00:00

continue our coverage of Shun Compensators in this lecture. In the last lecture, we looked at

00:12

shunt capacitive compensator application for the specific objective of maintaining a bus voltage at a
constant level or as per some regulation rule. In this lecture we look at another.

00:33

application of shunt capacitive compensation. Here the benefit we want to derive is increased power
transfer capability of a long transmission line. And we do that by erecting a substation right in the middle
of the transmission line.

00:56

and installing a shunt capacitive compensator unit there. Of course when you have a substation right in
the middle, it is quite possible that after making the substation you might also deliver some local load.

01:14

but we don't consider the local load in our analysis, that is to keep the equation simple. So the problem
is we have a long transmission line. I will explain the context. The context is I have a generating station
which is remotely located with respect to rest of the power system. This usually happens in hydroelectric
systems.

01:40

The Hydel station may be located where water is available and that may be far off from the load centers.
So the generating station which is located hundreds of kilometers away from the load center is
evacuating the power generated through a long transmission line into rest of the network which rest of
the network is modeled as an infinite bus.

02:06
So a generating station or generators are usually voltage regulated. Generators are modeled in load flow
studies as PV bus. At a PV bus you will specify the P value which will be the value given to the generator
operating control by the load dispatching center or SCADA center. So P is fixed, active power delivered is
fixed and the terminal voltage magnitude is fixed.

02:36

The moment you fix that, it goes without saying that there is a control system to see that it is kept at that
voltage value. So there is an excitation control system which looks at the terminal voltage and whenever
it deviates or it shows a tendency to deviate from the specified value, the excitation control system will
suitably change the field current and always maintain the terminal voltage at a constant specified value.

03:02

Therefore, this is the reason why we represent generators by ideal sources in this kind of studies. A
generator, synchronous generator is not really an ideal source. In fact, it has a huge synchronous
reactance in series with the internal EMF.

03:19

So we cannot really represent that generating station by an ideal voltage source as I have done here. But
what I am doing here is it is a controlled generating station or controlled source. The source internal
voltage of the source is so controlled that its terminal voltage is always appearing to be a constant. That
means its terminal is going to behave like an ideal voltage source. This is why.

03:45

generating station or synchronous generator with excitation control and with the excitation control
working below the ceiling level, below the limiting level can be modeled as an ideal voltage source. So
here we model the source, the ideal voltage source of 1 pu value and the infinite bus is also modeled as
1 pu value.

04:08

It is customary to assign angle 0 to infinite bus in this kind of derivations. But then there is no rule like
that. Here we have chosen to assign delta by 2 and minus delta by 2 respectively. We could have taken
angle delta for the generator and 0 for the infinite bus.
04:29

or we could have taken angle 0 for the generator and minus delta for infinite bus all those will result in
the same equations however derivation of equation understanding in terms of phase of diagrams
convenience in drawing phase of diagrams etc will dictate this kind of a symmetric arrangement of angle
other than that it doesn't matter you can put the angles anyway you want except the fact that there
should be a total difference of delta between the two buses

04:59

convenience in drawing phase two diagrams and convenience in doing the derivation to simplify the
trigonometry. That's all. Otherwise it doesn't matter as far as the performance is concerned. The
particular scheme of angle allocation doesn't matter. But with this angle allocation, it becomes
immediately clear to us that the middle point of the transmission line, which I have identified here, is
going to be at Siddharva angle.

05:30

that is a symmetry. So the angle there will be zero, but its magnitude will be different. So we write it as
Vm, middle point voltage. And the line total reactance is x. We are dropping the shunt susceptance, etc.
Actually, shunt susceptance will be there for a long transmission line, but that will complicate the
derivation too much and we just want to catch them.

05:54

basic essentials of the behavior of the line. So we are suppressing the shunt susceptance and neglecting
it. So the long line is represented by a single dominant element of reactance, which is sectionalized into
two in order to identify the midpoint. The generator has to evacuate the power generated at the
generating station into the infinite bus. That is the transition problem.

06:20

Now, how much power can you evacuate from the generating station to the infinite bus? The answer
depends upon two limiting factors coming from the side of the transmission line. In other words, a
transmission line has something called power transfer capability or loadability. How much can it carry?
That answer to that question is decided by two factors. The first factor is the obvious factor of heating.
06:50

any conductor has a thermal limit. Thermal limit of the conductor is established by its resistance and its
surface temperature that you can permit. 70 degree surface temperature is usually permitted for
transmission line conductors when they are working at full load. So the resistance of the conductor at
full load and 70 degree into square of the RMS value of current flowing through that.

07:18

that will be the power dissipation in the line. That power dissipation raises the temperature to 70
degree. There is one such current value. That is the thermal rating of the line. So with that current value,
you may multiply it by the system voltage and convert it into MVA. So you have an MVA rating for the
line. That is thermally limited. This value is not actually a constant. That is because, okay.

07:47

it is basically heating and upper limit on temperature is 70 degree. So, how much can you heat that will
depend upon what is ambient temperature. If you are heating it from minus 10 degree you will have 80
degree clearance. So, you can pass a large amount of current, but if you are heating it from 40 degree
and then going to 70 degree you have only 30 degree margin. So, the rating thermal rating of a line
depends upon the ambient condition.

08:12

So you will have a certain thermal loadability for the line during winter and certain other lower thermal
rating during summer. So there will be seasonal variation on the thermal loadability limit. Anyway, there
is a thermal loadability limit or thermal limit of the line. For short lines, this thermal limit will usually
dictate how much power you can transmit through the line. There is only thermal limit.

08:42

The other limit I am going to talk about now is not very relevant for short lines. Thermal limit will be the
lower of the two limits. Now what is the second limit? The second limit is transient stability limit.

08:59
transient stability limit. Does it mean that

09:06

you can load that, okay, what is transient stability? Transient stability is basically an electromechanical
movement stability problem. Okay. We know that all the synchronous machines are running at same
electrical angular velocity in a synchronized system. Therefore, an observer sitting in the field structure
of one synchronous machine.

09:32

will say that the field structures of all other synchronous machines in this power system are stationary
with respect to me, they are not moving. This statement is correct for steady state operation because all
the rotors are moving at same electrical angular velocity. So the observer sitting in the rotor of a
synchronous generator at a particular station will say that

09:57

I don't know whether I am moving or not, but I know that all the other machine rotors are not moving
with respect to me. They are stationary with respect to me. However, the axis of the field of those
machines, that is if I pass a line through the center of the field structure of all synchronous machines,
including mine, I see that...

10:20

my synchronous machine field axis doesn't coincide with the field axis of the other synchronous
machines. And for that matter, the field axis of no two synchronous machines will coincide. They are all
dispersed. So all synchronous machine rotors are stationary with respect to me when I am sitting on a
rotor of a particular machine. But then...

10:47

the axis of the rotor or axis of the field. My axis doesn't coincide with others axis. So there is a fixed
angle of separation between any two axis. So maintaining a constant separation, the other machine rotor
is stationary with respect to me. Similarly, the third machine rotor is maintaining a certain angle with
respect to my axis and then remaining stationary. This way there is an angle spread.
11:18

This angle spread is needed for torque development and power generation and power transmission.

11:26

Now consider a two machine system as in the present case. There is only one angle now. Let me say the
observer is locating himself in the field structure of this synchronous machine. And in this idealized
synchronous machine there is another rotor. So this observer says that my rotor

11:50

axis is at an angle delta with respect to this rotor axis though that rotor axis is not moving with respect to
mid stationary Okay, so we have a constant angle difference between our rotors at angle of Delta Okay,
this angle Delta

12:12

is usually, it is not exactly same as the line operating angle. Okay. Though I gave you an impression that
the rotor, the man sitting on the rotor of this machine will see an angle delta between his axis and the
axis of this machine, that statement is not correct because behind this bus there is a synchronous
reactance and then internal induced EMF. So the angle the observer sitting on the rotor of this machine
will perceive.

12:41

as the angle between his rotor and this rotor is not exactly delta, it is actually more than delta because of
the intervening synchronous reactances. But the point is that it is related to delta, where delta is the line
operating angle.

12:55

So when the line operating angle increases, the angular separation between the rotors of the machines
also will increase. They are related. So higher the angular separation here, I mean line operating angle
delta, higher the value of delta, higher will be the value of angular separation between the rotor axis of
this machine and the rotor axis of this machine. When the rotor axis of two machines are... Okay.
13:24

aligned together, that is when they have maximum synchronization force available between them. That
is when one rotor tries to slip with respect to the other rotor. The mechanism which is grabbing the
slipping rotor and bringing it into synchronism, that is synchronizing force. That synchronizing force is a
maximum when the rotors are aligned together.

13:50

I mean the field structures are in the same direction, there is no angle between them. As angle appears
between the field structures, the synchronizing force decreases. In fact, synchronizing force is the
derivative of power angle curve. You know that power angle curve is usually something into sine delta.
And the sine delta function has maximum slope at zero crossing and minimum slope at the 90 degree
position.

14:20

Therefore, synchronizing force which is related to slope of power angle curve is maximum when delta is
zero. That means when the rotors are aligned. So when the rotors are not aligned, synchronizing force
goes down. But then when the rotors are aligned, no power transfer can take place. Torque cannot be
produced. So for torque production, rotor misalignment is necessary. So the angle has to be there for
torque production.

14:50

but the moment angle is there synchronizing force suffers it comes down a little bit. And finally when the
angle between two rotors is 90 degree there is no synchronizing force whatsoever therefore any small
change anywhere in the system will throw the system into instability. Well you cannot risk it that is why
you cannot operate two synchronous machines with 90 degree between them.

15:15

Though theoretically the maximum power is obtained that delta is equal to 90, you can never practically
take that much of power from a two machine system. Because if you take that much of power, any small
milliwatt change in the power flow due to some small load change or something will make the system
unstable.
15:40

Next point is even if you are not working with 90 degree for example say you are working with delta of
30 degree or so only. You think you have a clearance between 90 degree position and 30 degree position
there is 60 degree so I am well and safe. No you are not. What happens is suppose some large signal
event happens in the power system. For example in this system suppose the midpoint goes to ground
because of a three phase fault.

16:10

Well, if it goes to ground because of a three-phase fault and then nothing is done about the fault, then
that is it. Generators will trip because of short-circuit current and all that. But suppose this fault is
cleared by breaking the circuit or opening a breaker. Okay. Maybe the three-phase fault is such that
there is a breaker between the faulted portion and the midpoint and you can open the circuit breaker to
clear the fault.

16:42

Okay, so the three phase fault comes here and that is isolated after some time. We want to know
whether the system will come back to steady operating condition after this heavy disturbance or large
transient. What happens when the midpoint is shorted? When the midpoint is shorted, neither the
synchronous generator on the left nor the infinite bus on the right.

17:11

can transmit power because there is a short circuit there is a zero voltage so power transferred electrical
power transferred immediately goes to zero now this system this synchronous generator was
transferring some amount of power before that it was transferring that amount of power only because
that much of mechanical power was being pumped into the generator

17:37

Now this mechanical power will continue to be pumped into the generator that is because the governor
systems are very slow. Therefore immediately after the fault they will not reduce the mechanical power
to negligible level. So mechanical power will continue but the electrical power is now absent. So the
entire mechanical power will go towards accelerating the synchronous generator here. Of course this
infinite bus was receiving some amount of power before now it is disappearing.
18:07

and there will be repercussions of that in the system but then we are modeling the system as an infinite
bus so it doesn't react. So only our synchronous generator reacts. So the rotor of infinite bus theoretical
machine doesn't change its position but the rotor of our finite machine here accelerates. That means
angular separation between the two

18:33

After some time, the left side machine has accelerated, its rotor has achieved higher angular separation
than the earlier delta. It is at a different location with respect to the rotor of this machine now. And now
you clear the fault. Let's assume that immediately after clearing the fault, the power will flow as before. I
mean, we are neglecting the electrical transients. So...

19:02

power will be resumed immediately. Once the electrical power is resumed, the machine has to
decelerate. So there is initially acceleration and then the machine has to decelerate and finally it has to
settle to the old delta.

19:22

This is possible only if the de-acceleration, possible amount of de-acceleration is just enough to clear the
acceleration that has already taken place. You are familiar with equal, I am assuming that you know
these things from your beta course. I am referring to equal area criterion. So by applying equal area
criterion, you will be able to discover whether the machine will escape stability, instability and it will
settle down. Will it settle down?

19:51

This is the transient stability question. So the question is this. When this machine is delivering a certain
given amount of power, if this contingency happens, which contingency? If the midpoint of the line goes
shorted, and if it is cleared in, let us say, 0.08 millisecond. So there are three aspects. First aspect is how
much is the power you're talking about.
20:21

the left side generator is delivering a certain stated amount of power and while it is delivering that
second aspect a particular event takes place we call it contingency in power system a particular
contingency happens and that particular contingency is midpoint goes to ground three phase shot now
the third aspect and this fault is cleared after so many seconds you mention a clearing time

20:50

How do you know the clearing time? You know the clearing time the moment you know the circuit
breaker. Because different circuit breaker designs have different clearing time and that is known. So if
you know the circuit breaker and its details, you know the clearing time. So that's the third aspect. So if a
certain given amount of power is being transmitted and while it is being transmitted, a certain stated
contingency happens and then that contingency is rectified.

21:18

in a certain given amount of time. Now comes the question, will the system come back to stable
operation?

21:28

Will the system come back to stable operation? This question can be formulated in another way too.

21:39

You can put it this way. If I am transmitting such and such amount of power, and if this thing happens, a
particular event happens, and if I am able to clear it in a particular amount of time,

21:56

What is the stability margin I have? What do I mean by that? What is stability margin? The answer is,
how much additional power can I transmit over and above what I am transmitting now, such that under
this contingency and under this clearing time, system will remain stable. So in the first question, I am
asking whether the system will remain stable. Second question, I am asking for more.
22:26

If the system will remain stable, how much additional load I can afford to give, so that the system will
retain stability. So, first question is answered by an yes or no. Second question is answered by a number.
For example, say this generator is delivering 100 megawatt and say delta is 15 degree and while that is
happening.

22:54

How much additional load I can put on the generator? How much additional megawatt I can transmit
without losing stability? That question presupposes that you will not lose stability at 100 megawatt. So
first you'll have to check whether at 100 megawatt your system will remain stable for this particular
eventuality. I mean midpoint going to ground and getting cleared in 80 milliseconds. So if it is going to be
stable, now you raise the power.

23:23

and see how much you can raise before the system becomes unstable on this eventuality. Suppose that
number is 132 that means when you are at 100 megawatt you can safely put another 32 megawatt on
the generator without risking instability. So that 32 is the stability margin. That's a margin while you are
at 100 megawatt. Okay. So this kind of margin is important.

23:51

So while the system is running under normal loaded condition, you would always like to know how much
additional power I can transmit through this line.

24:01

in case I have to do it because of some bad thing happening somewhere else in the system. Maybe I lost
a line somewhere else. That line was carrying a certain amount of power. Now this line has to carry that
power to some location. So I will be required to put overload or load it more. So I should know the
answer to the question whether I can load it more even before I would I would have I would be forced to
decide before I am going to be forced to decide.

24:31
So this kind of contingency analysis is a routine analysis that is carried out at the LDC, Lord Rishabh
Centre. So two questions. Given a particular operating condition and given a particular bad event and
given a particular time for clearing the bad event, the question is will the system come back to stable
operation? Second question is if it comes back to stable operation?

25:00

how much additional load on the machine I can afford to put before it starts misbehaving for the same
eventuality and for the same clearing mechanism. These are questions that come up in large signal
transient stability limits. By large signal event I mean a three base fault, a serious fault somewhere in the
system,

25:28

A major load being switched on, a major load being switched off. By major I mean the amount of load is
something like more than 5% of the entire system capacity. Then I will call it a major load. These are
large signal events or large transient events. After a large transient event, you would like to know
whether the system will come back to stable operation. Secondly, if it comes back to stable operation,

25:58

We would like to know how much additional loads I can put in various locations before such an
eventuality will result in instability. These are the issues in transient stability.

26:11

And therefore...

26:15

Wider the angle delta for a given amount of power lesser the stability margin Okay, if you are familiar
with equal area criterion, you will understand that and Why should the angle delta be large for small
power flow because X is large? So angle delta is decided by the power angle curve and the power you
want to transmit For a given amount of power delta will be less

26:42
if the power angle curve has large amplitude you know that power angle curve is V1, V2, X by sine delta
V1, V2 by X sine delta so if X is small power angle curve will have a large height and then delta will be
small. If delta is small you have lot of clearance you have good stability margin qualitatively that is what
you have to understand lower the delta better the margin stability margin

27:12

So for any given line, there is a maximum power you can transmit in the line from thermal point of view.
For any given line, there is a maximum power you can transmit through the line, so that it will retain
stability under a certain set of events. Of course, you will have to do this analysis for different events,
and then identify the lowest power from the answers.

27:41

and that will be the transient stability limit. For a short line, thermal limit will be the lower of the two.
For a long line, transient stability will be, transient stability limit will be the lower of the two. So line has
thermal capacity but you are not able to load it because if you load it to that level, you are risking
instability.

28:09

some bad thing happening somewhere in the power system, or a set of bad things happening in the
power system.

28:19

So you analyze the line or you analyze the machine stability for a given set of conditions. You can never
exhaust the set of conditions because you can never predict what all things can happen in a power
system. But the most common things that happen in a power system can be predicted like three-phase
fault here, three-phase fault there, three-phase fault simultaneously occurring in one substation and
another substation at the same time. A generator...

28:49

a transmission line tripping because of overload and then going open etc. Such a set of events you can
analyze. Based on such an analysis you will arrive at a minimum figure or lowest figure. That is the limit.
That is the power limit. This limit is usually very small compared to the thermal limit of the line in the
case of long lines. This is the problem. Okay. It's not length of the line that matters.

29:18

It is the inductance because of the length that matters. It is x that matters. Let's see what we can do
about it in the case of this line. Now, we review the power flow equations in a transmission line with
reactance only. The left side power is v1, v2 by x and delta. Right side power is also same because we are
not including resistance. The power lost in the line is 0.

29:47

These equations are reproduced from lecture 1. The sending end bus is injecting positive reactive power
given by this number, V1 into V1 minus V2 cos delta by x. Q2, the power received at the receiving end, is
this equation. The difference is the power absorbed, reactive power absorbed by the line reactance is
given by this equation. Now to simplify the problem, we are taking V1 V2 is equal to one pu, and
therefore,

30:16

the power flow, active power flow is 1 by x and delta, because the angle difference between this bus and
this bus is delta. So it's 1 by x and delta, P u, all quantities in per unit. And Q 1 is 1 minus cos delta by x,
which can be written as 2 sin squared delta by 2 by x. Q 2 is cos delta minus 1 by x, and that is minus 2
sin squared delta by 2 by x.

30:44

and Q1 minus Q2 is what is absorbed by the line reactants that is 4 sin square delta by 2 by x.

30:55

Now I comment on power decoupled power, decoupling principle of power. I have been harping on it
quite frequently. Of course it is important but you must also understand when it can be applied and
when it cannot be. For example based on power decoupling principle some of you might argue you are
telling us that this voltage is one, this voltage is also one, there is no voltage difference so

31:23
there cannot be any reactive power because voltage magnitude difference is the one which is
responsible for reactive power.

31:32

Well, my answer to that is, that is correct, provided you put the condition on that, the condition that
delta is small. Because in the reactive power equation there are cos deltas. You are taking cos deltas as 1.
That is permitted only for delta in the range, let's say, plus minus 15 degree. If in any analysis or in any
practical context delta is going above that, then you should be careful in applying the power decoupling
principle.

32:00

here we are going to analyze that power angle curve power angle curve is drawn for 0 to pi delta will
vary from 0 to 180 degree and then you want to know how the power varies you want to get the curve
so that you can go for equal area criterion and decide transient stability limits etc and therefore when
delta is going to vary over that wide range in our analysis at least we should use the accurate expressions
not

32:30

the power decoupling principle expressions. So even when the magnitudes of the voltages are equal,
there can be reactive power flow when there is a non-zero Delta. That's what this equation tells us. If
Delta is close to zero, okay, this is going to be zero, this is going to be zero. But Delta, if it is not close to
zero, then Q1 and Q2 are there. That's the first comment. Second comment, okay, Q1 and Q2 are there.
Okay?

33:00

But why are they? One is positive, the other is negative. Which means that from here, this line or this
bus is injecting positive reactive power. But this bus is getting only negative reactive power. This bus is
getting leading reactive power. This bus is getting leading reactive power is equivalent to saying that this
bus is delivering lagging reactive power. So it looks like...

33:27

both buses are delivering lagging reactive powers of equal magnitude. Where is it going? Well, it is going
to the inductances. The inductance, the Jx2 and Jx by 2 are consuming reactive power. So it looks as if
whatever is delivered from the left side is consumed by the first half of the line and whatever is delivered
from the right side is being consumed by the second half of the line. You may verify that by

33:57

looking at the midpoint voltage and midpoint current and then calculating what is the reactive power
crossing the midpoint. It's going to be zero. So what is delivered from here is absorbed by this section
and what is delivered in the opposite direction here is also absorbed by this section and middle point is
not going to pass on any reactive power. Let's verify that. For that we need the phasor diagram. Okay.
The phasor diagram, one angle delta by two.

34:26

and 1 angle minus delta by 2. The voltage across the impedance Jx is nothing but left side voltage minus
right side voltage. So 1 delta by 2 minus 1 angle minus delta by 2. By parallelogram law and all, you can
show that it is this vector. How do you show that? You reverse this because you want to subtract, right?
So you reverse it and then complete the parallelogram. So you reverse it, complete the parallelogram,
you will get this vector.

34:55

That's a subtraction vector. And then remembering that 1 delta by 2 is nothing but cos delta by 2 plus j
sine delta by 2. And 1 angle minus delta by 2 is cos delta by 2 minus j sine delta by 2. So you subtract,
you will see that it is 2j sine delta by 2. And we are happy about that because we see that this is j.
Direction is j. This is the zero degree direction. Right.

35:24

So the value of that voltage is 2JsinΔ by 2. This voltage is absorbed by the impedance Jx. You divide by Jx,
then you will get 2sinΔ by 2. What is the angle? 0. 2JsinΔ by 2 divided by Jx is a real number. So the
current is along the 0 direction. But the current is not in phase with the sending end voltage.

35:52

current is not in phase with the receiving end voltage. Current is lagging the sending end voltage,
therefore sending end is sending positive reactive power or lagging reactive power. Current is leading
with respect to the receiving end, therefore, the receiving end is receiving negative reactive power or
leading reactive power. Equivalently, the receiving end is delivering into the line, lagging reactive power.

36:23

Okay.

36:26

So current is in the symmetry line between these two voltages. Okay, now where is the center point
voltage? Center point voltage is obviously along this direction. Why obviously? Because, okay, this is the
current. Multiply by Jx by two. That means you'll rotate it back here. That's a drop here. So subtract from
one angle delta by two.

36:55

the drop of this portion of inductance. What is the drop? Jx by 2 into this number. Right? Jx by 2 into this
number. You will see that if you subtract it, you will exactly come to this line. So Vm will have angle 0 as
expected. Vm will be in the center line and the value of Vm will be cos delta by 2. So the midpoint
voltage will be cos delta by 2.

37:24

Cos delta by 2 is the magnitude, angle is zero. That's a midpoint voltage. Notice that the midpoint
voltage phasor and the current phasor in the line are collinear. Therefore, the current is in phase with
the midpoint voltage. Therefore, the midpoint does not carry any reactive power. No reactive power is
crossing the midpoint.

37:54

only active power is crossing the midpoint. And therefore the reactive power delivered from here is
absorbed by this and the reactive power delivered this way from here is absorbed by this. Okay, these
are the observations given by the equations or results.

38:14
The midpoint voltage is cos delta by 2. It is less than unity. So there's a voltage drop in the midpoint.
What about the other points? That takes us to the next graph. The voltage distribution along the length
of the line. So here the variable x is, you are starting from here and you're measuring the voltage along
the line. x is that variable. L is the length of the line. So voltage falls from 1 to cos delta by 2.

38:43

and then it rises to 1.

38:49

That means the voltage here is less than unity, but the voltage here is unity. On the other side of the
inductance, voltage is higher. On the right side of the inductance, voltage is higher than on the left side.
How can that happen? Unless the current has a leading component.

39:09

That is why the reactive current in this portion of the line is leading. That is why the voltage could go up.
So voltage first falls because of lagging reactive current flow and then it rises because of leading reactive
current flow.

39:29

and then it is strung between two unity values. So it's a symmetric curve. So as you travel along the line,
first the voltage decreases, second, in the second half, the RMS value of voltage increases and finally
goes to one. This is the voltage profile in the line.

39:49

Now the power angle curve is 1 by x sin delta as already explained and let us say the mechanical power

40:01

is denoted by the line here. So this much of mechanical power is given to the generator and assuming
generator is loss free that much of electrical power will be outputted and this is the operating delta. This
is the point at which the machine is working synchronously steadily. Let us assume that under that
condition three phase short circuit comes on the machine in the middle of the machine sorry middle of
the line. So the machine left side machine cannot transmit any power.

40:31

Therefore the entire mechanical power becomes accelerating power. Under that acceleration the angle
increases from delta to delta c. When the angle reaches delta c your circuit breaker opens and clears
fault. So once more the power angle curve comes back to the blow curve. But at that point it is at delta c.
Therefore this is the electrical power evacuated. Electrical power evacuated is more than the mechanical
power given.

41:00

Therefore there is deceleration. As long as you are on this side of the curve, you are on deceleration.
Now the Equilibria criterion says that the machine will be stable and it will come back to this equilibrium
point after some time provided the area A2 is more than the area A1. If area A2 is equal to area A1, then
this angle is the critical clearing angle. So you can allow the machine to go up to that angle.

41:29

If you allow the machine to go to an angle more than that, that is it. You cannot save the machine. Okay.
So you should clear the fault by the time the machine reaches an angle delta C or an angle less than that.
If the angle is less than that, then you definitely have more acceleration area than the acceleration area.
So what is special about delta C? That's the angle at which these two areas become equal.

41:59

Okay. And therefore, you should not allow the machine to accelerate above the sand.

42:07

Before that you should clear.

42:11

But then you don't have circuit breakers with variable clearing time. Once you fit a circuit breaker, that is
it. For example, suppose your circuit breaker has 80 ms clearing time.

42:22

then you'll have to put the question the other way. Where will the angle of the machine go under the
effect of acceleration of acceleration under this much of mechanical power? Where will the machine
angle go in 80 millisecond? Will that angle be less than delta C or more than delta C? If it is less than
delta C, okay. Clearing the fault, the machine may oscillate a few times, but it will come back to this
position.

42:50

If that angle is more than delta c, that is it. You are going to lose the system.

42:56

This is the way you find out whether the system is stable or not. Now suppose, this is the clearing angle,
critical clearing angle for this mechanical power. Suppose you conclude that accelerating under this
mechanical power, the machine will reach an angle more than delta C in 80 milliseconds. What is special
about 80 milliseconds? That is my assumed clearing time, circuit breaker operating time.

43:25

So suppose the angle the machine will reach is more than this delta C in 80 ms, then the machine will
not be saved, it will become unstable. That means you cannot be giving this much of mechanical power
to that machine, otherwise you will have to change the circuit breaker and go for a circuit breaker which
has a lesser clearing time. So if you don't want to change your circuit breaker, then don't give this much
of power on that machine. You will have to bring the power down. You bring the power down.

43:54

Again calculate delta c and with that power from the mechanical equation of the machine you find out
what is the angle to which it will go in 80 millisecond. Now two things have happened, you lowered the
power therefore the acceleration of the machine is lower now, it will be slower, so the angle will be
slower. Second thing that is happening is when you lower pm delta c will move to the right.
44:23

So you have more clearance now. So you calculate what is the new angle to which the machine will go
under the reduced power for the same 80 ms. If you see that that angle is less than the new clearing
angle, the machine can take that much of power. So this way there is a unique amount of power at which
the angle to which the machine will go by accelerating under that power for 80 ms.

44:54

and the critical clearing angle as dictated by the area equality. These two angles coincide at a particular
power value. You can give only that much power. If you give power more than that, the machine will
become unstable. You won't be able to clear it fast enough.

45:15

Okay, now suppose that value of power comes as, let's say, 1.2 PU. Just a number 1.2 PU. And now you
say my machine right now is working only at 0.7 PU. What is the stability margin? The answer is 1.2
minus 0.7. I can put additional 0.5 PU power. That is how stability margins are calculated. Right. Now,

45:45

Here I show the p versus delta and here also I show the q1, q2 versus delta. Now what I want to do is, x
is very large, therefore the height here is small and therefore I am, the limit on the power flow is decided
by transient stability limit not the thermal limit. I would like to raise this.

46:13

I would like to provide for more deceleration area, that's the idea. For this, I want to sectionalize the line.
I want to split the line into two lines. It's a long line. I want to view it as two short lines. How do I do
that?

46:36

How do I do that? I do that by imposing a PV bus in between. What is special about PV bus? It can be
modeled as an ideal voltage source. If an ideal voltage source is maintaining the midpoint voltage
constant at a value, won't it become a voltage source point? In that case, you can treat it as one line
followed by another line, and both lines are excited by
47:06

voltage sources at the sending end receiving end. So we want to maintain midpoint voltage at one angle
zero so that the line will get sectionalized into two shorter lines each with X by 2 and both driven by PV
buses at the sending end receiving end.

47:26

Okay, so if you put a PV bus in the middle, then it's not a single line with angle delta. It is a short line
followed by another short line, a cascade of lines, each line having delta by two angle, operating angle,
and each line having X by two reactants. This is what will happen if you put a PV bus in the middle.

47:55

then the P delta curve of both lines will become 2 by x sine delta by 2. 2 by x because reactance is x by 2.
Delta by 2 because that is the angle between two PV buses.

48:11

and therefore this curve will become double in height not only that it will go to height here peak will be
here 2 by x so the curve will become something like this

48:28

definitely your Trans-Sensibility Margin will increase like anything. But the question is,

48:36

How do I make, how do I put a PV bus in the middle? Okay, first of all I have to put a bus in the middle.
That means there has to be a substation. Secondly, I have to put something on that bus, some
equipment. What should be the equipment? So I'm raising the question, what should be the equipment?

48:56

Here I note a point that I don't want to touch the active power. The active power will flow as if it is
flowing in the total line. So this chap shouldn't do anything to the active power. So it is a PV bus all right.
I will put a PV bus in the middle, but that P will be zero. That is also a PV bus, right? You say a bus, the
power is set at zero, and the voltage is set at 1 pu. So it is a PV bus.

49:23

By a coincidence, the power specified at the bus becomes zero, that's all. So, I want to put a special PV
bus where P is specified as zero, so that the line, the power coming from the left line will go into the
right line and then finally reach infinite bus. Now, this is what I want to do. I want to make a special PV
bus in the middle whose P will be zero, B will be one. But if P is zero.

49:54

then the equipment has to be a reactive compensator, right? If P is zero, an equipment has to be a
reactive power compensating unit. SVC, STATCOM or a capacitor.

50:09

and then how much reactive power should it take? That is easy. Assume that this is one angle zero. This
equipment is succeeding in making it one angle zero. So that is why I have written we want one angle
zero. If this is one angle zero and this is one angle delta by two, what is the power flow here? It is two by
X and delta by two. Real part, imaginary part is two by X, one minus cos delta by two as per these
equations.

50:39

right. What is the power flow here? Same active power. The active power 2 by x cos delta by 2 minus 1.
And similarly, what is the power going from here? 0 and minus delta by 2. Therefore, it is the same
amount. This is going to be 2 by x sin delta by 2 plus j 2 by x 1 minus cos delta by 2. And what is coming
here? 2 by x sin delta by 2 plus j 2 by x cos delta by 2 minus.

51:09

Now, this much is coming and this much is going. You see the expressions. You see that these two are
opposite to each other. Therefore, actually both are coming to the bus. Okay? That is, if you take this as
coming, then this going can be written as coming to the bus, but with a negative sign here. So, you see
that, or in other words, the reactive power...
51:36

in all the connections put together at a bus added together should be zero with proper polarity so this is
incoming and these two are outgoing some of these two must be equal to this reactive power balance at
a bus okay that is sum of this and this should be equal to this from that equation you can solve okay
what is the amount that should go here

52:07

So, the reactive power taken by this equipment must be, ok. I have derived that, ok. It should be how
much? This one minus this one. So, this one minus this one is this much. If you put a negative outside, it
will come J minus J 4 by x 1 minus cos delta by 2. It can be written as minus J q c. What is q c? It is this
much, a positive quantity.

52:36

minus j, so it is a capacitive one. So this has to be a capacitive compensator which takes negative reactive
power, that is leading reactive power, and the amount it has to take is Qc, where Qc is equal to four by x
into one minus cos delta by two. Suppose you have such a reactive power compensator here, which can
deliver this much, whatever be delta, then...

53:06

what is the maximum it should deliver and what is the minimum it should deliver minimum is when
delta is 0 it should deliver 0 maximum is when delta is 360 degree it should deliver 8 8 by x provided this
equipment has a

53:37

you will be able to transmit power up to 2 by x theoretically practically no because at 2 by x you won't
have any margin transient stability margin will not be there you are right at the top of the sine wave
that's not permitted okay but the point I want to impress upon you is that the price you are paying for
increasing the transient stability margins and thereby the loadability of the line

54:06
by putting a PV bus in the middle, use that, the equipment connected at the PV bus has to be capable of
handling up to 8 by X.

54:19

So 2 by X is the maximum you can think of transmitting. But to do that, you need 8 by X, four times.

54:28

no one is going to put that kind of an equipment there. An equipment which must be four times in rating
compared to the maximum power you may transmit in the lab.

54:39

So the equipment will be rated for four times the transmission line rating itself. That is too much to ask
from a control equipment. So in practice, this equipment will not be able to make this a PV bus for any
value of delta. You'll be able to do it only for a limited range of delta. You'll have a rating limit. The rating
limit, the maximum available rating here, will be far less than 8 by X.

55:10

So, in practice this equipment will be able to maintain this as a PV bus of one angle 0 and P is equal to 0
only for a limited range of delta, not for the 360 degree range. Once it reaches the rating limit, then it
will continue to deliver whatever it is capable of maximum. Maximum capability it will deliver, that is all.
But then this voltage will get unclamped.

55:40

it will become a PQ bus with P specified at 0.

55:46

PV bus will become PQ bus just as a generator, synchronous generator reaching excitation ceiling limit
will automatically become a PQ bus in load flow. Similarly, here also it will become a PQ bus and then
this voltage will change and this equipment will deliver whatever it is capable of maximum. That is what
is going to happen in practice. Now assuming or forgetting about practical difficulties, assuming
theoretical compensation or ideal compensation.

56:16

compensation, the power angle curve is shown here. It is 2 by x sine delta by 2. So it peaks at pi.
Whereas if there is no compensation it is 1 by x sine delta. Okay. So this is the power angle curve without
compensation and this is the power angle curve with ideal compensation. Obviously just look at the
curve which is clear that you have lot of improvement in transient stability margin.

56:45

And therefore, from the transient stability margin point, the line loadability has increased very much.

56:53

It's quite possible that you can spend, send, five or ten times the power that you used to send before in
the line because of such a huge deceleration area available in this curve. But the price you have to pay
for such a marked improvement in loadability is that you must install a reactive power equipment which
has, okay.

57:20

four or five times or four times the rating of the line itself. There'll be a huge equipment that is
highlighted by this. So this is the reactive power requirement in the shunt compensator. As delta covers 0
to 360 degree range, it goes up to 8 by x. So this is the capacity what to be taken by the ideal
compensator.

57:44

and that is where ideal compensator cannot be made and installed because it will be too huge and it
won't be cost effective. So we are going to install only a limited capacity equipment there. If you are
installing a limited capacity equipment, then you won't be able to go through this curve always. That is
as the machine accelerates from working delta due to some transient.

58:15
is it was working with a certain small value of delta under steady state with certain amount of
mechanical power now a three-phase fault took place in the middle and the fault was cleared after some
time so while the fault is on the machine will accelerate delta will increase will you be moving through
this curve or will you be moving through this curve you will be moving through this

58:41

black curve there is no compensation. You will be moving through the blue curve if compensation is
ideal. Then what is the curve through which you will be moving? I mean the machine will be moving.

58:54

if the compensator is rating limited. So there we take up three cases one by one. In the first case we
assume that the compensator is a fixed capacitor of QCPU rating. Here the symbol QC is used to
designate the reactive power that the unit must absorb for various values of delta. It's a function. Here
QC, the symbol is used as a number.

59:25

that is a rating of the fixed capacitor in pu. It is a reactive power at 1 pu 1 pu voltage. Therefore, the
reactance value how do you get the reactance value voltage by current how do you get current reactive
power by voltage. So, Q c by 1 pu is current and 1 pu by current is reactance. So, it is 1 by Q c.

59:53

reactance of the capacitance in PU is nothing but 1 by QC in PU.

01:00:00

Now if the voltage is not 1 pu but Vm then the current will be Vm by Xc. So it will be Vm into Qc and then
the reactive power is into Vm again. So it will be Qc Vm square in per unit. So the reactive power
absorbed by a capacitor which is rated for Qc pu at a voltage other than unity is that voltage square into
Qc.

01:00:29
The circuit is this now. One angle delta 2 by 2, one angle minus delta by 2, two ideal voltage sources, Jx
by 2, Jx by 2, and a reactance minus Jxc.

01:00:44

minus J X C.

01:00:48

The reactive power delivered to this node. As before, we have written that expression. And the reactive
power delivered to this node. Actually, it is the other way. Now, you put a negative sign and then put it
this way. And the reactive power delivered into this. A capacitor takes negative reactive power.
Equivalently, it delivers positive reactive power. So the positive reactive power delivered is nothing but
Vm squared.

01:01:18

by x c which is equal to q c v m square if you want right you can write it as q c v m square sum of these
three must be zero reactive power balance at a node so you write that equation and then solve for the
midpoint voltage so the midpoint voltage is cos delta by 2

01:01:45

An ideal compensator will be able to maintain the midpoint voltage at one angle zero, constant, against
delta. That means when the machine is swinging under the action of some transient, the midpoint
voltage doesn't swing. With the ideal compensator, midpoint voltage will remain constant. So if you look
at the midpoint voltage, you won't be able to make out that the synchronous machine is swinging. But
here...

01:02:14

you will be able to see that synchronous machine is swinging. Because if you compensate using a fixed
capacitor, then that is not ideal compensation. The midpoint voltage is a function of cos delta by 2.
Actually, it is cos delta by 2, which is the midpoint voltage when there is no compensation. That voltage
divided by a factor. So it is slightly more than cos delta by 2. That's all.
01:02:44

Which means that when the machine is slipping with respect to infinite bus as a result of some transient,
when the machine is slipping or swinging, delta is periodically increase and I mean periodically going
through 2 pi periods, you will see a periodic variation in Vm. Okay. The midpoint voltage will swing in
RMS value. A lamp connected in the midpoint will...

01:03:13

go up and down in brilliance blinking okay so it's not ideal compensator next point if this voltage is not
unity but this voltage is unity okay you can find out what is the power flow by multiplying V1 V2 by X by
2 into sine delta by 2 angle is delta by 2 so this way you calculate the new power 1 by X

01:03:43

cos delta by 2 by 1 minus x q c by 4 is the one end voltage the other end voltage is 1 and the angle is
delta by 2. So it is.

01:03:55

So after manipulating the equation, you can write it as sine delta by x. That's the power angle curve of
the uncompensated system into a factor which is more than 1. So it's going to be a sine wave. Only that
the height of the sine wave is slightly more than height of the sine wave. So the gray curve is the power
delta PM. Power angle curve without compensation. And the blue curve is power angle curve.

01:04:22

with fixed capacitor compensation.

01:04:27

higher the amount of fixed capacitor compensation, higher this height. But you see this is the factor x q c
by 4. X is likely to be around 0.2, 0.3 even in a long line. Okay, say it is 0.4 pu. So it is 1 minus 0.1 q c. Q c
is unlikely to go above

01:04:54
okay let's say x is 0.4 then 1 by x is 2.5. With that kind of a number for p, I think Qc is likely to be limited
to about 1 pu. So this is going to be 1 by 0.9, that is 1.11. So this is just 10% higher, that's all. But that will
make a marked improvement in the transient stability limit. After all, you may not want to increase the
loadability limit from the present value

01:05:23

10 times the present value and all. Maybe you are looking for 50% 100% change, not more than that.
That kind of a change can be brought about by using a QC of 102 PU. Similarly, paying attention to the
midpoint voltage, it would have been 1 PU with ideal compensator. It would have been cost delta by 2
without any compensation. In that case,

01:05:52

the midpoint voltage would have been 1 pu when delta is 0 but as you transmit more and more power
delta will increase and midpoint voltage will fall. Finally, if you are operating the two lines with a delta of
pi radians, the midpoint will be short, 0, will be at 0 potential. Here with fixed capacitive compensation,
it is the same kind of curve. The equation is actually

01:06:21

1 by 1 minus x q c by 4 into cos delta by 2 cos delta by 2 this. So it is slightly more than cos delta by 2
that's all. Multiply the curve by a constant that is it. So in this case when the line is lightly loaded I mean
delta is small.

01:06:43

The capacitive compensation that you have imposed on it in the middle will raise the midpoint voltage.
No capacitive compensation will always raise the voltage. So the midpoint voltage is raised even above 1.
But as the load comes on the line, as delta increases, the midpoint voltage falls. And finally it goes to
zero when the angle is 180 degree between the two buses.

01:07:09

In the second case, we consider an SVC of Rating-Q CPU. You remember that an SVC has a static war
generator inside it. That static war generator is of variable impedance type. And variable impedance is
usually constructed by putting a capacitor in parallel with a variable inductor. And when you want
maximum capacitive reactive power, you will simply switch off the inductor and leave the capacitor
alone.

01:07:38

So once such an SVC has reached the rating limit, then it becomes a capacitor. It can't do anything more.
Therefore, whatever we talked about, the capacitor compensation here will be relevant to SVC also. But
till the rating limit is exceeded, this won't happen. So between zero to QCPU, if your demand is only that
much, I mean between zero to QC,

01:08:06

then you will be duplicating the ideal compensator behavior. Okay. Now, what is the reactive power that
the ideal compensator should take? We have the equation for that here. I think it is this one. The ideal
compensator should take this much of capacitive reactive power.

01:08:32

Now there is a particular value of delta at which this function becomes equal to Qc of your unit.
Remember when we talk about the unit the symbol Qc stands for a number. So 4 by X into 1 minus cos
delta by 2 is equal to Qc. There is one such delta. Till that delta you can control the SVC and make it
behave like ideal compensator.

01:09:00

So when delta is zero, SVC can be controlled to deliver zero. When delta is slightly more, SVC can be
controlled to deliver whatever this curve says. And finally, when SVC, sorry, when delta is a particular
value, this curve will predict a number which will be equal to QC value of your unit.(with reference to
ideal Qc equation_). That is it, you have reached the limit. But till then, you are in the ideal compensator
domain only. And till then, you will be following, the power angle curve will be following this curve.

01:09:29

So you are on this curve 2 by x into sin delta by 2 as long as

01:09:37
the reactive power demanded from the SVC is less than its rating. Once it becomes equal to rating or
more than rating, then it becomes a fixed capacitor. And it will go through the fixed capacitor curves.
That is it. So the green curve is the curve for ideal compensator, p delta. The gray curve is p delta for no
compensation. And in between, there's a red curve.

01:10:07

which is P delta for a fixed capacitor. Okay. That red curve will cross the green curve at a point. You may
show that the red curve will have to cross the green curve. That crossing point is a point at which the
rating of the equipment becomes equal to the demanded Qs. The demanded Qs see from this curve. The
ideal compensator demand.

01:10:35

they will become equal exactly at that point. You may verify that the crossing will take place at the angle
delta is equal to 2 cosine inverse 1 minus x q c by 4. I calculated this angle from this expression. Okay. So
x q c by 4 1 minus cos delta. So you find out what is delta. Okay. And at that delta you may show that the
equation for the P delta curve

01:11:04

for fixed capacitor, I mean this equation, and this equation, 2 by x sin delta by 2, they will intersect
exactly at that delta. So, the P delta curve of this case will be, which is represented by the black curve, it
will go through the ideal compensator curve up to this delta, and then it will start moving in the P delta
for fixed capacitor.

01:11:34

So you get some transient stability limit enhancement, some loadability improvement, but not as much
as the green curve and that is impossible anyway. But not exactly like a fixed capacitor, but somewhat
similar to a fixed capacitor. That is SVC behavior. Similarly, the VM behavior, midpoint voltage behavior.

01:12:04

at least up to this delta, the center point voltage will be maintained at 1 up to that delta. After that, it
will follow the capacitor curve, fixed capacitor curve. Okay. That will be
01:12:23

cos delta by 2 into 1 plus x q c by 4.

01:12:44

plus x, I think I have used binomial approximation. Anyway, this curve will be exactly same as the curve
of capacitor, fixed capacitor curve.

01:12:59

that curve must be this, I think it will be this equation, but maybe I used binomial approximation to bring
this up. Please verify. And the last case is I'm using a STATCOM. STATCOM is an SVC which contains a
switched mode inverter for generating reactive power.

01:13:23

the inverter's current limited, not reactive power limited, not impedance limited. It can always deliver
that limiting value of current under any condition, even when the voltage across it is zero. Therefore,
after the STATCOM reaches rating, it should be modeled as a constant current source.

01:13:46

So the STATCOM will deliver increasing amounts of reactive or take increasing amounts of capacitive
reactive power as delta increases from zero. At a particular delta, STATCOM will reach rating. After that, it
cannot change. It cannot increase anything about itself. So it will keep delivering that constant current.
Okay, so the rating of STATCOM is again QC, reactive power, QCPU.

01:14:15

But rating is calculated based on one PU voltage. Therefore rated current is numerically same as QC only.
Therefore, once the STATCOM reaches rating, after that it will behave like a current source. It will take
leading current. Therefore, it will deliver lagging current. The amount of current that delivers will be QC
in PU. QC PU amps.
01:14:45

Now you may solve this network by applying superposition principle. So first you take these two sources
and remove this source. But that is the original line, you know the answer. What is the potential in the
middle? Cos delta by 2. Now you take this source alone and ground these two. So x by 2 and x by 2 in
parallel will be x by 4. And minus j into plus j.

01:15:15

that will become minus j squared which is plus 1. So x by 4 into qc is going to be the voltage. So qc into x
by 4. Superposition principle says that you can add the two. So the total solution finally is the midpoint
voltages cos delta by 2 plus qc x by 4. And therefore the power flowing in this line and this line will be 1
that this voltage into Vm that is this expression.

01:15:44

by x by 2 into sine delta by 2. That is sine delta by x plus qc by 2 into sine delta by 2.

01:15:57

Okay.

01:16:06

So up to a certain delta it will follow the ideal compensator curve.

01:16:18

After that...

01:16:24

after that it will follow this equation. That is this curve plus a sin delta by 2 curve.

01:16:39
Maybe, please verify ma'am.

01:16:44

I think it is correct but you can please verify. You draw this curve its amplitude is small but it is sin delta
by 2 so it will reach a peak here.

01:17:00

I think it is right. Okay. So I'm adding sine delta by X which is this curve with another curve which is sine
delta by 2 but its peak is generally small. Okay. Because 1 by X will be a large number. QC by 2 is likely to
be around 0.5, 0.7 etc. only. Okay. And these two are added and on that curve it will move. Okay. And
this will be slightly better than the fixed capacitor case and SVC case of same rating.

01:17:27

it will contain more deceleration area than this curve or this curve. STATCOM will function a little better.
And similarly the voltage, the bus voltage is, midpoint voltage is this number, it is cos delta. Remember
up to this delta which is given by this expression, it is going to follow the ideal compensation.

01:17:56

this is 1pu. After that it will follow this curve. This curve is a cosine function plus a constant. So when
delta is pi cosine function will become zero but that constant will be there and for higher values of delta
it will again turn back and go this way.

01:18:16

Okay, so this is how limited capacity compensator will improve the performance of or improve the
loadability limit of a line in three special cases of fixed capacitor svcns.com. Okay, with that we close this
topic.