Chapter2 Supply Systems 17
CHAPTER generating stations by transmission lines. They feed a number of substations which are usually
2 situated at convenient points near the load centres. A substation distributes the power to
domestic, commercial and relatively small consumers. The consumers requiring larger blocks of
power are usually supplied at subtransmission or even transmission levels. A bulk power station
Supply Systems
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Large amount of power is generated the generating stations. The present trend is to install
bigger size of alternators to generate large amount of power to cater the required increasing
demand. The site of the power station depends upon the type of power station. The new thermal
stations are being constructed at pit heads (near the coal mines) because of the higher cost of
transportation of coal. Hydropower station sites are governed by the availability of water
resources. The nuclear plants are also situated remote from the centres of consumption due to
safety reasons. Thus, the difficulty of getting power station sites near the consuming centres
make it inevitable to transfer bulk of electrical energy through longer distances. Long-distance.
bulk power transfer is only possible by high voltage transmission systems. Extra high voltage
(EHV) and ultra high voltage (UHV) transmission systems have been developed in most of the
countries for transporting energy from remote power stations. By EHV is meant the voltage
above 220 kV. The voltages above 760 kV are called ultra high voltages (UHV).
2.2 BASIC STRUCTURE OF AN AC POWER SYSTEM
Electrical energy generated at generating stations is transported to remote load centres. Between
a generating station and a consumer we have transmission, sub transmission and distribution
levels of voltage. Since the long distance transmission at high voltages is cheap and, low voltages
are required for utility purposes, the voltage level goes on decreasing from the transmission
system to the distribution system. An electrical power system may be divided into three main
components, namely, the generating system, the transmission system, and the distribution system.
2.3
DISTRIBUTION VOLTAGE LEVEL
The component of an electrical power system connecting all the
bulk power sources is called a distribution system. Bulk powerconsumers
in an area to the
stations are connected to
16
or agenerating station usually supplies power to a subtransmission
system.
2.4 SUBTRANSMISSION LEVEL
system, It differs
The operation of a subtransmission system is similar to that of a distribution
from a distribution system in the following manner
1 A subtransmission system has a higher voltage level than a distribution system.
2. It supplies only bigger loads.
3. It supplies only few substations as compared to a distribution system which supplies a
number of loads.
2.5 TRANSMISSION LEVEL
Atransmission system is quite different from either a subtransmission or a distribution system.
It has a higher voltage level than a subtransmission system. It supplies only large blocks of in
power to bulk power stations or very big consumers. The third and the main consideration
which a transmission system differs from either a subtransmission or a distribution system is
that it interconnects the neighbouring generating stations into a power pool. Thus, a transmission
line performs two functions: First, the transport of energy from generating stations to bulk
receiving stations, and second, the interconnection of two or more generating stations. The
interconnection of two neighbouring subtransmission systems is also done by transmission lines.
2.6 LAYOUT OF A POWER SUPPLY NETWORK
Fig. 2.1 shows the layout of a typcal ac power supply network by a single-line iagram.
Electrical energy is generated by three-phase synchronous generators (alternators). The
generation voltages are usually 11 kV and 33 kV. This voltage is too low for transmission over
long distances. It is therefore, stepped upto 132, 220, 400 kV, or more by means of step-up
transformers. At that voltage, the electrical energy is transmitted to a bulk power substation
(receiving station) where energy is supplied from several power stations. The voltage at these
substations is stepped down to 66 kV in India and fed to the subtransmission system for onward
transmission to distribution sub-stations. These substations are located in the vicinity of the load
centres. The voltage is further stepped down to 33 kV and 11 kV. Large industrial consumers
are supplied at the primary distribution level of 33 kV while smaller industrial consumers are
supplied at 11 kV. The voltage is stepped down further by distribution transformers located in
residential and commercial areas, where it is supplied to these consumers at the secondary
distribution level of 400 V three phase and 230 V single phase.
It is to be noted that it is not necessary that every power system network should have all
the stages shown in Fig. 2.1. For example, in a particular network there may be no secondary
transmission. Similarly, for a smaller power network there is only distribution and no
transmission.
 18 Electrical Power Systems
Chapter 2
Supply Systems 19
2.7 SYSTEM INTERCONNECTION
28 SYSTEM VOLTAGE AND TRANSMISSION EFFICIENCY
Two or more generating stations are
interconnected by tie lines. Interconnection The system voltage very much affects the capital cost of a transmission line, The weight of
mm conductor material, the efficiency of the line, the voltage drop in the line and the system stability
of generating stations has the folowing depend upon the system voltage. The choice of voltage, therefore, becomes a major factor in
important advantages: Transmission Level the line design.
1. It enables the mutual transfer of (132,220,400 kV)
energy from surplus zone to deficit Considering a n-phase system of transmission, let
zone economically. Very large Tie Lines to P= power to be transmitted per phase in watts,
Consumers o other Grids V= voltage to neutral in volts,
2. Lesser overall installed capacity to m
meet the peak demand. l= current in each phase in amperes,
3. Lesser standby reserve generating |= length of the line in metres,
Subtransmission Level
capacity. (66 kV) A= cross-sectional area of each conductor in m.
4. The size of the biggest unit is not p= specific resistance of the conductor material in ohm-m.
related to the peak load of an Large R=resistance of each conductor in ohms,
individual system but it relates to the Consumers Large
he Consumers = current density in A/m. and
peak load of the interconnected
SyStem. Thus, fewer but cos () = power factor of the load.
largere
machines of greater efficiency are to
P=VIcos (p ;
P
A
be installed.
S. It permits the generation of energy
Medium
Consumers
Primary Distribution
(33,11 kV)
Medium
Consumers
Then,
|vcoSs
The resistance of each conductor is given by
a. aV cos

at the most efficient and cheapest Secondary Distribution Ipla Vcos (o

stations at every time. (400 V) R=p= P
6. It reduces the capital cost, operating
cost and cost of energy generated. (a) Power Loss
Small Consumers 2
7. Ifthere is a major breakdown of a (400/230 V) P 1
olaVcos() =aplP
generating system unit in an inter The power loss in the line per phase, pL= I'R = Vcos V
cos (p
W
Fig. 2.1. A power system network showing various
connected system there is no voltage levels. which shows that the power loss in the line is inversely proportional to both the system voltage
interruption of power supply. and the power factor.
Similarly, when a machine is taken (b) Voltage Drop in Resistance
out of service for its scheduled maintenance and inspection, the continuity of supply is
maintained. In other, words the planning of plant outages for maintenance and repair The voltage drop in resistance per phase =IR= Aap=apl
A
work is facilitated.
IR apl x
Thus, interconnection provides the best use of power resources and ensures greater security The percentage voltage drop in resistance in the line = x 100% = 100%
of supply. It enables overall economic generation by optimum use of high capacity economical
generating plants. Interconnection between networks is done either by HVAC links or HVDC The voltage drop in resistance per phase is, therefore, constant for a given value of current
links. density and the percentage voltage drop in resistance decreases with the increase in the system
An interconnected power system covering a major portion of a country's territory (or state) voltage.
iscalled agrid. The different grids may be interconnected through transmission lines (called tie (c) Weight of Conductor Material
lines) to form a regional grid. When the different regional grids are interconnected, they form Let o be the density of the material. The weight of conductor material required for each
a national grid. phase
Further details of interconnection are given in chapter 23. =Alo=
Plo
a Vcos
 20 Electrical Power Systems
This indicates that the weight of the conductor material required for the line will deere
with the increase in supply voltage and power factor.
(d) Transmission Eficiency
P
line output
The efficiency of transmissIOn, nT line output + line loss CplP
P+ 1+ apl
Vcos 9 V cos p
=1- api (approx.)
V
cos p Vcos
The above relation shows that the efficiency of transmission also increases with the increao
of supply voltage and power factor.
(e) One more reason for using higher voltages is the enhancement of system stability.
In the above discussion, for the effect of system voltages and power factor, P, I, p and g
are assumedto be constants. The corona and leakage losses are neglected.
2.9 WORKING VOLTAGE
The above considerations indicate the desirability of using high voltages if the power is to be
transmitted over a longer distance. It is also necessary that with the ac systems the load power
factor should be as near to unity as possible for maximum economy. It is to be noted that heavy
currents are more difficult to handle than high voltages. Considerable saving in the cost of the
conductor material is possible when the voltage is high. Although much economy can be effected
in the conductor material by employing extra high voltages, the cost of insulation of conductors,
whether overhead or underground, increases appreciably.By adopting high voltages the electrica
separation or clearances between the conductors is to be increased to avoid electrical discharge.
The problems of mechanical supporting structures and right-of-way acquisition become more
difficult and expensive.
The other problems encountered with high voltages are the insulation of the equipment,
corona, radio and television interference. The insulation costs of transformers, switchgear and
other terminal equipment increase tremendously. Corona, radio and television interference
become very serious at extra high voltages. Thus, higher the voltage the more costly is the line.
The voltage level of a system is, therefore, governed by the amount of power to be transmitted
and the length of the line.
2.10 CHOICE OF THE NEXT HIGH VOLTAGE
The choice of the highest system voltage for a country a matter of great significance. It is
not merely the economic considerations to choose the next higher voltage but the site of power
station, location and density of the load, and the technological developments of the times are
also to be kept in view.
The next voltage level should be chosen on the basis of future requirements of load also. To
determine the best system voltage the alternative plans should be compared by taking into
account the power development over a period of about ten years. The long-term forecast should
also include the development of power resources during that period.
The interval between the existing and the proposed level should not be too low as it will
Chapter 2
Supply Systems 21
have a short life. At the same time too large an
ofore desirable to adopt the skip-step interval would lead to
basis in which the next voltageheavy
chosenexpenses.
It is,
should be at
least two steps higher than the existing one.
It is very necessary that a limited number of future EHV
levels should be adonted and
ctandardized so as to achieve the advantages of standardization more effectívelv without
sacrificing the necessary flexibility of the existing systems and the proposed schemes
2.11 STANDARDZATION OF TRANSMISSION VOLTAGES
There much variation in transmission voltages in different countries. A country adopts a
voltage or asystem of voltage levels to suit its requirements of load. Where long distance
transmission is involved, the use of EHV becomes inevitable. Earlier, individual attempts were
made to fix voltage levels for high power transmission but such an adoption of individual voltage
levels resulted in waste of time. The designs due to their varied nature were costly. It was
realized to standardize the transmission voltages for the following reasons
(a) Standardization provides better facilities for research and development.
(b) The equipment can be manufactured economically with greater reliability.
(c) The maximum possible use of EHV for transmission and interconnection of EHV
systems can be made.
The standardization would, therefore, avoid independent attacks to tackle EHV problems in
different countries to find the optimum economic voltage and, thus, a lot of time is saved. By
standardizing the equipment, the higher voltage can be adopted for a reasonable period of time
before next change and, thus, the number of lines will also be lesser.
One of the difficulties encountered with in the standardization was to adopt the maximum
continuous voltage or the nominal voltage to fix up a standard of system voltage. Again, there
is a discrepancy in the matter of margin between these values in European and American
practices. In the former case, the maximum value is ten per cent higher than the nominal value,
while in the latter this difference is only five per cent. It was proposed to compensate the
nominal values in such a way as to have the same maximum value in both the systems in order
to avoid this margin. It was preferred to have the criterion of maximum value rather than the
nominal value for the standardization purpose.
Earlier, standardization was very successful upto a voltage level of 230 kV. This voltage was
the standard voltage used in many countries. Different opinions were put forward to standardize
the system voltage above 230 kV and the international standardization was not so successful.
The various voltages adopted by different countries above 230 kV are 275, 287, 345, 380, 400,
500, 735, 1100, 1200 kV, etc. The highest voltage used in India is 400 kV. The voltages above
765 kV are called ultra high voltages (UHV).
In India, a number of 400 KV lines are in operation since 1980. Even higher voltages of the
order of 800 KV are needed in future. It is expected that by the year 2012, 5400 circuit kilometres
of 800 kV and 48,000 circuit kilometres of 400 kV lines would be in operation.
2.12 CLASSIFICATION OF LINES
Lines may be classified either electrically or physically.
22 Electrical Power Systems
Chapter 2 Supply Systems 23
Electrical Classification

1. Direct Current (DC) Systems necessary to compare it in various systems from that point of view. A fixed maximum voltage
(a) DC 2-wire, 1-wire earthed. for the same insulation stress should always be specified to make such a comparison. With bare
conductor overhead lines and single-core cables, the maximum voltage to earth is taken as the
(b) DC l-wire, carth retum.
hasis of comparing the conductor costs. With multicore belted type cables, it is the maximum
(c) DC 2-wire, mid-point earthed. comparison.
voltage between the line conductors which forms the criterion of
(d) DC 3-wire. material required for a given system
Conductor efficacy is defined as the ratio of conductorearthed.
2. Altemating Current (AC) Systems 2-wire system with one wire
to that required for the dc,
(a) Single-phase, 2-wire, 1-wire earthed. material required for a given system to that
Let us now compare the volume of conductor earthed.
one wire
() Single-phase, 1-wire, earth returm. required for the dc. 2-wire system with
(c) Single-phase, 2-wire, mid-point earthed. Earth
(d) Single-phase, 3-wire. 2.13.1 Criterion of Equal Maximum Voltage to
cables. The following assumptions are
(e) Two-phase, 3-wire. This criterion is used for overhead lines and single-wire relative amount of conductor material
() Two-phase, 4-wire. made for all the systems to be compared regarding the
(g) Three-phase, 3-wire. required :
1. The same maximum voltage to
earth, V.
(h) Three-phase, 4-wire.
2. The same power P to be transmitted.
Allthese systems are used in practice. Every system has got its own field of application 3. The same route length l of the line.
The line economics varies with the individual system. Direct current 2-wire, mid-point earthed same IR losses for all the systems.
system is uscd for transmitting large amounts of power Qver Jong distances. 4. The same efficiency of transmission, that is, the
Corona and leakage losses are neglected.
Single-phase a.c. system is rarely used for transmission purposes. Three-phase 3-wire a.c 5. Balanced load so that there is no power loss in
the neutral conductor.
system finds its greatest use for transmission and primary distribution. For secondary distribution
work three-phase, 4-wire system is common. The industrial and other big loads are supplied by General Procedure
three-phase, 4-wire system. The domestic and other small load consumers are supplied with the direction of currents and
single-phase power obtained from the individual phases of a three-phase supply. 1. Draw the circuit diagram of the given system. Mark should be expressed in
polarities of voltages. In ac systems the voltages and currents
Physical Classification terms of their r.m.s. values.

The other criterion of classification of lines is their physical configuration. The lines may be 2. Calculate the IR loss in all the conductors of the system and denote it by pL.
loss in the d.c. 2-wire
overhead, underground or underwater. Again, overhead lines may either have bare conductors 3. Equate the I'R loss of the system under consideration to the IR
or insulated conductors. system which is taken as the reference system.
of the system.
Most of the high voltage and extra high voltage lines have bare conductors since these are 4. Determine the volume of conductor material used in all the conductors
volume of the
most economical. The conductors on overhead lines are sometimes insulated for safety or other 5. Determine the ratio of the volume of conductor found in step 4 to the
considerations. The insulated aerial cables although costlier than the bare conductors are far conductor used in dc, 2-wire system with one-wire earthed.
cheaper than the underground cables. They are used in densely populated urban areas at Let us consider the following cases :
relatively low voltages or for rural distribution work at medium voltages. Overhead lines and (a) Direct current 2-wire system with one wire earthed
underground systems have been compared in Chapter 4. The dc 2-wire system with one wire earthed is shown
For long river or sea crossing, it is not possible to erect overhead lines due to their longer in Fig. 2.2. Load
spans. In such cases the need of underwater cables becomes inevitable. Such cables are very Let I = line current
costly to manufacture and install.
R= resistance of each conductor
2.13 COMPARISON OF CONDUCTOR COSTS IN VARIOUS SYSTEMS A =area of cross-section of each conductor
Power transmitted, P= VI
The conductors in a line are insulated from each other and from the earth. The cost of insulation
varies with the system. Since the conductor cost forms the bulk of expenditure of the line, it is H
Fig. 2.2. Direct current 2-wire system
Line current I1 =P with one wire earthed.
24 Electrical Power Systems

Chapter 2 Supply Systems 25

Total R loss for both the conductors, PLI = 2/Ë RË = 2| R P
Line voltage = 2V; Line current, I3 =2V
Volume of conductor material used in both the conductors, vË = 2A,
(b) Diret current 2-wire system with mid-point earthed
The dc 2-wire system with mid-point earthed is I'Rloss in the system = R3
called dc 2-wire balanced system. Such a system is
shown in Fig. 2.3. Volume of conductor material required, v3 = 2LA3 + 0.5LA3 = 2.5A1.
(a) and (c)
In this system, For the same efficiency of transmission in cases
2V
line voltage = 2V Load PLI=PL3
P 2
line current, Ih =
2V Rs: Ri=Ry
If R: be the resistance per conductor, then the Fia. 2.3. Direct current
mid-point earthed. 2-wire system with A3
total r'R loss for both conductors is PPA; A1 4
V3 2.5A3 2.5
P :0.3125
PL2 =25R, =2\
=

R2 V 2LA1 2x4
cent of the material
Volume of conductor material used, VF=2lA2 Thus, the conductor material used with dc 3-wire system is 31.25 per
required for dc 2-wire system with one wire earthed.
Eguating the I'R loss for cases (a) and (b) for the same
efficiency of (d) Single-phase 2-wire system with one wire earthed
PLI =PL2
transmission, we get This system is shown in Fig. 2.5.
Since V is the maximum voltage to earth, the rms voltage to > Load

RË1 earth is V/N2. If I4 is the load current and cos o the power factor
R2; of the load
R2 4
V2 P
But R=P: K=P A P=l4 cos : l4=Vcos Q
Let Ra be the resistance of each conductor of cross section Fig. 2.5. Single-phase, 2-wire

R A, 4 21A1 A
V1
21A2A2_1 =0.25 A4.
system with one wire earthed.

2
Thus, the conductor material used with dc 2-wire mid V2 P
point earthed system is 25 per cent Line loss, PLA = 2lË R4 = 2| R4
of that required for dc 2-wire system with one wire Vcos
(c)
earthed.
Direct current three-wire system Volume of conductor material used, v4 = 2lA4
Direct current three-wire system is For the same efficiency of transmissions as in case (a)
shown in Fig. 2.4. In this system there
are three conductors namely, two Load PLI =PA

outers and one middle conductor. The Load V2 P R1 2

middle conductor is earthed at the
supply end. When the load is
2V
Load
-0N
2 R=2| Vcos
R4 ;
R4 cos
balanced, the current in the middle 3
But
R1 =
A4
(neutral) conductor is zero. Fig. 2.4. Direct current 3-wire
R4 A1
Let the system.
cross-sectionof any outer V4 21A4 2
conductor be A3 and that of the neutral wire be half that of
any outer, that is 0.5A3. VI 2LA1 cos
26 Electrical Power Systems
Supply Systems 27
Chapter 2
system
(e) Single-phase, 2-wire mid-point earthed
A single-phase, 2-wire mid-point earthed system is shown in Fig. 26 V2 P
P=3Vph ph cos (p =3 xls cos Í: I6 =3y cos
Maximum voltage between any conductor and earth = V
2y
Maximum voltage between two line conductors = R6
Line loss, PL6 =3/, R6 =3 3V cos
voltage between the line conductors =
Therefore, r.m.s. v6 =3LA6
Volume of conductor material used,
If Is be the line current, Rs the resistance of each conductor of cross-section As, transmissions as in case (a)
and cos o For the same efficiency of
load
the power factor of the PLI =PL6
P
2 R1 1 A6
P=(V2 V) I;cos ; 5=JT Vcos o R6 ;
3V cos p R6 3 cos A1
2

Line loss, pLs = 216 Rs 2cos

Rs v6 31A6 0.5
VI 21A1 cos
Volume of conductor material used, vs = 2lAs
Voltage between Line Conductors
For the same efficiency transmission as in case (a) 2.13.2 Criterion of Equal Maximum
two
basis of the same maximum voltage between
PLI=PLS We shall now compare the systems on the cables. Again, it shall be assumed
is important with multicore
line conductors. Such a criterion
p
2
R 0.5 A_ length and efficiency of transmission remain the
that the the amount of power transmitted, routelosses
RË =2 V2 Vcos Rs ; are neglected and the system is assumed to
=

Rs cos A1 same in all the systems. Corona and leakage conductor

be balanced so that there is no power loss in the neutral conductor. The ratio of
2-wire system with one-wire earthed
V5_ 2l45 0.5
material required in any system to that required for the dcgeneral procedure discussed in section
V1 21A1 cos is found in the following cases. We shall use the same
000 2.13.1.
(a) DC2-wire system
This system is shown in Fig. 2.8.
14

Let Vm= maximum voltage between the conductors Load

3 Vm
I= line current
000
Load
2V Load
000 R) = resistance of each conductor
Aj = area of cross-section of each conductor
Power transmitted, P= Vm l1
Fig. 2.8. Direct current, 2-wire
P
system.
Fig. 2.6. Single-phase, 2-wire mid Fig. 2.7. Three-phase, 3-wire star connected
point earthed system. system.
Line losses, PLI = 2/ R1
() Three-phase, 3-wire star-connected system
=2 R1 Load
This system is shown in Fig. 2.7. Vm
Maximum voltage to earth = V
Volume of conductor material used, VË =2lAË
Therefore, r.m.s. value of voltage per phase = V2 (b) Direct-current, 2-wire mid-point earthed system Fig. 2.9. Direct current, 2-wire
This system is shown in Fig. 2.9. Since this system isthe same mid-point earthed system.
If l6 is the rms phase current, Ro the resistance of each conductor of cross section A6, and as (a), the conductor material used is also the same.
cos the power factor of the load
28 Electrical Power Systems
Chapter 2
Supply Systerns 29
(c) Single-phase, 2-wire system
This system is shown in Fig. 2.10. V2 P R4
Maximum voltage between line conductors = Vm Vm
Effective (rms) line voltage = Vm/N2. R1 A V4 31A4 1.5
If ; is the r.m.s. line current, Ry the resistance of each conductor R4 cos o
A1 2LA| cos
of cross section Ay and cos the power factor of the load
(e) Three-phase, 4-wire system
A
Fig. 2.10.
V2 P wire system. Single-phase, 2. This system is shown Fig. 2.12. For a balanced load
P=h cos q, I5= Va cos (p this system the same as the three-phase,
additional neutral
3-wire system
wire. 009
N.
3
Load
except that there is an
wire is half that of
If the cross section of the neutral
Line loss, pL3 = 2/8R,=2V2p cos
R
any line conductor, the ratio of the amount of conductor
2-wire one wire
material required in this case and the d.c.,
Volume of conductor material used, v3 = 2A3 Fig. 2.12. Three-phase, 4-wire system.
earthed system is
For the same efficiency of transmission as in case (a), 3.5LA4 1.75
PLI =PL3 2LA1 cos
R=2/ V2p equal to that of any line conductor.
R In case the cross section of the neutral is taken to be
Vm cos the ratio becomes
2 A3 V3 2A3 2 4LA4 2
Ri 21A1 cos 2LA1 cos
R3 cos o Aj V)
various systems.
(d) Three-phase, 3-wire star-connected system Table 2.1 gives the comparison of conductor material in
Table 2.1 Conductor Efficacies
Three-phase, 3-wire, star-connected system is shown in Fig. 2.11.
Maximum line voltage = Vm Same maximum voltage Same maximum voltage
000 System between conductors
to earth
Effective (rms) line voltage = Vm/N2
1.0 1.0
If I is the r.m.s. line current, R4 the resistance of each 000
2
3 DC 2-wire, 1-wire earthed
Load DC2-wire, mid-point earthed 0.25 1.0
conductor of cross section A4 and cos the power factor 1.25
of the load DC 3-wire (neutral = ½ live) 0.3125
Single-phase, 2-wire 2/cos 2/cos
Vm cos
P=V3 Vi l cos p =V3 xl4 Single-phase, 2-wire, mid-point earthed0.5/cos? 2/cos
Fig. 2.11. Three-phase, 3-wire, star 2.5/cos* o
connected system. Single-phase, 2-wire (neutral = ½ live)0.625/cos
V2P Three-phase, 3-wire 0.5/cos Í 1.5/cos' (
l4=3 Vm cos 9 Three-phase, 4-wire (neutral = live) 0.667/cos 2/cos
2
V2 P
Line loss, pA =3/; R4 =33 Vm cos R4 From the Table 2.1, it is observed that on the basis of equal maximum voltage to earth the
dc 2-wire mid-point earthed system is the cheapest on the basis of conductor cost alone. The
Volume of conductor material used, va = 3LA4 conductor efficacies are the same in single-phase 2-wire and three-phase 3-wire systems. If cqual
maximum voltage between the conductors is made the basis of comparison, it is found that the
For the same efficiency of transmission as in case (a) de balanced 2-wire system is the cheapest again and in ac three-phase, 3-wire star-connected of
system is more economical than single-phase system. is also observed that the criterion
PLI=PLA
 30 Electrical Power Systems
Supply Systems 31
the overbead 1inas Chapter 2
cqual maximum voltage to earth is more economical and, therefore,
conductor
cheaper. R = resistance of each
/Example 2.1 In a de 2-wire system a feeder working on 250 V supplying a constant Joo A1 = conductor cross-section
the same power transmitted,
If the supply voltage is increased to 400 V with calculate
the =. Line loss = 27f RË=2Ri
percentage saving in conductor material. Line current I,
21A1
Solution Volume of conductor material required, vË =
Let l= length of each conductor in metres
(b)AC three phase, 4-wire system
a= curent density inA/m Effective (rms) voltage between line and
neutral = V.
P=power transmitted in watts If h=line current
(a) 250 Vsupply
P
cos ) = power factor
conductor
Line curent, /1 = R2 = resistance of each
A2 = area of cross-section of each phase conductor
P
Cross-sectional area of conductor required, Aj = =250
m2
.
P=3Vh cos ()
For lighting load, cos p = 1
2IP IP
Volume of conductor material required, vy = 2.A = 250 a 125 a m P

(b) 400 Vsupply p

PP Total line loss = 3/ R=3| 3V R2 =
3V
Line current I2 =Ve 400
For equal line loss in both the systems
Cross-sectional area of conductor required, A) = = 400 m' 2p2 p R2 RË_1
32' R 6
2IP IP
Volume of conductor material required, V=2lA) = 400 . m
200 a R1_A2 A2_ 1
But
IP IP 125 R2 TA A 6
=0.625 Volume of conductor material required, vz = 31A2 + 0.5LAZ = 3.51A2
V1 200 a 125 a 200
V23.5Az 3.5
=0.292
Percentage saving in conductor material, = 100sdalan V 21A1 2x6

= (1-0.625) x 100 =37.5 per cent. Example 2.3 A 50 km long transmission line supplies a load of 5 MVA at 0.8 power factor
lagging at 33 kV. The efficiency of transmission is 90 per cent. Calculate the volume of
Example 2.2 A three-phase 4-wire system is used for lighting. Compare the amount of conductor aluminium required for the line when
conductor material required with that needed for a 2-wire dc system with same lamp voltage. (a) single-phase, 2-wire system is used.
Assume the same losses and balanced load. The neutral wire has half the cross-section of the
outers. (b) three-phase, 3-wire system is used.
Solution Take the resistivity of aluminium as 2.85 x 10 Q-m.
(a) DC 2-wire system Solution
Let V= voltage between conductors Power transmitted= MVAcos (p =5 >x 0.8MW =4x 10o w
P= power delivered Efficiency of transmission = 90 per cent.
l= line current
line loss, pL, = 10 per cent of power transmitted = 10
100 X4 x 10° =4 x L0 w
 Systems Supply Systerns 33
32 Electioal Power Chapter 2

() Singlephase stem (b) Three-phase system

MVA VIx10 Power transmitted, P3 = V3 VI3 cos
I=151.5 A
Sm 33 x 1o'x/x 10; Line loss = 3/3 R
cross-section of cach conductor. 31 R
Let A be the area of Percentage line loSS = J3 VIa cos
x 100
2p
Line loss, pL= 2 R= For the percentage line losses to be the same in
both the systems, we have

2rpl_ 2x (1S1.5)' x2.85 x 10x50 x10 = l.635 >x 104 m2 2R 3ßR x 100
Aj 4x 10 x 100 =
VIj cos V3 VI3 cos a
PL 162s-a
required, vË =21A|=2x50 x 10°x 1.635 ×104=
Volume of conductor which gives
(b) Three-phase 3-wire ac system
MVA = V3 V,ILx 10
Py= 3vhcos( =2VlË cos p
S= v3 x33 x 10° x/L x 10
Sx 100 Additional load transmitted = P3-P1 =2VI1cos - VIj cos 9= VI cos (
Line current, I = = 87.5 A.
V3 x33 X1
A2.
Percentage additional load = P3-P1
P
100 =VIjVI coscos 9 x 100 = 100
Let the area of cach phase conductor be
Thus, 100 per cent additional load can be transmitted by converting single-phase line to
Total line loss, pL = 3/ R, = 31L pA2 three-phase line.
Example 2.5 A given amount of power is to be transmitted by an overhead line. Compar the
A2 =
3/ipl_3 x (87.5) x 2.85x 10x50 x10 =0.818 x 10 m2 diameter and weight of aluminium conductor with those of copper for the same power loss in
PL 4x 10 the line. The following data may be assumed
0.818 x 10 = 12.27 m3
Volume of aluminium required, v2 =3IA) =3 x50 x10° x Specific resistance of aluminium = 2.85 us2-cm
two overhead conductors is Specific resistance of copper = 1.70 ps-cm
Example 2.4 An existing single phase a.c. system comprising of additional
to be converted into a three-phase, 3-wire system by providing an
similar conductor Specific gravity of aluminium = 2.71
transmitted by the three-phase system if
Calculate the percentage of additional load that can beremain Specific gravity of copper = 8.89
the same in both the systems.
the operating line voltage and percentage line losses Solution
Solution For the same power loss in the line, the resistances of aluminium and copper will be the same.
Let I= single-phase current If the symbols have their usual meanings and the suffixes a and c be used for aluminium and
copper
h= three-phase current
R=resistance of each conductor Ra= Re ;
PaA Aa_Pa
A
cos ( = power factor in both the system
(a) Single-phase system 2.85 x 1o-6
Power transmitted, PË= Vl cos p
1.70x 10
Line loss = 2/f R
21 R X 100
Percentage line loss =
VIË cos
 Systems Supply Systerns 35
34 Electrical Power Chapter 2

factor lagging is to be transmitted over a 220

da = 1.293 7. Electric power of 50 MW at 0.85 power The efficiency of transmission is 0.9.
d kV, three-phase 3-wire 200 km transmission line.
required for the line in the following
Calculate the weight of conductor material
aluminiumconductor, and
where de= diameter of conductors :
conductor aluminium conductors.
de = diameter of copper (a) copper conductors, (b)
gravity,
If o denotes the specific Resistivity of copper = 1.70x 10 2-m
weight of aluminium Oa Açl 2.71.2.85 =0.51 -m
Oc Agl 8.89^1.70 Resistivity of aluminium = 2.85 x 10
weight of copper
This relation shows that the weight of an aluminium conductor is 51.1 per cent of the copper Specific gravity of copper=8.89
2.71.
Specific gravity of aluminium =
conductor of equal resistance.

ANSWERS
EXERCISES

1. (a) 0.0833 m, 12.75 kW (b) 0.0521 m',

7.96 kW
V1. A2-wire dc transmission line, 0.25 km long supplies a power of 125 kW to a distributios 2, 15 : 14
copper required for the line when
network. Calculate the volume of conductor distributors is (a) 250 V and (h 3. 2/cos?
the
potential difference (pd) maintained betweencase being 3A/mm. Calculate also in e 4. a : b:c =1:2: 1.5
V, the current density in the copper in each
resistivity of copper as 1.7 x 10 Q-m 5. 50%%
case the power loss in the line, taking the
required for a distribution network on the d 6. 144.9%
2. Compare the relative weights of copper in both cases the same voltace 7. (a) 259339 kg (b) 132535 kg
3-wire, and three-phase 4-wire systems. Assume
consumers' terminals, the same copper losses, that the loads are balanced, and unity
Neglect the losses in theneutrals.
power factor in the three-phase case.
two-phase 4-wire, and 2-wire de
3. Calculate the ratio of the weights of copper used in maximum voltage between
systems. Assume the same power transmitted, the same
conductors and the same power loss. Take the power factor in ac system as cos o.
transmission system utilizing
4. Compare the weights of copper required in a cable Assume the same
(a)constant direct current, (b) single-phase (c) three-phase 3-wires.
transmitted power and maximum voltage between conductors, and the same percentage
balanced load.
loss in each case. Assume also unity power factor and
5. A 3-wire de system is be converted to a three-phase 4-wire ac system by addition of
another conductor equal in section to one of the outers. If the percentage copper loss
and the voltage at the consumer terminals are to be remain the same in the two cases,
calculate the additional percentage load that can be supplied by the ac system. Assume
the balanced load in the two cases and unity power factor in the case of ac system.
6. A single-phase load is transmitted by a pair of overhead conductors carried on similar
insulators but with one line operated at earth potential. A third conductor of the same
cro[s-section is added and a three-phase supply connected instead of the single-phas
one. Calculate the percentage increase in power transmitted for the same loss. The
voltage to earth for cach conductor is to be the same as the voltage between lines in
the single-phase case. Assume constant power factor.