CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY

Minerals processing is of great significance in the science of mineral extraction. Extractive

metallurgy has been defined as the science and art of extracting metals from their ores,

refining them and preparing them for use as a marketable product, (Ish, 2016).

Minerals processing is divided into several divisions among which are, beneficiation,

hydrometallurgy, pyrometallurgy, and electrometallurgy. It is very important to mention here

that the final point in the winning of metals is in physical metallurgy where the composition

of the run off mine is treated to extract the metals contained therein. As such the field of

mineral processing has also been given other names like ore dressing, mineral dressing,

mineral extraction, mineral beneficiation, and mineral engineering all these are applicable

interchangeably. Mineral processing basically entails two functions, libration of the valuable

minerals from waste minerals and the separation of valuable which is also regarded as

concentrate from the gangue minerals.

Metals are very useful to the modern society in which we live and as such how they are

extracted goes a long way in meeting the demands of the ever growing population that will

use them either for industrial purpose or domestic purposes.

This has enhanced the search for reserves of metallic ores within the ocean floor and

continental crustal rocks. Likewise various separation techniques needed for the ore dressing

is daily improved upon as a way of ensuring maximum recovery of valuable metals from the

ore profitably.

Among the concentration methods under review is the gravity concentration method, where

separation is based on the physical properties of the mineral contained in the ore. Such

1
properties include size and weight. This method can be used for extracting metal from low

grade ores (down to 0.1%), particularly those of copper and nickel, in terms of their life

consumption (embodied energy) and greenhouse gas emissions. Gravity method of separation

is applied in various materials ranging from heavy metal sulphides such as galena with

specific gravity of 7.5 to coal of specific gravity of 1.3, at particle sizes in some cases above

50microns. This method allows for the selective treatment of low- grade complex ores. They

remained, however, the main concentrating methods for iron and tungsten ores and are used

extensively for the treatment of tin ores.

In recent years, many companies have re- evaluated gravity method due to the relative

simplicity of the method, coupled with the fact that they produce comparatively little

environmental pollution the increasing cost of operating other methods of separation such as

reagents for flotation methods.

Modern gravity techniques have proved very efficient for concentration of minerals having

particle sizes in the region of 50 – 10 micron and when coupled with the improved pumping

technology and instrumentation, it has been incorporated with high – capacity plants (Tarril,

1975).

It becomes very pertinent therefore that after the construction of new designs of gravity

separators, the evaluation of the equipment becomes relevant in deciding the operational

principle of the equipment.

1.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVES

This research is set to achieve the following objectives in order to get the fabricated jig

operational.

1. Select ores for performance evaluation of fabricated jig.

2. Evaluate the performance of the jig through recovery.

2
 3. Determine the recovery ratio of the jig.

4. Re-design and correct every defect encountered on the jig.

1.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM.

It is a fabricated laboratory jig that has not been put to use and this project will aim to put it

in proper condition for use in the school.

1.4 JUSTIFICATION

This project was carried out to enhance the use and function-ability of the fabricated

laboratory jig. This is done in view of the fact that there is little number of functioning

mineral processing equipment for knowledge to be passed across to students in the

laboratory.

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 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 GRAVITY SEPARATORS

It is on record that different Gravity machines have been designed and built in the past to

create separation of minerals by gravity, and they have been extensively reviewed in older

text-books of mineral processing such as the ones written by; Taggart, (1945); Pryor, (1965);

Gaudin,(1939); Richards and locke, (1940).

2.2 PRINCIPLES OF GRAVITY CONCENTRATION

Gravity concentration methods separate minerals of different specific gravity by their relative

movement in response to gravity and one or more other forces, the latter often being the

resistance to motion offered by a viscous fluid, such as water or air.

It is essential for effective separation that a marked density difference exists between the

mineral and the gangue, (Wills, 1989).

The criterion for concentration is given by the formulae

D h−D f
C= ……………………………………Eqn 2.1
D l−D f

Where, C is the concentration criterion

Dh is the specific gravity of the heavy minerals

Dl is the specific gravity of the light minerals

Df is the specific gravity of the fluid medium

The condition for effective separation is achieved when the quotient is greater than or equal

to ±2.5 irrespective of it being positive or negative. On the other hand as the value of the

4
quotient decreases below ±1.25 gravity concentration is no longer commercially feasible

(Taggart, 1945).

The movement of a mineral particle in water is a function of its specific gravity and size,

where larger mineral particles will be affected more than smaller ones. Therefore the

efficiency of gravity separation increases with particle size and the particle should be

sufficiently coarse to move in accordance with Newton’s Law. Particles which are so small,

that their movement is dominated mainly by surface friction respond relatively poorly to

commercial high capacity gravity methods, (Wills, 1989).

Gravity separators are extremely sensitive to the presence of slimes (ultra – fine particles),

which increase the viscosity of the slurry and hence the reduce sharpness of separation, and

obscure visual cutoff points. It is therefore a common practice to remove particles less than

about 10 microns from the feed, and diverts this fraction to the tailings, which may be

responsible for substantive loss of values.

The feed to jigs, cones, and spirals must be, if possible screened before separation takes place

with each fraction treated separately.

2.3 GRAVITY CONCENTRATION METHODS

The following are the gravity concentration methods and the machines employed:-Panning,

Sluicing, Spiral, Jigging, Shaking Table, and Heavy- Medium- Separation (HM.S).

(Onucheyo, H.K. 2010).

2.4 SHAKING TABLES

The principle behind the shaking table is simply hinged on a flowing film of water, flows

over a flat, inclined surface, the water closest to the surface is retarded by the friction of the

water absorbed on the surface consequently the velocity increases towards the film, small

5
particles will not more as rapidly as large particles and so a lateral displacement of the

material will be produced.

The flowing film effectively separates coarse light particles from small dense particles,

Gaudin, (1939) did the analysis mathematically. Flowing –film separation is utilized in the

shaking table concentrator which is perhaps the most metallurgical efficient form of gravity

separator.

It consist of a slightly inclined deck onto which feed of about 25% solids by weight is

introduced at the feed box and, it is distributed along Y, wash water is distributed along the

balance of the feed size from launder Z. The table is vibrated longitudinally by the

mechanism T, using a slow forward stroke and a rapid return which cause the mineral

particles to crawl along the deck parallel to the direction of motion. The minerals are thus

subjected to two forces- that due to table motion and that at right angle to it, due to the

flowing film of water. The resultant net effect is that the particles move diagonally across the

deck from the feed end, since the effect of the flowing film depends upon the size and density

of the particles.

6
Figure 2.1: Shaking Table

In practice, there are multi – layered feed which permits much larger tonnage to be processed.

There are triple deck table, Wiffley table which consists of two toggles driven by a pitman.

Ore concentration tables are generally used primarily for the concentration of mineral of tin,

iron, tungsten, tantalum, mica, barium, titanium, zirconium, shaking tables just like other

gravity process require large amounts of water. Others are Bartles – Mozley Tables.

2.5 HUMPHREYS SPIRAL

The Humpreys Spiral was designed and introduced in 1943, it was first used on a large scale

on chrome – bearing sands, (Hubbard et al., 1953). Humphrey Spirals is composed of a

helical conduit of modified semi circular cross – section. Feed pulp of between 15 – 45%

solids by weight and in the size range of 3mm to 75 microns is introduced at the top of the

spiral, and as it flows spirally down wards, the coarsest and heaviest particles concentrate in a

band along the inner side of the stream. Port for the removal of the higher specific gravity

7
particles is located at the lowest points in the cross – section. Wash water, added at the ports

is controlled by adjustable splitters.

Operating Principle: Spiral separators vertically separate the feed slurry in the launder

(channel) according to density differences. The heaviest feed particles fall to the bottom of

the launder, when frictional forces slow their velocity. As a result, the slower, heavier grains

are less subject to the centrifugal forces (generated by the flow of slurry through the spiral-

formed channel) than are the lighter, faster grains higher up in the flow. This create a

horizontal density differentiation of the feed grains, with the heavy particles flowing along

the inside walls of the channel, and the faster, lighter particles travelling higher up towards

the outer rim. The discharge outlets are located on the inside of the channel for removal of the

heavier particles (concentrate). Separation precision can be improved by adding additional

water during the sorting process.

Figure 2.3: Cross-Section of Spiral Stream

Figure 2.2: Humphrey spiral

2.6 PINCHED SLUICES AND CONES

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Pinched sluices of various forms have been used for heavy mineral separations for many

years. This an inclined launder about1m long, narrowing from about 200mm in width at the

feed end to about 25mm at the discharge. Pulp between 50 and 65% solids enters gently and

stratifies as it descends; at the discharge end these strata are separated by adjustable splitters.

The efficiency of the pinched sluices is relatively low and is repeated a number of times

within a single machine to achieve effective performance. A typical machine system for

rougher concentration duties will consist of four double single – cone stages in series, each

retreating the tailings of the preceding stage. It will produce concentrate from the upper three

stages and the product from the fourth stage as middlings, (Annon, 1977).

Reichert cones have high capacity, operating normally in the range 65 – 90th -1, with a feeds

of up to 3mm in size are accepted and it can also trea material as fine as 30microns but they

are more efficient in the 100 – 600 micron size range, (Forssberg and Sandstrom 1979).

2.7 JIGGING

Jigging is a gravity – concentration method by which mixtures of minerals are sorted

according to density in alternate upward and downward currents of water. The final products

of jigging are tailings concentrates of the desired minerals. From time to time, an

intermediate product is isolated that consists of concretions or mechanically produced

mixtures of gangue particles and the desired mineral component.

In jigging, the sorting results from the periodic action of ascending and descending pulses of

water on the bed of material being prepared, the jig bed, which tests on a jigging screen.

Working Principle of “jig”: In principle, separation of particles of differing specific gravity is

effected in a bed resting on a ragging screen. The bed is fluidized by a vertical pulsating

motion created by a diaphragm and an incoming flow of hutch water, coupled with a bed of

inter-mediate specific gravity particles or “ragging”. The pulsating and dilating action of this

9
motion on the bed causes the heavier particles (high specific gravity and size) to sink into and

through the ragging to form a concentrate underflow, and lighter and smaller particles to form

a tailing overflow.

Figure 2.3: Diagram of jig machines

1 Pulsator

2 Jig bed

3 Jigging screen

Figure 2.4: Schematic Diagram of Jigging

The pulsation causes the bed to alternately dilate and contact; as this takes place, particles

with low density move to the upper layers of the bed, while those with high density are

displaced to the lower layers. Each layer has its own characteristic density, and thus it is

possible to separate the concentrate from tailings and, in some cases, from the intermediate

product.

The theory behind jigging was worked out by the German scientist P. Ritinger in 1867.

Jigging technology was complicated by the principle of equal setting, which follows from

10
Ritinger’s theory and which predicts that only a few narrow size classes of particles will

separate from starting raw material.

The subsequent work of the Hungearian scientist J. Fin – Key (1924) and the Russian

scientist P.V Lianshchenko (1935) on the settling of particles in a confined system

demonstrated the feasibility of enriching dressing ores with a wider range of particle sizes.

West Germany scientist F. Mayer in (1950) advanced a new theoretical treatment of jigging

based on the potential theory of jigging. This theory analyzes the stratification of the entire

jig bed, when tends toward a potential energy minimum, instead of analyzing the

displacement of discrete particles.

Jigging is a particularly suitable, economical method for extracting minerals in coarse

inclusions, which do not require crushing to a small particle size.

271 TYPES OF JIG

The fundamental principle of jigging are essentially the same for all jigs, the basic differences

between the various types of jigs are a matter of practical engineering to optimize the

operating performance, materials handling, maintenance and control (Smart dog mining,

2011). Jain (2008) maintains that, the jig can be classified base on the fluid used;

1. Hydraulic jigs (jigs that uses water) and

2. Pneumatic jigs (jigs that use air).

The hydraulic jigs can be further classified into hand jigs, fixed screen jigs and movable

screen jigs (Beniuk et al, 1994).

1. Hand jig: This is one of the oldest and simplest types and presents the essential features of

the jigging process. This consists of a water-tight box or hutch in which a framed sieve

(an ore box) can be jigged up and down. The accumulated heavy mineral is removed from

11
 time to time after a series of hutch water. Presently hand jigs are not in use since the jig

motion can be duplicated with mechanical devices.

2. Fixed screen jig: In this type of jigs currents are produced either by a plunger or by a

stream of hydraulic water.

According to Austine et al, (1984), the fixed screen jigs are more common. The important

fixed screen jigs are as follows:

i. Fixed screen plunger jigs (Harz jig)

ii. Fixed screen diaphragm jig (Denver jig)

iii. Fixed sieve air- pulse jig (Baum jig)

iv. Pan-American jig.

3. Movable screen jig: In this type of jigs, the screen box is moved upward and downward

with force and motion in a tank of water either by hand or power. Acceleration at one end

is more than at the other to cause the move forward.

The important jigs of this class are:

i. Hancock jig

ii. James coal jig and

iii. Halkyn jig

Table 2.1: Types of Jig (Smart dog Mining, 2011)

Type Pulsating Mechanism Stroke Modification

Baum Air Air control

Richards Water Water valve control

Harz Mechanical Pistol Differential piston action

Denver Mechanical Diaphragm Water valve

Bendelari Mechanical Diaphragm None

Pan-American Moving Hutch Mechanical

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Russian MOBK Pneumatic piston Air discharge control

2.8 METAL ORES

An ore is a type of rock that contains sufficient minerals with important elements including

metals that can be economically extracted from the rock (Guilbert et al.,1986). The ores are

extracted from the earth through mining, they are then refined (often through smelting) to

extract the valuable element or elements.

The cost of mining an ore from a deposit is directly related to the grade or concentration of an

ore mineral, or metal as well as its form of occurrence. The cost of extraction must thus be

weighed against the metal value contained in the rock to determine what ore can be processed

and what ore is of low grade to be worth mining.

Metal ores are generally oxides, sulphides, silicates, or “native” metals (such as native

copper) that are not commonly concentrated in the Earth’s crust, or “noble” metals (not

usually forming compounds) such as gold. The ores must be processed to extract the metals

of interest from the waste rock and from the other ore minerals. Ore bodies are formed by a

variety of geological processes. The process of ore formation is called ore genesis.

2.8.1 Classification of Ore Deposits

Ore deposits are classified according to various criteria developed via the study of economic

geology, or ore genesis. Below are typical classifications are:

1) Hydrothermal epigenetic deposits:- these are magmatic nickel-copper, included

among these are cumulate vanadiferons or platinum-bearing magnetite or chromite

cumulate hard rock titanium deposits, komotite hosted Ni-Cu., subvolcanic feeder

subtype, Lateritic nickel ore deposits.

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 2) Volcanic – related deposit:- these are volcanic hosted massive sulphide, examples are

copper, lead, zinc.

3) Carbonatite –alkaline igneous related:- these are phosphorous – tantalite –vermaculite

(Phalaborwa – South Africa), Rare earth elements.

2.8.2 Types of Metallic Ores

1. Lead Zinc Silver:- Lead Zinc deposits are generally accompanied by silver, hosted

within the lead sulphide mineral galena, or within the Zinc Sulphide minerals

sphalerite. Lead and Zinc deposits are formed by discharge of deep sedimentary brine

onto the sea floor or by the replacement of limestone,in skarn deposits. The specific

gravity of galena is 7.60, while the bulk density also known as electron density is

6.23gm/cc. so, it can be processed by gravity method of separation.

2. Chalcopyrite:- this is most widespread copper mineral and one of the most important

sources of that metal. It is a copper – iron sulphide chalcopyrite is formed under a

great variety of conditions. Most sulphide ore deposits contains some chalcopyrite. It

is associated with other minerals such as sphalerite, galena cassiterite and pyrite.

Chalcopyrite has a specific gravity of 4.20gm/cc, Bulk density or Electron Density of

3.98gm/cc. this mineral in hand specimen is brassy to golden yellow in colour.

Processing of chalcopyrite is by electrolysis after roasting to take care of the pyrite.

3. Pyrite: - Pyrite (FeS2) is an iron sulphide that commonly has a pronounced cubic

structure with striated surfaces. It is found in almost any type of geological

environment. Sometime it is mistaken for gold, because of it yellow colour, hence the

name ‘fools’Gold”.

Pyrite is by far the most common and widespread sulphide mineral. It is found in

almost any geological environment. It is rarely of economic importance itself, but its

presence calls attention to areas that may contain important economic minerals.

14
 Pyrite has a specific gravity of 5.01gm/cc and a Bulk density of or Electron Density of

4.84gm/cc. it is amenable to gravity separation using any of the gravity method of

separation using any of the gravity method of separation or roasting of the ore.

4. Sphalerite: - Sphalerite (Zn, FeS) is a zinc sulphide that supplies the bulk of the

world’s supply of Zinc. Sphalerite is usually found in association with galena in the

most important deposits of these metals. It can also be associated with galena in the

most important deposits of these metals. It can also be associated with chalcopyrite,

pyrite, pynhotite and magnetite. The world's annual production of cadmium is

obtained as by product of the smelting of zinc process.

Sphalerite has a specific gravity of 4.08gm/cc and bulk density or Electron density of

3.85gm/cc. it can be separated using gravity method of either jigging or a combination

of jigging and froth- flotation.

5. Bauxite: Bauxite is a rock that’s made of aluminium oxides, or alumina. Bauxites is

the principal ore of aluminium. Almost all of the aluminium that has ever been

produced has been made from bauxite. Bauxite occurs in tropical and subtropical

areas mainly, like Nigeria, West indries, South America and Australia- there are some

deposits located in Europe. Australia is the largest producer of bauxite. Bauxite has a

specific gravity of 3.5gm/cc and a bulk gravity or Electron density of gm/cc.

Unlike the base metal ores, bauxite does not require complex processing because most

of the bauxite mined is of an acceptable grade. Ore quality can be improved by

relatively simple and inexpensive processes for removing clay, known as ore dressing

or beneficiation, which include washing, wet screening and mechanical or manual

sorting in alumina refineries. Flotation process of gravity separation can be

conveniently used for the separation of the metal concentrate from its tailings.

2.9 GRANITE

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Granite is the most common igneous rock type known to many. Granite, is named for its

granular or phaneritic texture, has crystals that tend to be easily seen, although they are

generally small. It is a rock that has been used for so many centuries for many different

purposes such as building material. Granite is durable, beautiful and abundance as such it is

preferred choice of stone over most others. Granite is a source of mineral specimens.

Crystals of granite forms while the molten material inside the Earth’s crust cools relatively

slowly. Molten rock or magma that would have formed granite had it stayed in the Earth’s

crust, but instead managed to erupt onto the surface of the Earth, forms a rock called rhyolite.

The granite and rhyolite has the same chemistry. Rhyolite however does not generally have

the same texture and crystals are generally too small to see. If granite type rock has crystals

that grow larger than a large pebble (roughly 3cm across) then it is called a pegmatite.

The minerals that are found in granite are primarily quartz, plagioclase feldspars, potassium

or K-feldspars, hornblende and micas.

Quartz is usually the last mineral to crystallize and fills in the extra space between the other

minerals. Quartz’s hardness of 7 on the moh’s scale, lack of chemical reactivity and near lack

of cleavage give granite a significant amount of its desirable durable properties. The K-

feldspars are the ones that give granite its colour variations from yellow to orange to pink or

blue. Dark K-feldspars can give granite its black varieties as well. The micas are generally

muscovite (silver), biotite mica (black or brown) or Lepidolite (violet or pink). The

hornblende and biotite provide granite with the black pepper portion of the famous and

distinctive salt and pepper’ look of granite. Some accessory minerals include gemstones, such

as tourmaline, beryl topaz, zircons and apatite. These minerals are generally scattered in the

ground mass.

16
Figure 2.5: Granite rock

2.10 QUARTZ

Quartz is the most common mineral on the face of the Earth. It is found in nearly every

geological environment and it is at least a component of almost every rock type. It frequently

is the primary mineral, > 98%. It is also the most varied in terms of varieties, colours and

forms. This variety comes about because of the abundance and widespread distribution of

quartz. Some microcrystalline (large crystal) varieties are well known and popular as

ornamental stone as gemstones.

a. Amethyst is the purple gemstone variety.

b. Citrine is a yellow to orange gemstone variety that is rare in nature but is often created

by heating Amethyst.

c. Milky quartz is the cloudy white variety.

d. Prasiolite is a leak- green gemstone variety that is rare in nature but created from

heating Amethyst.

e. Rock crystal is the clear variety that is also used as a gemstone.

17
 f. Rose quartz is a pink to reddish pink variety.

g. Smoky quartz is the brown to gray variety.

Quartz is not the only mineral composed of SiO 2. These other substances and quartz are

polymorphs of silicon dioxide and belong to an informal group called Quartz Group or silica

group.

The structure of quartz helps explain many of its physical attributes. The luster of quartz is

glassy to vitreous as crystals, while cryptocrystalline forms are usually waxy to dull but can

be vitreous. Transparency of quartz are transparent, translucent, cryptocrystalline forms can

be translucent or opaque.

Quartz crystal system is trigonal; 32. While the crystal habits are again widely variable but

the most common habit is hexagonal prism. Cleavage is weak in three directions

(rhombohedra). Fracture is conchoidal, Hardness is 7, specific gravity is 2.65gm/cc, streak is

white.

According to Obasi, (1998), Quartz, is the major gangue mineral in the ferruginous quartzite

of Itakpe hill.

Figure 2.6: Quartz mineral

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2.11 IRON ORE

Iron ore formed from chemical reactions that combined iron and oxygen in marine and fresh

waters. The two most important minerals in these deposits are iron oxides: hematite (Fe 2O3)

and magnetite (Fe3O4). These iron ores have been mined to produce almost every iron and

steel object we use today- from paper clips, to automobiles to the steel beam in skyscrapers.

Nearly all of Earth’s major iron ore deposits are in rocks that formed over 1.8billion year ago.

At that time Earth’s oceans Banded iron formation (BIFs) are sedimentary rocks consisting of

alternating bands of iron rich sediments (typically hematite and magnetite and from poor

sediment, typically chart; the size of the bands larges from less than a millimeter, to more

than a meter in thickness.

Taconite is defined by Morey, (1993) as an economic term for iron formation from which

iron can be profitably extracted after fine grinding, followed by magnetic separation and

pelletizing.

Nigeria has both Banded Iron formation and oolitic-pisolitic iron ore deposit of 3 billion

tones (Adebimpe and Akande 2011; Banali et al, 2011; Nigerian Embassy, Hungary, 2012;

Alafara et al., 2005.

Exploration of iron ore started in Nigeria in 1963 and by 1972/1973 commercial quantity of

iron ore was discovered at Itakpe, kogi state. By 1977, iron ore discoveries at Itakpe had

reached 200million tones (Ola et al.,2009).

More exploration work yielded other discoveries such as Aabaje oolitic pissolitic plateau,

Ajabanoko,Ochoko Choko, Agbada Okuelu, Tajimi, Agbado Okudu, Ebiya Ero, on the basis

of the percentage of Fe content, the ores in this region could be classified as rich ores (that is

they have Fe content greater them 50), and medium grade ores (30-50%) and lean ores (25-

19
30%) which respectively constituted 4.5%, 85.4%, and 13.3% of the total ore reserves).

Figure 2.7: Iron ore

2.12 SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a reference

substance; equivalently it is the mass of a substance to the mass of a reference substance for

the same given volume.

Apparently specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of a volume of the substance to the

weight of an equal volume of the reference substance. The reference substance is nearly

always water at its densest (4°C) for liquids; for gases it is air at room temperature (21 0C).

Nonetheless, the temperature and pressure must be specified for both the sample and the

reference. Pressure, is nearly always 1atm (101.325kpa). Temperatures for both sample and

reference vary from industry to industry. In British beers brewing, the practice for specific

gravity as specified above is to multiply it by 1000, (Hough et al; 1991). Specific gravity is

used industry as a simple means of obtaining information about the concentration of solutions

of various materials such as brines, hydrocarbons, minerals, elements and acids. Being a

20
ration of densities, specific gravity is a dimensionless quantity. Specific gravity varies with

temperature and pressure; reference sample must be compared at the same temperature and

pressure or be corrected to a standard reference temperature and pressure.

Substances with a specific gravity of 1 are neutrally buoyant in water. Those with S.G greater

than 1 are denser than water and will, disregarding surface tension effects, sink in it. In

scientific work, the relationship of mass to volume is expressed directly in terms of the

density (mass per unit volume) of the substance under study. The specific gravities of some

important minerals are shown in table 2.2.

Table 2.2: SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF MINERALS (Jain, 2012)

NAMES OF MINERALS SPECIFIC GRAVITY (DENSITY (g/cm3)

Bauxite 2.6

Calcite 2.7

Cassiterite 6.8 – 7.1

Chalcocite 5.5 – 5.8

Cuprites 5.9 – 6.2

Dolomite 2.8 – 2.9

Galena 7.4 – 7.6

Hematite 4.9 – 5.3

Talc 2.7 – 2.8

Siderite 3.9

Quartz 2.65 – 2.66

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Magnetite 5.2

CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS AND METHOD
3.1 MATERIALS

The following materials were used in the course of this project work:

1. A fabricated laboratory jig machine

2. Electronic weighing balance

3. Volumetric flask

4. Rope or thread for suspension of sample

5. Sledge hammer

6. Head pan

7. Water pump

8. Bucket container

9. Sampling bags
22
 10. Iron ore material as dark/heavy sample H

11. Quartz material as light sample L

12. Two bucket size plastic receptacle

13. Sieve shaker and six sets of sieve

14. Denver jaw crusher

3.2 METHODS

3.2.1 Sample Collection

A total of 50kg of dark/heavy sample H and 50kg light sample L were collected into sample

bags using head pan and conveyed to the laboratory. The sample H that are lumps were

broken using the sledge hammer to reduce their size. The same process was also used on the

lump of sample L.

Thereafter, the broken samples were then transferred to the laboratory for further analysis.

3.2.2 Determination of Specific Gravity

The power of the electronic weighing balance were turn on with the scale tarred ( the scale

set to zero), The pan and broken sample H were weighed and their weight recorded as w 1 and

w2. Thereafter, the broken sample H was tightened and suspended into a beaker filled with

1000cm3 of water (V1). The same process was carried out on three iterations with the

displaced volume of water recorded V 2. The density of the sample H was then estimated

using equation 3.1 and thereafter equation 3.2 was then used to estimate the specific gravity

of the sample. The same process was carried out on sample L and their results are presented

in appendix and respectively

Mass of sample
Density = …………………………… Eqn 3.1
Volume displace

23
 Density of object
Specific Gravity = …………………………… Eqn 3.2
Density of water

3.2.3 Concentration criterion

Concentration criterion was estimated using the specific gravity obtained by applying the

concentration criterion formulae

D h−D f
C= ……………………………………Eqn 3.3
D l−D f

Where, C is the concentration criterion

Dh is the specific gravity of the heavy minerals

Dl is the specific gravity of the light minerals

Df is the specific gravity of the fluid medium

3.2.2 Crushing

The broken sample H and L were made to pass through standard crushing procedures. These

broken samples were fed through the gape into a Denver laboratory jaw crusher which

reduces the size of the feed to a coarse size that can be fed into a ball mill for further

reduction through grinding. Since there was no ball mill the jaw of the crusher was adjusted

to do further reduction into fine particles. The products of crushing were collected in separate

bag for further treatment.

24
Figure 3.1: Laboratory Denver Jaw Crusher

3.2.3 Sieve Analysis

4950g of the ground ore was placed in the uppermost ASTM standard sieve. The nest of the

sieve was loaded with the ore and allowed to vibrate for 10minutes. After the required time

(10 minutes), the nest of sieve was taken apart and the amount of material retained on each

sieve was weighed and recorded.

The same operation of sieving was carried out on the crushed iron ore was also used to treat

Sthe quartz and their results are presented in table 4.1 and 4.2 respectively

25
Figure 3.2: Diagram of sieve and Mechanical shaker

3.2.4 Compositional Ratio

In order to get a good feed for the fabricated jig, it is important to create a unique (mixture of

the heavy to light sample) head feed that will go into the jig for separation. This mixture will

represent the assay of the feed which will go into separation. The mixing ratios used are 1:1,

3:1 and 4:1 and in the reverse of Light to heavy.

3.3.1 Concentration Using Jig

Nominal sieve size 0.6 and 0.3 of sample H and L were used to evaluate the performance of

the fabricated laboratory jig.

The tap of the hutch compartment was locked and water was introduced to the level of the

screen where the feed will be spread. The screen that was slightly bigger than the size of the
26
materials to be jigged was laid. A feed of ratio 1:1 (H:L) containing 500g each of sample H

and sample L were fed unto the screen of the fabricated jig forming a bed. Then the machine

was switched ON for the jigging operation to run for 3minutes. At the end of which the tap of

the hutch compartment was released and the product ran into a plastic bucket which acts as

the underflow. While the overflow geo-material left in the feeding compartment were

scooped, washed in clean water.

The collected underflow and overflow were dried, weighed and documented. This process

was then repeated for sample L:H mixture. The same process was used for the concentration

of composite ratio 3:1 and 4:1. All the results are presented in table 4.5, 4.6, 4.7, 4.8, 4.9,

4.10, 4.11, 4.12, 4.13, 4.14, 4.15 and their grade respectively.

3.3.3 Performance Evaluation on the bases of stroke as a function of size

The performance evaluation as a function of efficiency of separation was computed based on

the grade of the feed, the output of the fabricated is Concentrate Middling’s and Tailings.

The grade and recovery of the jig product is computed based on the formula.

mass of h eavy mineral

Grade = ×100
mass of h eavy +mass of lig ht

100C ( f −t )
% Recovery =
f (c−t)

Where

c is the concentration of heavy mineral (H) in concentrate

t is concentration of heavy mineral in (H) tailings

f is concentration of feed amount

CHAPTER FOUR

27
 RESULITS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 RESULTS

4.1.1 Results of Specific Gravity Experiment

The result of the determination of specific gravity of the samples H and L are presented in
table 4.1 and 4.2.

Table 4.1: Results of Specific Gravity of Sample H

Iterations Densities (g/cm3) Specific Gravity

1 5.23 5.23
2 5.25 5.25
3 5.47 5.47

Table 4.2: Results of Specific Gravity of Sample L

Iterations Densities (g/cm3) Specific Gravity

1 2.66 2.66
2 2.25 2.25
3 2.47 2.47

4.1.2 Results of Sieve Analysis

The results of the crushed sample H and L are presented in table 4.3 and 4.4 respectively.

Table 4.3: Results of Sieve analysis of sample H

Sieve Size Nominal Weight % Weight % %

Range Sieve Size Retained Weight Passing Cumulative Cumulative

(mm) (g) Retained (g) Weight Weight

Retained Passing

+4.75 4.75 269.3 26.95 1000.00 73.05 26.95

-4.75 +2.36 2.36 240.6 24.07 730.7 48.98 51.02

-2.36 +1.18 1.18 144.4 14.45 490.1 34.53 65.47

28
-1.18 +0.6 0.6 109.7 10.98 345.7 23.55 76.45

-0.6 +0.3 0.3 93.5 9.36 236 14.19 85.81

-0.3 +0.2 0.2 46.9 4.69 142.5 9.5 90.5

-0.2 +0.15 0.15 35.5 3.55 95.6 5.95 94.05

-0.15 +0.075 0.075 28.7 2.87 60.1 3.08 96.92

-0.075 -0.075 30.8 3.08 31.4 0 100

Table 4.4: Results of Sieve analysis of sample L

Range Nominal Wt % Wt Wt % %

Sieve size Sieve Size Retained Retained Passing Cumulative Cumulative

(mm) (g) (g) Wt Wt Passing

Retained

+4.75 4.75 269.3 25.09 1000.00 74.91 25.09

-4.7 5 +2.36 2.36 240.6 23.97 749.3 50.94 49.06

-2.36 +1.18 1.18 144.4 18.85 509.8 32.09 67.91

-1.18 +0.6 0.6 109.7 9.31 321.5 22.79 77.22

-0.6 +0.3 0.3 93.5 7.58 228.6 15.2 84.8

-0.3 +0.2 0.2 46.9 5.01 152.8 10.19 89.81

-0.2 +0.15 0.15 35.5 4.24 102.7 5.95 94.05

-0.15 +0.075 0.075 28.7 2.87 60.3 3.08 96.92

-0.075 -0.075 30.8 3.08 31.6 0 100

29
 100

% Cummulative Wt pssing and Wt Retained

90
80
70
60
% cumulative weight passing
50
40 % cumulative weight retained

30
20
10
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Sieve Size (mm)

Figure 4.1: Particle Size Distribution Curves for Iron Ore (sample H)

100
% Cumulative Wt Passing and Wt Retained

90
80
70
60 % cumulative weight passing
50
% cumulative weight retained
40
30
20
10
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Sieve Size (mm)
Figure 4.2: Particle Size Distribution Curves for Quartz (Sample L)

4.1.3 Results of Jig Performance

The results of jig performance are presented in tables 4.5, 4.6, 4.7, 4.8, 4.9, 4.10, 4.11, 4.12,
4.13, 4.14 and 4.15

Table 4.5: Results of Microscopic Counts of Heavy Minerals in Products of Size 0.6mm
of Mix ratio 1:1

Products Dark Minerals Light Minerals Grade

30
Concentrate 350 190 64.81

Middling 119 102 53.84

Tailing 99 100 49.74

Table 4.6: Results of Microscopic Counts of Heavy Minerals in Products of Size 0.6mm
of Mix ratio 3:1

Product Dark Minerals Light Minerals Grade

Concentrate 400 177 69.32

Middling 157 99 61.32

Tailing 89 73 54.93

Table 4.7: Results of Microscopic Counts of Heavy Minerals in Products of Size 0.6mm
of Mix ratio 4:1

Product Dark Minerals Light Minerals Grade

Concentrate 422 140 75.08

Middling 160 88 64.51

Tailing 100 85 54.05

100
90
80
70
60
50
Grade

40
30
20
10
0
1;1 3;1 4;1 Midd.
Tail.
Product

Figure 4.1.3: Show grade and product of size 0.6mm

31
Table 4.1.6: Counts of heavy minerals in products of size 0.3mm of 1:1

Products Dark Minerals Light Minerals Grade

Concentrate 361 179 66.85

Middling 121 100 54.75

Tailing 111 88 55.77

Table 4.1.7: Counts of heavy minerals in products of size 0.3mm of 3:1

Product Dark Minerals Light Minerals Grade

Concentrate 427 150 74.00

Middling 160 96 62.50

Tailing 92 70 56.79

Table 4.1.8: Counts of heavy minerals in products of size 0.3mm of 4:1

Product Dark Minerals Light Minerals Grade

Concentrate 433 129 77.04

Middling 169 79 68.14

Tailing 102 83 55.13

100
90
80
70
60
50
Grade

40
30 32
20 Con.
10
Tail. Midd.
 Product

Figure 4.1.4: Show grade and product of size 0.3mm

Table 4.1.9: Counts of heavy minerals in products of size 0.6mm of 3:1

Product Dark Minerals Light Minerals Grade

Concentrate 108 335 24.26

Middling 101 219 31.56

Tailing 81 146 35.68

Table 4.1.10: Counts of heavy minerals in products of size 0.6mm of 4:1

Product Dark Minerals Light Minerals Grade

concentrat 101 340 22.90

Middling 92 222 29.29

33
Tailing 90 150 37.50

100
90
80
70
60
50
Grade

40
30
20
10 Midd.
Tail Con.
0
3;1 4;1 .
Product

Figure 4.1.5: show grade and product of size 0.6mm

34
Table 4.1.11: Counts of light minerals in products of size 0.3mm of 3:1

Product Dark Minerals Light Minerals Grade

Concentrate 120 310 27.90

Middling 105 212 33.12

Tailing 100 140 41.66

Table 4.1.12: Counts of light minerals in products of size 0.3mm of 4:1

Product Dark Minerals Light Minerals Grade

Concentrate 110 323 25.40

Middling 99 219 31.13

Tailing 87 150 36.70

35
 100
90
80
70
60
50
Grade

40
30
20
Con
10 M
. idd.
0 Tail.
3;1 4;1
Product

Recovery study

Table 4.1.13: Percentage recovery of size 0.6mm

Compositional Ratio Percentage Recovery

1:1 53.45

3:1 75.10

4:1 74.07

Table 4.1.14: percentage recovery of 0.3mm

Compositional Ratio Percentage Recovery

1:1 35.91

3:1 70.35

4:1 76.26

36
 100
90
80
70
Percentage Recovery

60
50
40
30
20
10 0.6mm
0 0.3mm
1;1 3;1 4;1
Compositional Ratio

Figure 4.1.7: show percentage recovery of size 0.6mm and 0.3mm

Recovery study

Table 4.1.15: percentage recovery of 0.6mm

37
Compositional Ratio Percentage Recovery

3:1 48.93

4:1 50.98

Table 4.1.16: percentage recovery of 0.3mm

Compositional Ratio Percentage Recovery

3:1 57.14

4:1 53.91

100
90
80
70
Percentage Recovery

60
50
40
30
20
10
0 0.6m
3;1 4;1 m
0 .3mm
Compositional Ratio

38
Figure 4.1.8: show percentage recovery of size 0.6mm and 0.3mm

39
4.2 DISCUSSION

The ores that were selected for the performance evaluation were made to undergo sieve

analysis test. The results of the sieve analysis test are as shown in table 4.1.1 to 4.1.2 and

their graphs from figure 4.1.1 to figure 4.1.2. The test results show 50 percent passing where

there is total liberation.

Thereafter the ores selected for the performance with the mixing ratio of 1:1, 3:1, and 4:1

were made to undergo gravity separation test. The effect of bedding materials on the

performance evaluation was studied and observes to affect iron oxide recovery by the

thickness of the bed holding back the free movement of the iron oxide particles during

suction. On the other hand, when the bedding material was reduced, the passage of the iron

oxide (concentrate) was with little effort and the recovery was substantial.

The results of the count of heavy and light minerals, their grade as shown in table 4.1.3, 4.1.4,

4.1.5, 4.1.6, 4.1.7, 4.1.8, 4.1.9, 4.1.10, 4.1.11, 4.1.12, 4.1.13, 4.1.14 and their graph as

revealed from figure 4.1.3 to 4.1.6 revealed that the iron oxide was effectively separated from

the quartz fraction. The quartz fraction was observed to have increased in count after the

jigging operation in the overflow.

As expected, from theoretical point of view, effective separation was possible because the

quotient of the difference in the specific gravity of iron oxide and quartz is greater than 2.5.

The concentration factor obtained which is greater than 2.5 as well as the grade of

concentration reported in table 4.1.3, 4.1.4, 4.1.5, 4.1.6, 4.1.7 and 4.1.8. It clearly shows that

the jigging operation effectively separated the iron oxide from the quartz (silica).

The highest recovery was observed to be from +0.3mm with the compositional ratio of 4.1.

The performance of the jig in terms of efficiency of separation was not encouraging. It is

40
believed that this is caused by the negligible mass of the particles. This is in accordance with

the submission of Wills (1989) in which he said, particles so small, that settles down in

accordance with stokes law are not suitable for concentration in a jig.

The lower recovery of iron oxide from particle size of +0.6mm with compositional ratio of

4:1 could be attributed to the size of the jig screens not letting them pass through. A coarser

particle will have a reduced chance of passing through the jig screen and thereby will report

to the overflow or tailings (Mohanty, 2002).

41
CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 CONCLUSION

The results of this fabricated jig study clearly reveal that the jig can separate heavy

mineral from light mineral. The rate of liberation of the iron oxide (ore) influences good

recovery as the best recovery was observed in size +0.3mm. This can also be seen as a

function of a good crushing campaign embarked upon on the course of communition of

the bulk sample as well as the various working component of the jig. It is also observed

that the recovery of iron oxide would be more effective if the iron oxide is effectively

milled to separate the quartz locked in the iron oxide. The results also substantiate the fact

that gravity concentration methods separate minerals of different specific gravity by their

relative movement in response to gravity and one more other forces water which resist the

motion.

Consequently, it can be stated here that it is essential that for effective separation a

marked density difference exists between the minerals and the gangue.

Consequently, it can be stated here that it is essential that for effective separation a

marked density difference exists between the mineral and the gangue.

42
5.2 RECOMMENDATION

1. We recommend that the machine should be kept intact for use

2. Improvement in the bedding screen and addition of pumps to pump water into the

tanks.

43