LECTURE # 1

Matter can exist in three physical states namely: solid, liquid and gas.Lets us, very briefly, go through them

COMPARISON OF STATES OF MATTER

Nature Gases Liquids Solids
Motion of Randomly moving Random motion is Particles have fixed
particles and no fixed possible but less than locations they can
location of particles that in gases only vibrate.
Forces b/w Forces of attraction Intermediate value Strong inter-
particles is zero particle attraction
Interparticle Large inter- particle Small Interparticle Separation is close
Separation separation. separation to zero.

Volume/Shape No fixed volume, no No fixed shape; but Fixed volume and

definite shape. fixed volume shape (rigid)

Response to Compression and Small extent of Compression /

external expansion can be compression and expansion least
changes done to large expansion possible.
extent.
Heat capacity approx. Constant heat
Heat capacities constant capacity
depend on process

Whether a given system would exist as solid, liquid or gas depends upon two universal opposing tendencies
associated with the particles:
(i) Tendency of mutual attraction.
(ii)Tendency to escape from each other.
Gases: Escaping tendency much higher than Attraction
Liquids: Escaping tendency higher than attraction but limited.
Solids: Attraction much higher that escaping tendency
Classification on the basis of forces among constituting particles:

Solid Constituent Bonding/ B.E. Examples Physical mp Electrical

particles Attractive (kJmol-1) nature (K) Nature
forces
Molecular Molecules i)Dispersion 0.05-40 Argon Soft 84 Insulator
ii)Dipole-dipole 5.25 HCl Soft 158 Insulator
interaction
iii)H-bonding 10-40 H2O(ice) Hard 273 Insulator
Metallic Atoms Positive ions 70-1000 Ag. Cu, Hard ~800 Conductor
(kernels in and electrons Mg To
–e sea) (delocalized) 1000
Network Atoms Covalent(short 150-500
SiO2,SiC, Hard ~4000 Insulator
Or range) diamond,
Covalent graphite
Ionic Ions Coulombic(infinit 400-4000 NaCl, Hard but High Insulator
e range) MgO Brittle ~1500
KCl,BsCl2

RESONANCE Page # 1
 Types of SOLIDS on the basis of arrangement of particles

Crystalline solids Amorphous solids

(True solids) (Super-cooled liquids)

1. Constituent particles Particles will be randomly arranged or

(ions, molecules, atoms) can have short range order.
will be arranged in a particular Glass, plastics, anorphous silica.
fashion having long range order.
Ag. Fe,Cu,NaCl, HO(s)
2

2. Crystals can be generated by When a liquid is suddenly cooled

cooling liquid slowly and in amosphorus solid will result.
controlled conditions. The
structure of the crystals is Amorphous glass
dependent on these conditions.
So, same substance can have different. Sunlight
crystalline structures in different Slightly crystalline
conditions known as POLYMORPHISM
and these structures are known as results
polymorphs
milky appearance
3. Sharp / fixed melting point. These will be having a range of
temperature in which it melts.

# Cooling curve of a crystalline solid. # Cooling curve for amorphous solids.

Crystalline solid
d
id s oli )
liqu ly transition id + tion
n (from liq. to solid) liqu uid si
5ºC o
T1 liq tran
(
Temp solid solid
Temp T2
(mp) only only
t1 t2 t1 t2
time time

4. Anisotropic Isotropic
Physical property (mechanical strength, Same value in all directions.
Refractive index, electrical conductance) Reason : Random arrangement of
will have diff. molecules.
value in different directions.
(diff. prop. in (same property
diff. direction) in all direction)

RESONANCE Page # 2
 STUDY OF STRUCTURE OF CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS To study crystalline solids we need some
mathematical and geometrical tools.Lets get familier with them.

1. Space lattice : It is the regular arrangement of points in space and forms the basis of classification of all
structures.This regular arrangement spread over whole space is the long range order.

2. Unit cell: Unit cell is the smallest arrangement of points which on repetition generates the whole space
lattice. It is the building block of the whole structure.
(a)Unit cell contains the minimum information in terms of edge lengths and angles sufficient to determine
the structure of the lattice.
(b)Generally unit cell is the smallest element of the space lattice. But sometimes a slightly bigger
element can be taken as unit cell to make calculations easy which will be representing the symmetry of
the lattice i.e., the choice of unit cell depends entirely on our convenience.
Various types of unit cells can be chosen within a particular lattice:
(i) Primitive:When lattice points are found only at the corners of the unit cell.
(ii) Centered/Non-primitive:When lattice points are found at the corners and as well as inside the unit cell.

Space Lattice

Unit Cell

3. How to repete a unit cell to form whole lattice:

Repetition is done by translating the whole unit cell parallel to its edges and by the distances equal to
edge lengths of the unit cell.
4. How to view a crystal from lattice:
Constituent particles(in the form of spheres) are placed on lattice points to form the actual crystal
structure.

5. 1–DIMENSIONAL SPACE LATTICE

Uniformly separated lattice points in 1–dimension will represent 1–D lattice.Only one parameter is needed
to describe it.

6. 2 DIMENSIONAL SPACE LATTICE

It is the regular arrangement of points in a plane.Only three parameters are needed to describe the
lattice.Two sides a and b and angle between them().

(i) Square unit cell: a = b,  = 90º

a
90º
(Primitive Type)
a

(ii) Rectangle: a  b, = 90º

b
(Primitive Type)
90º
a

RESONANCE Page # 3
 (iii)Hexagonal unit cell: a = b,  = 60º
Unit cell can be chosen in more than one way.
Centered Unit Cell
a
60º
(Primitive Type)
a

(iv)Rhombic unit cell: a = b,  90º, 60º

Unit cell can be chosen in more than one way(since the diagonals of rhombus are perpendicular)

a
(Primitive Type)
a
Centered Unit Cell

(v)Parallelogram: a  b,   90º
This is the most unsymmetric case.

b
(Primitive Type)
a

7. 3 DIMENSIONAL SPACE LATTICE

It is the regular arrangement of points in space.
Six parameters are required to completely describe the unit cell: 3 edge lengths and 3 angles.
a, b, c : edge lengths of unit cell (also known as the crystallographic axes.)
are known as the crystallographic angles.
Seven Primitive unit cells in crystals

c
b
Cubic a
b ; Tetragonal c ; Orthorhombic c
;
g b
a b
a a

Monoclinic ; Hexagonal ;
c
b
a b
a

c c

Rhombohedral ; Triclinic
b b
a a

RESONANCE Page # 4
 Seven Primitive Unit Cells

Crystal Axial Axial angle s Example s Type of Unit

Syste m distance s ce lls
Cubic a =b= c á = â = ã = 90° Cu, ZnS, K Cl S,BC,FC
Tetragonal a =b c á = â = ã = 90° Sn(white tin), SnO 2 ,TiO 2 S,BC
O rthorhombic a b c á = â = ã = 90° Rhombic sulphur, CaCO 3 S,BC,FC,EC
Monoclinic a b c á = ã = 90°;â  90° Monoclinic sulphur, PbCrO 2 S,BC
Hexagonal a =b c á = â = 90°;ã = 120° Graphite, ZnO S
Rhombohedral a =b= c á = â = ã  90° CaCO 3 (Calcite), HgS(Cinnabar) S
Triclinic a b c á â  ã  90° K 2 Cr2 O 7 , CuSO 4 .5H2 O S

Ways of choosing unit cells in 3-dimensions: Apart from unit cells with lattice points at the corners,
there are three other types of choosing unit cells called Non-Primitive/Centered unit cells.
Principle of choosing a particular type of unit cell:
"The surroundings of each and every lattice point in a lattice should be exactly identical."----(Very Imp.)
Hence all the lattice points are indistinguishible.

1. Primitive /Simple: lattice points only at the corners only.

Found in all crystal systems.

2. Body centered: Lattice points at corners & at the body center.

Found only in Cubic,Tetragonal,Orthorhombic and Monoclinic systems.

3. Face centered : Lattice points at corners & at each of the face centre.

Found only in Cubic and Orthorhombic systems.

4. End centered: Lattice point at corners & only at two oppsosite faces.

Found only in Orthorhombic system.

Observation:End centered unit cell are not found in Cubic system. It is found that each crystal class do not
have all the four different type of unit cells. For e.g. in cubic crystal class or system, only 3 types of unit cells
are found end centred is not found.
Total number of lattice arrangements in three dimensions = 14.These are called 14 BRAVAIS LATTICES

RESONANCE Page # 5
 Contribution of different lattice points in one unit cell (CUBIC SYSTEM)

Corner atom: Since eight cubes meet at one corner, each atom at the corner gives 1/8th contribution to
each cube.This means i/8th of the electron density, 1/8th of the nuclear density(in case of atoms), 1/8th of
the molecule are found completely inside one unit cell due to corner.
Face Center:Since each face is shared by two cubes, each atom/molecule is equally divided b/w them.
Body Centre:Whole of the atom/molecule is found inside.
Edge Centre: Each edge is shared by four cubes, each atom/molecule at the edge contributes 1/4th to
each cube.

Half
of
the
atom

Example :
A compound has cubical unit cell in which 'X' atoms are found at six corners and 'Y' atoms one present at
remaining corners and at face centres which are not opposite to each other and 'Z' atoms are present at
body centre and remain face centres.
(i) Calc. formula of the compound.
1 3
Sol. X= ×3=
8 4
1 1 7
Y=( × 2) + ( × 3) =
8 2 4
1 5 10
Z=( × 3 )+ (1 × 1 )= =
2 2 4
X3/4 Y7/4 Z10/4 X3 Y7 Z10

(ii) Calc. mass of unit cell X = 40 amu

Y = 60 amu
Z = 80 amu
Also calculate (edge length = 2Å)
density
Mass = 30 + 105 + 200 amu = 335 amu
35 x
 23
Density = 6  10 g/m3
8  10 30

335 10 30 3350
=  6 g/cm3 = g/cm3 = 69.8 g/cm3 .
48 10 48

RESONANCE Page # 6
 LECTURE # 2
STRUCTURE OF SOLIDS
(a) Solids having only one type of particles : e.g. metallic, molecular, covalent network solids.
The particle of the solid will be represented by a sphere of radius r. We assume that there is only attraction
force existing between those spheres.Hence in order to to get maximum stable arrangement of these particles
the seperation between the particles should be minimum.
E.g. Water kept in a container ,on cooling,results in freezing with initially at the circumference of surface (1–
D), then on the surface (2–D) and then throughout the volume (3–D).
ARRANGEMENT IN 1-D :
In one dimension it is possible to arrange the spheres in only one stable way.This is the position with
minimum separation and minimum PE of the system(most stable)

1-D close packing stable arrangement

This is the predominant way of packing in one dimensions and as such most of the space lattices will show
such an arrangement in one dimensions along the planes of close packing.
ARRANGEMENT IN TWO DIMENSION :
In two dimensions also there are two ways of packing the identical spheres(in moving from one dimension to
two dimensions it can be imagined that the two dimensional array will be made up of 1-D closed pack arrays
/ lines which are stacked one on top of each other.
1. Square arangement(poor arrangement) : If the one dimensional arrays are placed on top of one
another, we get the square packing in twio dimensions.

One sphere will be in constant contact with 4 other spheres.

1
area of square = a2 = 4r2 ; area of atoms in the square =  r2  4  r 2
4

r 2 
Packing fraction, fraction of area occupied by spheres = 
4r 2 4 = 0.78( 78% )
2. Hexagonal arrangement(better arrangement) : If each one dimensional array is placed in the cavity of
the just preceding array, we get the hexagonal packing in two dimensions.

3 2 3 1
area of hexagon = 6 × a =6× × 4r2 ; area of atoms = r2 + × 6r2 = 3r2
4 4 3

RESONANCE Page # 7
 3 r 2 3
fraction of area occupied =  ~
– 0.91 ( 91% )
2 6
6 3r
Better packing in 2d: Clearly more no. of spheres are in contact in the hexagonal arrangement, hence the
hexagonal arrangement is considered to be a better way of packing as compared to the square packing.

ARRANGEMENT IN THREE DIMENSIONS:

1. Simple cubical arrangement in three dimensions :
(will be made up of 2-D sheets arranged one over other)
The simple cubicle packing is obtained by arranging the square pack sheets of two dimension one over the
other such that spheres of the second sheet are exactly (vertically) above the spheres of first sheet.

(Note that , hence crystal thus formed will belong to the cubic crystal class, and as the
lattice points are only at the corners, hence the unit cell will be simple, therefore what we get is the simple
cubic )
(i) Relation between ‘a’ and ‘r’
a = 2r (because atoms along the edge are touching each other)
(ii) effective no. of atoms per unit cell Z:
1
Z 8  1
8
(iii) packing fraction :

4 3
r
3 4 3 4 r 3
=   r  = 0.52( 52% )
a3 3 (2r )3 3  8 r3
(Note:This is not a very efficient way of packing as the packing fraction is very low)
(iv) Coordination Number, CN:
It is defined as the No. of atoms touching any one particular atom = 6 for simple cubic

Type of neighbour Distance no.of neighbours

nearest a 6 (shared by 4 cubes)
(next)1 a 2 12 (shared by 2 cubes)

(next)2 a 3 8 (unshared)

(v)Density of unit cell :

Mass of unit cell  Z  M


Volume NA . a 3

RESONANCE Page # 8
BODY CENTRED CUBIC :
The body centred cubic is a unique way of packing, as the 2D - arrays that can be imagined to constitute the
space lattice are themselves formed in a unique way. The lattice points in the 2D array do not touch each
other. The spheres start touching each other only upon moving from 2D to 3D, i.e when the 2D arrays are
placed on top of each other in such a fashion that the spheres of the next plane are into the cavities of the first
plane of spheres.The third plane of spheres is then exactly identical to the first plane of spheres.

(i)Relation b/w a and r: a  2r (as atoms along the edge are not touching each other)
they touch along the body diagonal, hence 3 a = 4r..

1
(ii) Effective no-of atoms (f) = 1 + × 8 = 2.
8

4 3
2r
3  3
(iii) Packing fraction = 3 3 3 = ~
– 0.68 ( 68% )
4  4  4r3 8
(iv)Coordination No. CN: 8 (the sphere at the body centre will be touching the spheres at the eight corners)
ZM 2M
(v) Density = 
Na a 3 Na a 3

BCC :
Type of neighbour Distance no.of neighbours
3
nearest 2r = a 8
2
(next)1 =a 6

(next)2 = a 2 12

11
(next)3 = a 24
2
(next)4 = a 3 8

RESONANCE Page # 9
 LECTURE # 3
CLOSE PACKING IN THREE DIMENSIONS: This is the arrangements in which metallic
crystals are generally found. To generate close packing we must start with best possible arrangements in
two dimensions i.e., the hexagonal arranged sheets and spheres of IInd sheet must rest depressions/voids
of 1st sheet hexagonal close pached
All the voids of 1st sheet canot be occupied by shperes of 2nd sheet (because of same size of
spheres) Only 50% of the viods can be occupied. Out of six voids around anly sphere only three atternate
voids can be occupied by 2nd sheet of spheres. This arrangements is shown below.

a a
b b b

a
b b

In second layer we have two kinds of voids.

(i) Voids of second layer below which there are spheres of first layer (all voids of type ‘a’).
(ii) Voids of second layer below which there are voids of first layer (all voids of type ‘b’).
for third layer we have two possibilities.

(A) HEXAGONAL CLOSE PACKING( HCP )

If spheres of IIIrd layer are placed in voids of IInd layer which are lying exactly above the spheres of Ist layer i.e.,
voids of type ’a’ then Ist layer and IIIrd layer will become exactly identical and this generates ABABAB
pattern or the hexagonal close packing (HCP)

Unit cell : a = 2r = b;  = 120º

CALCULATIONS
1. For ‘c’: For the estimation of ‘c’, consider the spheres marked 1,2,3,4 in the unit cell as shown.These four
spheres form a regular tetrahedron. The length of the perpendicular from ‘4’ to the equilateral triangle 1-2-3
will be equal to c/2.

a
cos 30º =
2x
RESONANCE Page # 10
 a a2 a
x= = 
2 cos 30 2 3 3

apply pythagoras theorem.

x2 + (C/2)2 = a2

2
 C= 4r
3
Volume of the hexagon = Area of base x Height.

2 2 2 2
=6. a × c = 4r  4r = 24 2.r
3
3 3
2. Effective no. of atoms/unit cell, Z :

1 1
Z= 3 + 2 × + 12 × = 3 + 1 + 2 = 6 [z = 6]
2 6
The three atoms at the centre of the hexagonal structure is not completely inside the unit cell. A part of it
lies lies the unit cell, but a part of other atoms in the same plane whose centre is not in the unit cell is
included inside the unit cell.
Hence eff. no. = 3.
4 3
6 r 
3. Packing fraction : = = 3  = 0.74 = 74%
24 2 r 2 3 2

4. Coordination No. CN= 12( each spheres touches 6 spheres in its layer,3 above and 3 below)
Mass ZM 6M
5. Density = = N ( volume )  Na ( volume )
Volume a

NOTE: In closest packings, whenever two consecutive layers are of different kind then packing efficiency will
always be 74%

(B) ABC-ABC ARRANGEMENT/CUBIC CLOSE PACKING( CCP ):

If the third layer spheres are placed in those voids of IInd layer under which there are voids of the first layer
of spheres (voids of type ‘b’), then the first and the third layer of spheres will not be identical.Such an
arrangement will lead to an ABC-ABC type of arrangement.It is also known as the cubical close packing or
also as the Face Centred Cubic structure(FCC).

a a
b b b

a
b b

In the ABC – ABC Pattem the spheres of 4th layer are vertically above the spheres of Ist layer then these
consecutive layers are different from each other, fourth layer will be idential to first layer so it will be called
ABC – ABC repeat pattern.It is also called the ccp (cubical close packing) because a cubical type of unit cell
is used for the study of this arrangement.

RESONANCE Page # 11
1. Relation between ‘a’ and ‘r’ :
a  2r
2a  4r (as the spheres touch along the face diagonal)
2. Effective no. of atoms per unit cell, Z :
1 1
Z= 8 6  4
8 2
3. Packing fraction :
4 3
4 r 
p.f.  3  22 = = .74( 74% )
444 r 3 3 2

4. Coordination number, CN = 12 ( each corner sphere touches three spheres per cube(each of them
being shared by two of the eight cubes surrounding that sphere) )
ZM
5. Density =
NA . a3
Type of neighbour Distance no. of neighbours
a  38 
nearest 12 =  
2  2 

 38 
(next)1 a 6=  
 4 

3
(next)2 a 24
2
(next)3 a 2 12

5
(next)4 a 24
2

RESONANCE Page # 12
 LECTURE # 4
TYPES OF VOIDS FOUND IN CLOSE PACKINGS :
Although the close packed structures have the maximum packing efficiency, there are indeed empty spaces
left in the arrangements. Let us analyse the types of such voids and the maximum radius of a particle that
can be placed in such voids.

(VOID IN TWO DIMENSIONS)

(1) Triangular void (2-Dimensional 3-coordinate void) The triangular voids are found in the planes of the
close packed structures, whenever three speres are in contact in such a fashion.

2R
2R

30°
R

R 3 R 2 Rr
cos30° =  =  =  r = 0.155 R
Rr 2 Rr 3 R
where, R= Radius of the sphere, r = rmaximum radius of a sphere that can be placed inside the void.

(VOIDS IN THREE DIMENSIONS)

(2) Tetrahedral void (3-Dimensional 4-coordinate) :

The tetrahedral void is formed whenever a sphere is placed on top of the triangular arrangement.
O A

a
R+r /2
O  = 109.28°
c d
b D
A B B
R R C

 
 R R  1 
sin =  = sin 54° 44  r=R   1  r = 0.225 R
2 Rr Rr
 sin  
 2 

(3) Octahedral void (3-Dimensional 6 coordinate void) The octahedral void is formed whenever two spheres
are placed, one on top and the other below a square arrangement of spheres.This can also be obtained by
placing two THREE-BALL arrangements on the top of each other such that a hexagonal view is obtained.

3 2
4 1

x = 2R; R

2(R + r) = rr
2x= 2 2R
R

r = ( 2  1) R = 0.414 R
x

RESONANCE Page # 13
(4) Cubical void (3-Dimensional 8-coordinate void)
Along body diagonal : 3 a = 2 (R + r)

R
r
r
2 3 R = 2 (R + r) R

r = ( 3  1) R

r = ( 3  1) R r = 0.732 R

The cubical void is generally not found in closed packed structures, but is generated as a result of distortions
arising from the occupancy of voids by larger particles.

LOCATION OF VOIDS

FCC/CCP unit cell: (with the help of model)

(A) Tetrahedral voids : The FCC unit cell has eight tetrahedral voids per unit cell. Just below every corner
of the unit cell, there is one Tetrahedral void. As there are eight corners, there are eight tetrahedral voids.

3
4
The spheres 1, 2, 3, 4 form a tetrahedral void.

2
1

(B) Octahedral voids :In an FCC unit cell, there are four octahedral voids. They are present at all the
1
edgecentres and at the body centre. The contribution of the edge centre is
4

 1
Hence, total number of octahedral voids = 12   + (1) =4
 4 
edge centres body centre

HCP unit cell :(with the help of model)

(A) Tetrahedral voids:

Tetrahedral voids are found between any two spheres of alternate sheets that lie perpendicular to the plane
of the sheets.
8 are completely inside and 12 are shared
Effective number of tetrahedral voids in hcp unit cell :
1
effectively  8 + 12 × = 12
3
(B) Octahedral Voids: Total 6 octahedral voids completely inside the unit cell.

VOIDS PER SPHERE IN CLOSED PACKING

1.Tetrahedral Voids
In HCP : Z = 6, tetrahedral voids = 12
In CCP/FCC :Z = 4, tetrahedral voids = 8
number of tetrahedral voids = 2 × Z
no. of tetrahedral voids in close packings = 2 × eff. no. of spheres.
HENCE, there are two Tertahedra Voids per sphere in closed packing arrangements.

(2) Octahedral VoidsI

In HCP: Z = 6, octahedral voids = 6

RESONANCE Page # 14
 In CCP/FCC: Z = 4, octahedral voids = 4
no. of octahedral voids = Z
There is exactly one OV per sphere in close packing.

Void in Simple cubic lattice

Cubical void (eight coordinate void)
diagrams
along body diagonal, 2r 3 = 2r + 2rV

rV = r( 3  1)
* In BCC, symmetrical voids are not found.

Triangula void in HCP: It is located in two dimsensional layers of HCP structure.

diagram
2r
= r + rV
3

 2 
= rV = r   1
 3 

 3.464 
= r   1
 3 
rV  0.155 r.

Structure of ionic compounds

Strcuture of compounds containing two different types of atoms.
The bigger atom or ion will form the lattice & smaller atom / ion will occupy the voids. Generally,
bigger ion is anion and smaller ion is cation.The type of void occupies by the cation is decided by
radius ratio.
 r 
Radius ratio =  r  ,this gives the idea about the type of void occupied.
  
Radius ratio Type of void occupied Coordination No.
r
r < 0.155 linear void 2

r
0.155  r < 0.225 triangular void 3


r
0.225  r < 0.414 tetrahedral void 4


r
0.414  r < 0.732 octahedral void 6


r
0.732  r < 1 cubical void 8

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
 In ionic compounds for maximum stability.
(1) A Cation must be surrounded by maximum number of anions and vice versa.
(2) Anion-anion and cation–cation contact should be avoided
 There will 2 different kind of atoms, cation & anion, so there will be two different coordination number (C.N.).
C.N. of cation = no. of anions surroundings any cation.
C.N. of anion = no. of cations surrounding any anion.

RESONANCE Page # 15
POSSIBILITIES OF THE RADIUS RATIOS(deal along with the table given)

Case I :

r
r < 0.155
+

 It is unstable situation because cation is not touching any of anion and anions are in contact.

Case II :

r
r = 0.155
a
a = 2r
This is the perfect arramgement for triangular void.Here cation will be touching three anions hence C.N. =
3 and anions will be in limiting contact.

Case III :

+
r
0.155 < r < 0.225

a

 Here cation will be touching three anions hence C.N. = 3

but anions will not be in contact
a
= r+ + r–
3

a= 3 (r+ + r–)

Case IV :
r
r = 0.225
Cation is perfectly in Tetrahedral void, C.N = 4
fcc  anion-anion contact will still be therefore
2 afcc = 4r–

Case V :
r
0.225 < r < 0.414


Here fcc lattice will expand now anion will no longer be in contact therefore 2 afcc > 4r–

RESONANCE Page # 16
Considering a minicube

Mini
Cube

a/2
Cation will lie at the centre of the body diagonal of the mini cube of side a/2.
1
r– + r+ = × (body diagrol of minicube)
2
1 a fcc
r+ + r– = × 3
2 2

4
afcc = (r  r– )
3

Case VI :
r
r = 0.414
Cation is perfectly in Octahedral void, C.N. = 6
For fcc lattice 2 afcc = 4r– is valid and anions will be in limiting contact

Case VII : +
r a
0.414 < r < 0.732


FCC lattice undergoes symmetrical exapnsion. Anions loses contact 2 afcc > 4r–
But the relative orientation of Cation and anions would remain same as in te case of perfect OV situation.

afcc = r– + 2r+ + r–

Case VIII :
r
r = 0.732
Cation is perfectly in cubical void C.N = 8
asc = 2r–
Case IX :
r
0.732 < r < 1.00

Expansion undergoes and anions are not in contact.But relative orientation will remain same as that is
perfect cubic void.
3 asc = 2(r+ + r–)

RESONANCE Page # 17
 LECTURE # 5
STRUCTURE OF SOME REPRESENTATIVE IONIC COMPOUNDS
Ionic solids form rigid lattice structure.Large amount of energy is released when ions form lattice
arrangement form their gaseous states.This is expressed in terms of the Lattice energy(kJ/mol).This
much amount of energy is required to separate one mole of ionic-solid into its gaseous ions.

(1) NaCl type( AB-type ) of structure or rock salt structure or 6 : 6 C.N. compound
rNa 
Experimental: r – = 0.51
Cl

Cl– ions:fcc lattice

effective no. of Cl– ions in a unit cell = 4

Eff. No. of Na+ ions in a unit cell must be 4 ( formula  Nacl)

Na+ ions must occupy all the octahedral voids.
formula of one unit cell = Na4Cl4 = NaCl
effective no. of formula units , Z = 4
ZM
mass of unit cell = N
A
M = 58.5 gm/mole

Edge length of unit cell :-

a(fcc) = 2(rNa+ + rCl–)
ZM
density  =
N A .a 3fcc

Anion Cation

C.N.Na+ = 6
C.N.Cl– = 6
NaCl = 6 (cation) : 6 (anion) CN compound

(2) ZnS type( AB-type ) of unit cell or 4 : 4 CN compound

Zns – fcc (zinc blende)
Zns – hcp (wurtzite)
r 
zn2
experimental:  0.3
rs2 

RESONANCE Page # 18
S2– will form fcc lattice. effective no. of S2– ions in one unit cell = 4.0
Zn2+ ions will occupy alternate (non-adjacent) four out of eight Tetahedral voids.
none of the face of the minicube should be common.

 effective no. of Zn2+ ions = 4

formula of unit cell = Zn4S4
effective no. of formula units, Z = 4
ZM
mass = N M = 97 gm/mole
A

1  a  4
rzn 2   rs2     3 fcc   afcc = (rZn2   rs2  )
2  2  3

ZM
density  =
N A a 3fcc

C.N. of Zn2+ ions = 4

C.N. of s2– ions = 4

3. CaF2 (Flourite structure)( AB2-type) or 8 : 4 coordination no. compound

rca2   rF – Here Cation is bigger than Anion.

rF 
experimental: 0.225 > < 0.414
rca  
fcc lattice position are occupied by Ca2+ ion
Effective no. of ca2+ ions = 4
F¯ ions occupy all the Tetrahedral voids
Effective no. of F¯ ions = 8
formula = Ca4F8 = CaF2
effective no. of formula units, Z = 4
4
afcc = (rCa 2   rF – )
3
C.N. of Ca2+ = 8
C.N of F¯ = 4

4. Na2O (sodium oxide) (A2B-type )or Anti - Fluorite structure or 4 : 8 coordination compound
O2– – fcc lattice
Na+ – all the tetrahedral voids

5. CsCl type of structure or 8 : 8 CN compound

rCs 
Experimantal:  0.93
rCl–
Cl– forms Simple cubic lattice
Effective Cl¯ ions = 1
Cs+ will occupy cubic void
Effective Cs+ ion = 1
Formula = CsCl
Z = 1 [mistake in NCERT not BCC lattice]
ZM 2
 asc = (r  r– )
Na a 3sc 3
C.N of Cs+ = 8 C.N of Cl– = 8

RESONANCE Page # 19
EFFECT OF PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE COORDINATION NUMBER OF COMPOUND :
On increasing pressure  C.N. tends to increase
On increasing temperature  C.N. tends to decrease
e.g.
P
4:4 6:6

T
8:8 6:6

CRYSTAL IMPERFECTIONS / DEFECTS

Imperfections can be because of :-
- Conditions under which crystals have been developed,
- Impurities,
- Temp (because of thermal conductivity some atoms/ions can get displaced)
These imperfections can be
(a) Point defects - defects will be only at certain lattice positions.
(b) Line defects - If atoms/ions are misplaced/missing/replaced by some other ions along a line.
(c) plane (screw) defects - If atoms/ions are misplaced/missing/replaced by some other ions along a line
in a plane.

POINT DEFECTS
1. Stoichiometric -The formula of compound remains same even after presence of these defects.
2.Non-stoichiometric -The formula of compound will get modified because of the presece of these defects.

STOICHIOMETRIC DEFECTS
(a) Schottkey (b) Frenkel (c) Interstitial

Missing ions pairs Cation Anion dislocated cation

Cation Anion

Schottky defect Frenkel defect

Cation Anion Interstitial entity

Interstitial defect

SCHOTTKEY : when atoms/point are totally missing from the lattice.

net density of crystal willl get decressed

RESONANCE Page # 20
exp < theoritical
  th –  exp 
% missing units =    100 %
 th 
 

FRENKEL : When atoms/ions displaced from normal lattice positions and are present in some interstitial
voids.Density remains same

INTERSTITIAL :
When some small foreign atoms are trapped in interstitial voids of the lattice without any chemical reaction.
Formula remains the same
exp > theortical

NON-STOICHIOMETRIC DEFECTS :
(a) metal excess or cation excess defect :-
- If no. of missing anione is more than no. of missing cations.
- To maintain electrical neutrality some electron are trapped at anionic vacancies.
Because of these extra e– the electrical and optical (colour) properties of the compound get modified.
So these locations of e–s are also known as color centres (F - centres) .
ZnO - white in color at room temperature.
- on heating some O2– ione get released in the form of O2 and e– are trapped at their locations.
because of this it because yellow in color.

(b) metal deficiency (cation deficiency) defects

- no. of missing cations should be more than no. of missing anions.
- oxidation no. of cation will get modified to maintain electrical mentrality.

Cation Anion Sr+2 replacing Na+

F-centre
Na+ Cl- Na+ Cl- Na+ Cl-

-e Na+ Cl- Na+ Cl- Sr+2 Cl- Na+ Cl-

Na+ Cl- Na+ Cl- Na+ Cl-

Metal excess Cation Vacancy

Example: Ferrous oxide (FeO) is experimentally found to have the formula Fe0.93O.Find the %age of Fe
ions in +3 state.
Fe0.93O

Sol:
Some Fe atom Some Fe atom
are in +2 state are in +3 state

Let there is xFe atom in +3 state

3x + 2(93 – x) = 200
x = 14
14 1400
% Fe3+ = × 100% = %
93 93
 15.54%

RESONANCE Page # 21
CHEMISTRY LECTURE NOTES

(LECTURE No. 1 TO 5)

TOPIC : SOLID STATE