diamond and graphite, both of which contain only carbon, cannot be
explained by his theory

JJ. THOMPSON’S THEORY

 The English chemist Joseph John Thompson put forth his model describing the atomic structure in the early 1900’s
 Awarded Nobel prize for the discovery of electrons
 His work is based on an experiment called the cathode ray experiment
 Cathode ray experiment is made of glass which has two openings, one for the vacuum pump and the other for the inlet
through which gas is pumped in. the role of the vacuum pump if to maintain partial vacuum inside the glass chamber. A
high voltage power supply is connected using electrodes i.e. cathode and anode is fitted inside the glass tube
 Conclusions of the experiment:
1) Based on conclusions from his cathode ray experiment, Thompson describes the atomic structure as a positively
charged sphere into which negatively charged electrons were embedded
2) It is commonly referred to as the “plum pudding model” because it can be visualized as a plum pudding dish
where the pudding describes the positively charged atom and the plum pieces describe the electrons
3) Thompson’s atomic structure described atoms as electrically neutral i.e. the positive and negative charges were
of equal magnitude
 Postulates:
1) An atom consists of a positively charged sphere with electrons embedded in it
2) An atom as a whole is electrically neutral because the negative and positive charges are equal in magnitude
3) Thompson’s atomic model is compared to a watermelon where he considered:
 Watermelon seeds as negatively charged particles
 The red part of the watermelon as positively charged
 Limitations of Thompson’s atomic model:
1) It failed to explain the stability of an atom because his model of atom failed to explain how positive charge holds
the negatively charged electrons in an atom. Therefore, this theory also failed to account for the position of the
nucleus in an atom
2) Thompson’s model failed to explain the scattering of alpha particles by thin metal foils
3) No experimental evidence supported
 Thompson’s model proved to be the basis for the development of other atomic models. The study of the atom and its
structure has paved the way for numerous inventions that have played a significant role in the development of humankind
 RUTHERFOR THEORY

 Ernest Rutherford, a British scientist conducted an experiment and based on the observations of this experiment, he
explained the atomic structure of elements and proposed Rutherford’s Atomic Model
 Rutherford conducted an experiment by bombarding a thin sheet of gold with α-particles and then studied the trajectory
of these particles after their interaction with the gold foil
 Rutherford, in his experiment, directed high energy streams of α-particles from a radioactive source at a thin sheet (100
nm thickness) of gold. In order to study the deflection caused to the α-particles, he placed a fluorescent zinc sulfide,
screen around the thin gold foil. Rutherford made certain observations that contradicted Thomson’s atomic model
 Rutherford’s atomic model:
1) The positive charge and most of the mass of an atom is concentrated in an extremely small volume. He called
this region of the atom as a nucleus.
2) Rutherford’s model proposed that the negatively charged electrons surround the nucleus of an atom. He also
claimed that the electrons surrounding the nucleus revolve around it with very high speed in circular paths. He
named these circular paths as orbits.
3) Electrons being negatively charged and nucleus being a densely concentrated mass of positively charged
particles are held together by a strong electrostatic force of attraction.
4) In the experiment, he found that most of the alpha particles pass straight through the foil, however a few of the
alpha particles bounce back and some of the alpha particles defected, so through this, he discovered that there
was a nucleus because it meant that the center of the atom is positively charge because it repels the alpha
particles. Alpha particles is very dense positively charge particle; it can only be deflected when it collide with
another strong positively charge. Since there are some alpha particles are being deflected especially when it
collides with the center of the atom.
 Limitations of Rutherford atomic model:
1) Rutherford proposed that the electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed paths called orbits. According to
Maxwell, accelerated charged particles emit electromagnetic radiations and hence an electron revolving around
the nucleus should emit electromagnetic radiation. This radiation would carry energy from the motion of the
electron which would come at the cost of shrinking of orbits. Ultimately the electrons would collapse in the
nucleus. Calculations have shown that as per the Rutherford model, an electron would collapse into the nucleus
in less than 10-8 seconds. So the Rutherford model was not in accordance with Maxwell’s theory and could not
explain the stability of an atom.
2) One of the drawbacks of the Rutherford model was also that he did not say anything about the arrangement of
electrons in an atom which made his theory incomplete.
3) Although the early atomic models were inaccurate and failed to explain certain experimental results, they formed
the base for future developments in the world of quantum mechanics.

BOHR’S MODELS THEORY

 Bohr theory modified the atomic structure model by explaining that electrons move in fixed orbitals (shells) and not
anywhere in between and he also explained that each orbit (shell) has a fixed energy. Rutherford explained the nucleus of
an atom and Bohr modified that model into electrons and their energy levels
 Bohr’s model consists of a small nucleus (positively charged) surrounded by negative electrons moving around the
nucleus in orbits. Bohr found that an electron located away from the nucleus has more energy, and the electron which is
closer to nucleus has less energy
 Postulates:
1) In an atom, electrons (negatively charged) revolve around the positively charged nucleus in a definite circular
path called orbits or shells.
2) Each orbit or shell has a fixed energy and these circular orbits are known as orbital shells.
3) The energy levels are represented by an integer (n = 1, 2, 3…) known as the quantum number. This range of
quantum number starts from nucleus side with n=1 having the lowest energy level. The orbits n = 1, 2, 3, 4… are
assigned as K, L, M, N…. shells and when an electron attains the lowest energy level, it is said to be in the ground
state.
4) The electrons in an atom move from a lower energy level to a higher energy level by gaining the required energy
and an electron moves from a higher energy level to lower energy level by losing energy
 QUANTUM MECHANICAL THEORY

 States that there are only certain allowed energy state of an electron and that these are quantize.
 States that no to electron in the same system can occupy the energy state and that all energy state are filled from the
lowest level to the highest level.
 Describes the physical characteristics of nature at the level of atoms and subatomic particles
 Types of boding:
1) IONIC
o Transfer of valence electrons
o Mostly done from metals to non-metals
o Examples: NaC
2) COVELENT
 Sharing pairs of valence electrons o Mostly done by non-metals
 Examples: H2O, CO2, C6H12O6 (not always glucose), HCl
 Polar
 Electrons are shared unequally
 Has a dipole moment – the product of the magnitude of the charge and the distance between
the centers of the positive and negative charges
 Examples: H2O, C6H12O6 (Glucose), HCl
 In HCl, there is unequal sharing of electrons between H and Cl as shown in a Lewis
structure, resulting in a dipole moment
 Non-Polar
 Electrons are shared equally
 Has no dipole moment
 Examples: Gasoline, CO2
 In CO2, there is unequal sharing of electrons, but because there is O in both sides of
C, the dipole moment is cancelled out
NOMENCLATURE
 NOMENCLATURE

TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

 Diatomic elements:
 H, I, N, O, F, Cl, Br

COMBINATION REACTION
 A reaction in which two or more substances combine to form one complex product
 Two or more reactants to form a single product
 General Equation: A + B → AB
 Examples:
 Hydrogen + Nitrogen yields to Ammonia
 Carbon + Oxygen yields to CO2

DECOMPOSITION REACTION
 A reaction in which a compound breaks down into two or more simpler substances.
 Reactions require an input of energy in the form of heat, light or electricity.
 A single compound decomposes
 General Equation: AB → A + B
 Examples:
o Electricity – Split the water molecule into hydrogen and oxygen
 o Hydrogen peroxide will decompose into water and oxygen by the use of catalysts
o 2HgO(s) → 2Hg(l) + O2(g)
 The simplest kind of decomposition reaction is when a binary compound decomposes into its elements.
Mercury (II) oxide, a red solid, decomposes when heated to produce mercury and oxygen gas.
o CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
 A reaction is also considered to be a decomposition reaction even when one or more of the products is
still a compound. A metal carbonate decomposes into a metal oxide and carbon dioxide gas. For
example, calcium carbonate decomposes into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide.
o 2NaOH(s) → Na2O(s) + H2O(g)
 Metal hydroxides decompose on heating to yield metal oxides and water. Sodium hydroxide
decomposes to produce sodium oxide and water.

SINGLE DISPLACEMENT REACTION

 Single replacement reactions occur when a single element replaces an element in another compound. This produces a
new compound and a new element
 A more reactive element [metal] displaces less reactive element [metal] from its aqueous salt sol.
 General Equation: A + BC → AC + B
 In this equation, C replaces B in the reaction, and B is now a single element.
 Example:
o SnCl2 + Zn → ZnCl2 + Sn2
 The reaction of Tin chloride and Zinc. In the reaction, zinc replaces tin to form zinc chloride and tin as a
single element.
o Mg + NaCl → N.R. (No Reaction)
 Mg is less reactive than Na, therefore, it cannot form a reaction • Factors to consider whether the
reaction will proceed to the formation of a new compound and a new element
ACTIVITY SERIES OF METAL ELEMENTS
most to least reactive reaction occurring
Li
K
Ba
React with cold water replacing hydrogen
Sr
Ca
Na
Mg
Al
Zn React with steam but not cold water, replacing
Cr hydrogen
Fe
Cd
Co
Ni do not react with water react with acids replacing
Sn hydrogen
Pb
H2
Cu
Hg
Ag
Pt
Au
If the metal is less reactive than the metal ion of a compound, there’s no reaction but if the metal is more reactive than the metal
ion of a compound, it can replace the metal ion in a compound. There will be a reaction

DOUBLE DISPLACEMENT REACTION

 A double replacement reaction exchanges ionic species in two compounds to form two completely new compounds.
Double replacement reactions swap cations or the anions, but not both.
 Aqueous solution of two ionic compounds react by exchange of their ions
 General Equation: AB + CD → AD + CB
 Reaction requirement: two ionic compounds in aqueous solution (dissolved in water)
o Positive and negative ion of two ionic compounds
o One of the products should be a formation of solid or formation of gas and formation of weak electrolyte or
formation of water.
 Refer to the Solubility Rules/Table to determine if there is a reaction in double displacement
o There is a formation of solid in the product if it is an insoluble compound (e.g. PbI2, Fe(OH)3)
 Examples:
o Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) → PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
 The reaction between Lead nitrate and Potassium iodide. The lead cation and potassium cation switch
places.
o FeCl3(aq) + NaOH(s) → Fe(OH)3(s) + NaCl(aq)
o HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → H2O(l) + NaCl(aq)
o Na2SO4(aq) + KNO3(aq) → NaNO3(aq) + K2SO4(aq) N.R. (because there is no formation of solid/gas/water)
 combustion AB + O2 → Oxide of A & B
combination A + B → AB
decomposition AB → A + B
single displacement A + BC → AC + B
double displacement AB + CD → AD + CB

OXIDATION REACTION
 Addition of oxygen or removal of hydrogen or loss of electron takes place

REDUCTION REACTION
 Addition of hydrogen or removal of oxygen or gain of electron takes place

REDOX REACTION
 Reaction involving both oxidation and reduction simultaneously

EXOTHERMIC REACTION
 Reaction in which heat is evolved

ENDOTHERMIC REACTION
 Reaction in which heat is absorbed

NEAUTRALIZATION REACTION
 When an acid and base react together to form salt and water
 BALANCING USING REDOX REACTIONS

 Oxidation–reduction reactions, commonly known as redox reactions, are reactions that involve the transfer of electrons
from one species to another
 The species that loses electrons is said to be oxidized, while the species that gains electrons is said to be reduced
 Reduction – oxidation no. is reduced, gained electrons
 Oxidation – oxidation no. is increased, lost electrons

Rules used to assign oxidation number:

I. Any uncombined atom or any atom in a molecule of an element is assigned an oxidation number of 0.
 True for diatomic molecules (H2 I2 N2 O2 F2 Cl2 Br2)
II. The sum of the oxidation numbers of the atoms in a compound is 0, since compounds are electrically neutral.
 Ex: Na+1Cl–1 = 0
III. The oxidation of a monoatomic ion is the same as the charge on the ion.
 Ex: Na+1, Ca+2, O–2, N–3
IV. The sum of the oxidation numbers of the atoms that constitute a polyatomic ion equals the charge on the ion.
V. The oxidation number of fluorine (F), the most electronegative element, is –1 in all fluorine-containing compounds.
VI. In most oxygen-containing compounds, the oxidation number of oxygen (O) is –2. There are, however, a few exceptions:
 In peroxides, each oxygen has an oxidation number of –1.
 In superoxide ion, each oxygen has an oxidation number of –½.
 In OF2, the oxygen has an oxidation number of +2.
VII. The oxidation number of hydrogen (H) is +1 In all compounds. There is an exception to the metallic hydrides (CaH2 and
NaH), which hydrogen (H) is in the –1 oxidation state.
 BALANCING REDOX REACTIONS: ION ELECTRON METHOD

I. Divide the equation into two skeleton partial equations. Balance the atoms that change their oxidation numbers in each
partial equation.
II. Balance the O and H atoms in each partial equation.
o Acidic Solutions
 For each O atoms that is needed, add one H2O to the side of the partial equation that is deficient in
oxygen.
 Add H+ where needed to bring the H into balance.
o Basic Solutions
› For each oxygen atom that is needed, add one H2O to the side of the partial equation that is deficient in
oxygen.
› For each H atom that is needed, add one H2O to the side of the partial equation that is deficient in H,
and add one OH– to the opposite side.
III. To each partial equation, add electrons in such a way that the net charge on the left side of the equation equals the net
charge on the right side.
IV. If necessary, multiply one or both partial equations by numbers that will make the number of electrons lost on one partial
equation equal the number of electrons gained in the other partial equation.
V. Add the partial equations. In the addition, cancel terms common to both sides of the final equation
 SOLUTIONS, ACIDS, BASES & SALTS

SOLUTIONS
 A homogenous (or uniform) mixture of two or more substances
 It is composed of one or more solutes, dissolved in a solvent
 Components:
o Solute – is a component of a solution that is present in lesser quantity than the solvent
o Solvent – is the solution component in the largest quantity
General properties of liquid solutions:
o Liquid solutions are clear and transparent with no visible particles of solute. They may be colored or colorless,
depending on the properties of the solute and solvent.
o The terms clear and colorless do not mean the same thing
 A clear solution has only one state of matter that can be detected.
 Colorless simply means the absence of color.
Types of solutions
o According to the Amount of Solute Present
 Dilute – little amount of solute present
 Concentrated – large amount of solute present
o According to the Capacity of Solvent to Dissolve at Certain Temperature and Pressure
 Unsaturated – is one in which the solvent can dissolve more at a given temperature and pressure
 Saturated – is one in which the given volume of solvent has dissolved the maximum amount of solute it
can possibly dissolve at a given temperature and pressure.
 Supersaturated – is one that holds more solute than it can normally dissolve.
o By Reason of Dissociation / Ionization of Solute in Water
 Electrolytic – a solution that conducts electricity.
 For example, sodium chloride dissolving in water: NaCl(s) → Na+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
 Non-electrolytic – a solution that doesn’t conduct electricity.
 C6H12O6(s) → C6H12O6(aq)
o By Reason of Heat Exchange
 Endothermic – reaction which in the process of dissolving the solute, heat is absorbed ▪ ex. NH4Cl
dissolved in water, heat is taken in.
 Exothermic – reaction which in the process of dissolving the solute, heat is evolved. ▪ ex. NaOH
dissolved in water, heat is given off.
Solubility
o Solubility of a solution refers to the weight of a substance dissolved in a given weight or volume of solvent at a
given temperature and pressure.
o Factors Affecting Solubility
 Nature of Solute and Solvent
 In general, “like dissolves like”.
 Solubility is favored if both solute and solvent have similar polarities.
 ex. NaCl in water, Oil in carbon tetrachloride
 Temperature – an increase in temperature can increase the solubility of a solid in liquid.
 Note: Gases are more soluble in cold water than in warm water.
 Pressure – gaseous solutions are directly proportional with an increase in pressure.
 Note: Pressure has no effect on the solubility of solids in liquids because these are difficult to
compress.
 CONCENTRATION

 Solution concentration is defined as the amount of the solute dissolved in a given amount of solution
 The concentration of a solution has a profound effect on the properties of a solution, both physical (melting and boiling
points) and chemical (solution reactivity)
 Solution concentration may be expressed in many different units

Percent concentration:

percent by mass weight/weight (w/w) % =

𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
× 100
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

percent by volume volume/volume (v/v) % =

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
× 100
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

percent by mass/volume mass/volume (w/w) % =

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
× 100
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Parts per million (ppm) and parts per billion (ppb):

parts per million (ppm) ppm =

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
× 1,000,000 =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
= 106
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

parts per billion (ppb) ppb =

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
× 1,000,000,000 =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
× 109
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

concentration by m/m v/v m/v

𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝜇𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
in ppm = = =
𝑘𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝜇𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑛𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝜇𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
in ppb = = =
𝑘𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Molarity (M) and Molality (m):

 Molarity of a solution is the number of moles of solute per liter of solution
 The molality of a solution is the number of moles of solute per kilogram solvent

Molarity (M) 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑛)

𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑀) =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐿)
Molality (m) 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑛)
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑚) =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑘𝑔)

Normality (N):

𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑔−𝑒𝑞.𝑤𝑡.𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
Normality (N) =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐿)
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑔)
No. of g-Eq. Wt. of Solute =
𝑒𝑞.𝑤𝑡.
𝑔
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 ( )
𝑚𝑜𝑙
Eq. Wt. of Solute =
𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐻+,𝑂𝐻–,𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡

Mole fraction (x):

 Ratio of the number of moles of a component in a mixture to the total number of moles in the mixture
𝑛1 𝑛1
𝑥1 = =
𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 + 𝑛3 + ⋯
Moles (n) and Molar Mass (g/mol):
𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑔) 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ( 𝐿 )
 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 (𝑛) = 𝑔 =
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑚𝑜𝑙) 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝐿)
 Molar mass (g/mol) of a compound
 o (molar mass per mole)(no. of moles) = total molar mass of the element
o Exmaple:

Molar Mass per Mole Total molar mass

element No. of moles
(constant) (g/mol)
C 12 6 72

H 1 12 12

O 16 6 96

total molar mass of the compound 180 g/mol C6H12O6

Preparation of solution by dilution:

(𝐶1 )(𝑉1 ) = (𝐶2 )(𝑉2 )
 ACID AND BASES

ACID BASE
Arrhenius produces H+ in aqueous solution produces OH-in aqueous solution
Bronsted – Lowry proton donor proton acceptor
Lewis electron acceptor electron pair donor

CLASSFICATION OF ACID:
A. According to the number of replaceable hydrogen atoms:
1. MONOPROTIC ACID – an acid with one replaceable hydrogen atom
o Hl, HNO3, HAc
2. DIPROTIC ACID – an acid with two replaceable hydrogen atoms
o H2S, H2SO4, H2CO3
3. TRIPROTIC ACID – an acid with three replaceable hydrogen atoms
o H3PO4, H3PO4, H3PO3
B. According to strength of the acid depends on the degree of ionization. The more ionized the acid, the greater the (H+)
concentration. Strong acids are those which are highly ionized and those which are partly ionized are weak acids
1. STRONG ACIDS
o HCl, HBr, HNO3, H2SO4
2. MODERATELY STRONG ACIDS
o H2C2O4, H3PO4, H2SO3
3. WEAK ACIDS
o CH3COOH, H3CO3, HF, HCN
C. According to the number of elements present
1. BINARY ACIDS – contain 2 elements
o H2SO4, H3PO4
2. TERNARY ACIDS – contain 3 elements
o HCl, H2S, HBr, Hl
D. According to volatility
1. NON-VOLATILE ACIDS - with high boiling points
o H2SO4, H3PO4
2. VOLATILE ACIDS – acids with low boiling points
o HCl, H2S, HBr, Hl
E. According to oxidizing power
1. NON_OXIZIDING ACIDS
o HCl, HAc, and dilute H2SO4
2. OXIDIZING ACIDS
o Dilute and concentrated HNO3, conc. H2SO4

CLASSIFICATION OF BASE:
A. According to number of replaceable hydroxyl ions
1. Monoprotic base or monoacidic base – contains one replaceable hydroxyl ion
o Ex. NaOH, KOH. NH4OH
2. Diprotic base or diacidic base – contains two replaceable hydroxyl ions
o Ca(OH)2. Ba(OH)2, Zn(OH)2
3. Triprotic base or triacidic base – contains three replaceable hydroxyl ions
o Fe(OH)3, Al(OH)3, Cr(OH)3
B. According to strength
- strong bases have a high hydroxyl ion concentration in aqueous solutions
1. Strong bases - are hydroxides of group IA
o NaOH, KOH
2. Moderately strong bases – are hydroxides of group IIA
o Ba(OH)2, Ca(OH)2, Mg(OH)2
3. Weak bases are slightly ionized. NH4OH and all metal hydroxide except groups IA and IIA
C. According to solubility
- the higher the solubility of the metal hydroxide the greater the basic strength
1. Soluble hydroxide
 o Are NH4OH and the hydroxides of IIA
2. Moderately soluble hydroxide
o Are the hydroxides on IIA
3. Insoluble hydroxide
o Are those of all metals except groups IA and IIA
D. According to volatility
1. Volatility bases
o Are those which has a lower boiling point (NH4OH)
2. Non-volatile bases
o Are those which has a high boiling point (all hydroxides except NH4OH)

PROPERTIES OF ACID:
 They have a sour taste
 Turns blue litmus paper to red
o Litmus paper is a dye which has a red color in acid solution and blue color in basic solution
o Other indicators:
› Methyl orange – pink
› Bromthmol blue – yellow
 Structurally the acids contain the element hydrogen which can be replaced by metal
o HCl, CH3COOH, H2SO4, H3PO4
 They contain a non-metal ion
o HCl, H2SO4, H3PO4
 They react with active metals to liberate hydrogen
o 2Al + 3HsSO4  Al2(SO4)4 + 3H2
 They undergo neutralization reaction
o CH3COOH + Ca(OH)2  (CH3COO)2Ca + H2O
 They react with metallic carbonate to liberate CO2
o CaCO3 + 2HCl  CaCl + H2O + CO2

PROPERTIES OF BASES:
 They have a bitter taste
 They have a soapy or slippery feeling
 They change the colors of many indicators
o Litmus from red to blue
o Phenolphthalein from colorless to pink
o Bromthymol blue changes from yellow to blue
 Structurally they contain OH
o NaOH, Mg(OH)2, Al(OH)3
 They contain positive metal ion or non-metallic radical
o NaOH, Mg(OH)2, NH4OH
 They undergo neutralization reaction
o NaOH + HAc  NaAc + H2O
 Their aqueous solutions conduct an electric current because they are dissociated or ionized
 Strong or caustic bases (sodium and potassium hydroxide) change fats and oils to soap and glycerin