MODELS AND THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP (EdPM 3051) – HANDOUT

CHAPTER ONE: CONCEPTUAL FRAMWORKS OF LEADERSHIP

As part of one's life process of leadership development, one needs to define leadership. Though
definition of leadership has been interpreted by different people in different ways, let us see
some of the scholars’ leadership definition.

A. Leadership is the quality of leader (Advance dictionary)

B. "Leadership is the ability of a supervisor to influence the behavior of a subordinate or
group and persuade them to follow a particular course of action." — Chester Bernard
C. “Leadership is a two-way street, loyalty up and loyalty down. Respect for one's superiors;
care for one's crew." Grace Hopper, Admiral, February 1987
D. "Leadership is the creation and fulfillment of worthwhile opportunities by honorable
means" - Herb Rubenstein
E. "Leadership is influence - nothing more, nothing less." - John C Maxwell

Very good! When we look in to the above definition of scholars about leadership they
defined leadership differently but have something in common. These common features
are leaders’ quality, influencing (persuading) followers, directing, meet common
objectives and sense of recognition to each followers. Thus, leadership is the quality of
leaders to influence followers so that the followers voluntarily accomplish their duties to
achieve common objectives with their.

1.1. LEADERSHIP VS MANAGEMENT

Origin:

Leadership from Old English – ‘Lad’ means leads or guides.

Management from Latin – ‘Manus’ means the hand.

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Functions of Managers and Leaders
MANAGERS: 1. Planning, 2. Organizing, 3. Staffing (Coordinating), 4. Directing and
5. Controlling.

LEADERS: 1. Setting Vission,2. Listening to the followers, 3. Building relationship,

4.Team work, 5.Inspiring, 6. Motivating and 7. Persuading the followers.

Hence, one becomes a

Leader by Virtue of his inherent Qualities and

Manager by virtue of his Position.

1.2 . DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MANAGERS AND LEADERS

1. Course and Steering:

Leaders set the course – What to achieve
Managers steer(drive?) the followers to achieve the set goal.
2. Growth and Survival
Leaders care for Growth
Managers work for Survival.
3. Resource and Potential:
Managers concentrate on Resource – Staff position and previous performance (Past to
Present)
Leaders concentrate on Potential – Don’t value their past performances but see their
potential to do the works (Present to Future).
4. Art and Science:
Leaders are more imaginative, Intuitive and Artistic
Managers are more rationale and scientific.
5. Left and Right Brain:
Left brain of human body is the seat of logical and rational thinking and it always tries to
reason out all kind of activities and the Managers always use their Left Brain.
Right brain is the seat for Artistry, vision, intuition and imagination and the Leaders
always use their Right Brain.
6. Hard and Soft Skills:
Richard Pascales in his ‘Seven S theory of organizational function’ identified the
following seven skills as important for the function of any organization. They are – 1.
Strategy,2. Structure, 3. System. 4. Shared values,5. Staff, 6. Skills and 7. Styles.
Managers always concentrate on the three Hard skills such as
 Strategy,
 Structure and
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  System,
but Leaders are always working on the four Soft skills –
 Shared values,
 Staff,
 Skills and
 Styles.

7. Short term and Long-term perception:

Since the Leaders are aiming on growth and development, they always thing of Long
term perceptive.
Whereas, the managers who are concentrating on survival, have short term perceptive.
8. Heart and Mind:
Leaders are guided by heart, whereas the Managers are led by Mind.
9. Rule and Sprit:
Managers functions are ruled by books. Rules are important for Managers, whereas the
Leaders always try to understand the Sprit behind the rules.

In short, a good Manager should have Leadership Qualities but a good Leader need not
have Managerial Qualities.

1.3. LEADERSHIP POWERS:

Power is the influence to make others (Followers) to do what the Leader wants.
The success of a leader depends upon the power he uses on his followers. There are Five
types of power a leader can use upon his/her followers.

1. COERCIVE POWER: It is in other words called ‘Power of punishment’. This

power can be further classified in to two-
---High Impact Punishment – where the punishment affects the career and the
growth of the followers.
----- Low Impact or No Impact Punishment – where the punishment never makes
any impact on the followers, hence they least worried about the punishment.
Effects:
a. It de motivate the followers.
b. It makes the followers to resist the power of the leader.
c. Followers comply their work but not committed.
d. Since it has all negative impacts, it always has less rate of success.

2. REWARD POWER: Unlike Coercive power it is a positive power that a leader can
use on his/her followers. Reward will be given by the leader to the followers for

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 completing a task successfully. While giving a reward, leader should take care of the
following 4 points.
a. Faith on Leaders (Here the followers should believe that their leader will arrange
for the reward, that was assured to them).
b. The Reward should appeal to the followers.
c. Reward should be based on the requirement of the followers.
d. It should be proportionate to the task completed.

Effects:
It should not be given for a mere compliance of the work, which is a part of one’s
duty. It increases the level of expectation and has negative impact on the followers.

Too much of rewards reduce the interest in doing their regular work.

3. LEGITIMATE POWER: It is the power given to a leader by virtue of his/her

position in an organization. Here the followers should accept that the leader has this
power by virtue of his/her position or job title. Otherwise it will be very difficult for
the leader to execute this power.

4. EXPERT POWER: This power is given to the leader by the followers because of the
leaders Knowledge, Skill and Experience. It highly depends upon the respect for the
leader among the followers.
Weakness: Here, when a follower improves his knowledge, skill and experience
(equal to the leader), the leader’s power and respect diminishes. Hence the leader
never likes the followers to grow/ develop.
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5. REFERENT POWER: Here the leader is a ‘Role Model’ and the followers have
strong faith on him and try to imitate the leader. E.g.-Gandhi.
Since it is taken willingly by the followers (Not executed by the leader), it can be
used only on a few followers not on all.
.
6. IFORMASTION POWER: Derived from possessing knowledge that others want or
need. A boss who has information regarded new criteria to decide employee
promotion eligibility has information power.

PRINCIPLES OF GOOD LEADERSHIP

1. Know yourself and seek self improvement.

2. Be technically proficient.
3. Seek responsibility and take responsibility.(Why not I not why should I?)
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 4. Make sound and timely decision.
5. Set the example.
6. Know your followers and look out for their well-being.
7. Keep your workers informed.
8. Ensure your Tasks are understood, supervised and accomplished.
9. Train as a team.
10. Be confident, Enthusiastic, Cool and Tolerant| at all condition.

CHAPTER TWO: THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP

Introduction: “Theories are the bundle of various principles on which action strategies are
planned”. Based upon various principles, a lot of theories have been evolved. In this chapter
we discuss about seven important Leadership theories.

2.1. "Great Man" Theories of Leadership

Have you ever heard the phrase, ‘Great leaders are born, not made?’ This quote sums up the
basic boarder of the great man theory of leadership, which suggests that the capacity for
leadership is inborn. According to this theory, you are either a natural born leader or you are not.

Great man theories assume that the capacity for leadership is inherent in which great leaders are
born not made. These theories often describe great leaders as heroic, mythic and destined to rise
to leadership when needed. The term "Great Man" was used because at the time leadership was
thought of primarily as a male quality, especially in terms of military leadership.

History of the Great Man Theory of Leadership

The great man theory of leadership became popular during the 19th-century. The mythology
behind some of the world's most famous leaders such as Abraham Lincoln, Julius Caesar,
Mahatma Gandhi, and Alexander the Great helped contribute to the notion that great leaders are
born and not made. In many examples, it seems as if the right man for the job seems to emerge
almost magically to take control of a situation and lead a group of people into safety or success.

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Historian Thomas Carlyle also had a major influence on this theory of leadership, at one point
stating that, "The history of the world is but the biography of great men." According to Carlyle,
effective leaders are those gifted with divine inspiration and the right characteristics.

Some of the earliest research on leadership looked at people who were already successful
leaders. These individuals often included aristocratic rulers who achieved their position through
birthright. Because people of a lesser social status had fewer opportunities to practice and
achieve leadership roles, it contributed to the idea that leadership is an inherent ability.

However, Spencer argued against the Great Man leadership theory explaining that the genetic
makeup of the great man is the gradual result of his race and the societal influence in which he
grew up, even today, people often describe prominent leaders as having the right qualities or
personality for the position, implying that inherent characteristics are what make these people
effective leaders.

2.2 . TRAIT THEORIES

This theorist also has faith in “Leaders are born”. They identify some specific traits
(Characteristics) that are shown by great leaders at different times. To them there are Three types
of Traits.

1. INTELLECTUAL TRAITS: Intelligence, Knowledge, Judgmental ability etc.

2. PERSONALITY TRAITS: Originality, Alertness, Self confidence, Personal Integrity
etc
3. PHYSICAL TRAITS: Age, Height, Weight and Appearance etc.

Comment: All human beings with these qualities are not becoming great leaders – Why?

Most of the Great leaders of the world did not have the physical traits. (Alexander died
at the age of 32 and Adolf Hitler was a short man).

2.3. BEHAVIOURAL THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP

This theory is based upon ‘Behaviorism’. They believe that “Leaders are made, not born”. Their
focus is on “The actions (Behaviors) of the leaders not on their mental quality”

Ohio State studies conducted based on Behavioral theories, identified Two dimensions of
leadership behavior for success. They are,

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 1. Initiating Structure --- Leader defining his role and the followers’ role in task
achievements.
2. Consideration --- It is shown by the followers to their leaders based upon their leaders
concern for them and their ideas.

Chester Bernard, in his “Integrated human relation with efficiency and effectiveness on task
completion” named this leader and followers relationship as ‘Co-operative system’.

2.4. CONTIGENCY THEORY OF LEADERSHIP

The Psychologist F.E.Fiedler of Illinois University in his study “A Contingency model of

leadership effectiveness” (1964) introduced this theory of leadership. He used “Least
preferred co-workers scale (LPC)” to collect data. After analyzing the hundreds of leaders,
who are mostly from army, he identified two types of leaders.

a. High scoring leaders --- Relationship motivated --- they are most effective in moderately
favorable situations.
b. Low scoring leaders --- Task oriented --- they are most effective in very favorable and
very unfavorable situations.

This theory is more closely related to situational theories. According to him, success of a
leadership style is closely related to the situation. He argues that situations are influenced by
three factors. The factors influencing situations are,

a. Leader Member relationship --- Positive/ negative feelings, Loyalty, Confidence etc.
b. Task Structure – Task clarity and task finalization etc.
c. Leadership Power --- Reward and punishment power etc

Research findings:

a. There are two types of leadership styles – Relationship oriented and Task oriented.
b. Certain style of leadership is more effective in a particular situation.
c. For success either change the leadership style according to the situation or change the
situation according to leadership style.

Comment: Though the theory gave some empirical evidences, it didn’t explain ‘Why a
particular style of leadership is more effective in a particular situation?’

2.5 . SITUATIONAL THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP

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The focus of this theory is on situation. To them the success and failures of a leadership style is
based upon the situations.

Their Assumptions:

a. Leaders are made not born.

b. Different situations need different style of leadership.
c. The skills and motivations of any group member is not static.
d. Leaders change their style according to the situations in hand.

The Encyclopedia of Social Science vividly explains the Five elements of any situation. They
are,

a. The structure of inter personal relationship with in the group.

b. The characteristics of the group as a whole.
c. The characteristic of the group’s environment (Religious, Geographical, Social etc) from
which the members come.
d. Physical constraints of the group.
e. The elements, attitudes and values engendered by them.

2.6 . TRANSACTIONAL THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP

This theory was first introduced by the sociologist Max Weber and further expanded by Bernard
M. Bass in 1980s. This theory was based on three facts --- Role of supervision, Organization
and Group activities.

Their Assumptions are,

a. People perform better, when the chain of command is clear and definite.
b. Workers are motivated by reward and punishment.
c. Obeying the rules/ orders is the primary goal of the followers.
d. Subordinates are carefully supervised.
e. It works on give and take policy.

Comments: This theory is more effective, when the problems are simple. Since the rules and
procedures are more important than human relationship, there will be no conducive environment
for the workers. Further there is no scope for originality or creativity of the followers.

2.7 . TRANSFORMATIONAL THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP

This theory is based upon the relationship between the leader and the followers. So, this theory is
also called as ‘Relationship Theory’. This theory was introduced by James Mac Gregor Burns.

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According to him “Leaders and followers make each other to advance to a higher level of moral
motivation”.

He also defines the characteristics of the leaders who follow this theory.

a. Transformational leaders are energetic, enthusiastic and passionate.

b. They are able to instruct, inspire and motivate their follower to change their passion and
motivation towards a common goal.
c. They respect individuals and give scope for their individuality and take care of them.
d. They maintain high moral and ethical values.

Bernard M. Bass further expanded this theory and identified four components of
Transformational leadership.

Bass’ components of Transformational Leadership

a. Intellectual Stimulation: Encourage individuality and creativity to explore new ways.

b. Individualized Consideration: Gives individual encouragement to the followers to keep
supportive relationship, Open two-way communication, Recognition for every
individual’s contribution.
c. Inspirational motivation: Have clear vision and able to inspire the followers than
instruct them.
d. Idealized Influence: Leaders are the Role Model.

TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN SCHOOLS

Leith woods (1994) considered this theory as most suitable for school management and
conceptualize this with eight dimensions that suits school management.

a. Building school
b. Establishing school goals
c. Providing intellectual stimulation
d. Offering individualized support
e. Modeling best practices and important organizational values
f. Demonstrating high performance expectations
g. Creating a productive school culture
h. Developing structures to foster participation in school decision.

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 UNIT THREE: LEADERSHIP STYLES

*Style refers to consistent behavior of an individual.

*Style can be improved based on experience, education and training.

*Style changed from person to person based on situation.

Based upon these points, the way a leader behaves in administration has been studied and
divided in to different categories. This chapter discusses the different leadership styles.
Basically, leadership style has been divided in to two major groups. They are

a. Authority based Leadership styles --- Concentrate on structure.

b. Situation based leadership styles --- concentrate on situation.

3.1 AUTHORITY BASED LEADERSHIP STYLES:

Here we study about the leadership style based on authority and the way they use their authority.
Though there are so many styles based on authority, we would like to discuss seven important
and popular styles here.

1. AUTOCRATIC LEADERSHIP STYLE

Here the leader’s functions with unlimited power and authority. They are the decision makers
and decide the process of action. Leaders like Sadam Hussein and Idée Ameen are the good
examples for this style of leadership.

Characteristics of this leadership style:

---Little or no input from group members

--- Leaders make decision

--- Leaders dictate methods and process

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--- Group members are rarely trusted.

Comment: This style is good for Army and works where small group of skilled workers are
engaged. This works positively in case of emergency and stressful situation. This may be
applicable in small team projects where team members work with different opinions.

Since the power is in one hand, this style stops the growth of subordinates. There is always a
chance of misusing the power (e.g., Adolf Hitler). Since the subordinates not trusted, they are de
motivated and there will be no good work environment.

2. BUREAUCRATIC LEADERSHIP STYLE

Max Weber first described this theory in 1947. This theory works on the following four norms.

a. Labor division and specialization.

b. Impartiality among the subordinates.
c. Standardized rules and regulations.
d. Separation of planning and implementation.

Characteristics of this Leadership styles:

a. Leader imposes strict discipline and expects business like conduct in organization.
b. Leader gets power by virtue of his position.
c. Followers (subordinates) are promoted based upon their ability, as per the rules.
d. Activities are carried out as per rules (Run by Books).

Comment: This type of leadership style is applicable in the area of serious safety risk works are
carried out like – working in chemical labs, with machinery, working in high place, because here
the safety measures are to be strictly followed. It is also effective in offices where huge sum of
money is involved. Many of the Government sector offices are run in this style.

Since there is no special recognition for individual skill and ability, workers will be
uninterested and lazy. Good examples are the Government offices where most of the
subordinates are working without any commitment and interest.

3. CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP STYLE

Max Weber, along with ‘Bureaucratic style’, described this ‘Charismatic leadership style’ also in
1947. This theory is based on the style of great leaders like Nelson Mandela, who had strong
vision, able to articulate and inspire their followers. This type of leaders’ functions in different/
unusual style.

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 a. Leaders identify themselves with their group.
b. They always try to distinguish their groups from other groups.
c. Their “work in the room” technique makes the followers to know their importance in the
group.

Characteristic of Charismatic leader ship styles:

a. These leaders have a strong vision.

b. They are able to articulate their vision and inspire their followers.
c. They are noted for their willingness to take risk.
d. They are sensitive to the environment and followers need.
e. They exhibit extraordinary behavior.
f. Have strong conviction.
g. They are known for their un conventional activities.

Comment: Since this type leader have extraordinary behavior and character, it is very difficult
for an ordinary person to follow this leadership style. However, the success and failure depend
upon the leader’s personal traits, vision and character.

4. DEMOCRATIC LEADERSHIP STYLE

Emergence of Democracy brought this style in to existence in late 60s and early 70s of the
twentieth century. From the beginning this leadership style was widely accepted by the
administrators and policy makers. Democratic Leadership style functions on two basic
principles.

a. In democratic Leadership style, all the members irrespective of their position and status
have a say in the process of decision making. (However, the final decision will be taken
by leader).
b. Here anybody, irrespective of their position can take the responsibility and they are
accountable.
Comments: It is widely accepted leadership style throughout the world because it works on
majority base. However, the success or failure mainly depends upon the group ability and
mental maturity of the group members rather than the leader.

5. SERVANT LEADERSHIP STYLE

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This term was coined and defined by Robert Green Leaf. His principle was “Leaders are the first
servants”. This theory was very much knowing to the westerners and it got the attention of many
administrators. However, this concept was very old to India. Indian political philanthropist of 4th
century BC, Chanakya in his “Arthasasthra” wrote,” The king (Leader) is a paid servant and
enjoys the resources of the state together with the people.”

Here the leader is only a servant first. Because of the influence he creates among his followers,
his followers elevate him as their leader. This type of leaders is not on the top order but one
among the followers. This theory works more or less on the principle ‘who knows to obey alone
knows to control’.

6. TRANSACTIONAL LEADERSHIP STYLE

This style of leadership is widely followed by many leaders in well established organization.
Since the organizations are well established, they always work with clear structure.
“What is expected from the subordinate and what will be the reward for the work”.

“Do as I say and you will get a raise” – will be the saying of this type of leaders.

Transactional leaders function in two ways.

a. Contingent Reward: Leader provides reward only if the subordinate performs adequately
(To the satisfaction of the leader)
b. Management by Exception: Leader never asks for a change in the process or a change in
person as long as the process moves smoothly. He only intervenes only at the time of
problem.

Comment: Transactional leadership style is applicable only for a small goal oriented activity or
for Hiring process.

7. TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP STYLE

Transformational leadership style was a term coined by J.V.Downton in 1973 in his book
“Commitment and Charisma in a Revolutionary Process”. Though this method has more
properties of Transactional leadership style, it differs from Transactional leadership style
in two ways.
a. Unlike Transactional leaders, here the Transformational leaders have more concern
for the followers and their individualities are given consideration.
b. Unlike Transactional leaders, who focuses on task completion (short term goal
oriented), Transformational leaders focus on future (Long term goal oriented) and add
values in their initiative process.
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 Comment: Since the leaders have more concern for their followers, here the relationship
between the leader and the followers will be high. The followers are highly motivated and
committed here. Transformational style will be more effective for Educational institutions and
other developing organizations.

8. UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES

In an independent study, Iowan researcher Kurt Lewin identified three types of leadership
styles based on authority.
a. Autocratic Style: Centralized authority and low participation of subordinates.
b. Democratic Style: Recognition of individual and their originality – so high
involvement and high participation of subordinates. Her, there is scope for feedback.
c. Laissez Style: Hands off management.

3.2 SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP STYLES

We already discussed various leadership styles based on Authority. What so ever may be their
style of behavior; to be successful a leader should change his/her style depending upon the
situation they are functioning. Here we study how leaders with different style behave in different
situations. Various researches have been conducted in different parts to study leadership
behaviors in different situations.

1. OHIO STATE STUDIES

This study was initiated to study the dimensions of leadership behavior. They are the first one
to find out that there are two dimensions of behavior – initiating structure and consideration,

a. Initiating structure: Task oriented – leaders believe that they get good result by constantly
urging the subordinates to do the task.
b. Consideration: Employee oriented – leaders have consideration for their subordinates so
that they have high relationship, which in turn help the leaders in task completion.

Based upon these two dimensions, they classified the behavior of the leaders in to four
categories.

High

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Consideration

Low Structure High

2. THE MICHIGAN STUDIES

The research conducted in the University of Michigan also identified two dimensions of
leadership behavior and they named them as – Employee oriented and Task oriented.

a. Employee oriented: Emphasizing employee relationship

b. Task oriented: Emphasizing task completion.

3. MANAGERIAL GRID

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Managerial Grid was prepared by Blake and Mounton in 1964. They accepted the results of Ohio
state studies but identified five dimensions instead of four.

a. Impoverished: Low consideration for people as well as production.

b. Task Management: Leader has high consideration for task completion but low
consideration for human relationship.
c. Country club Management: Leader has high concern for human relationship but low
concern for task completion. They believe motivated, happy people produces more.
d. Team Management: They have high concern for human relationship as well as task
completion. Black and Mounton recommend this style as the best for good result.
e. Middle of the road Management: Here the leaders have moderate concern for human
relationship as well as task completion. It is balanced style of management.

4. FIELDER’S CONTIGENCY LEADERSHIP STYLE

Fielder used “Least prepared co-workers scale (LPC) and identified two dimensions of
leadership style. According to him, what so ever may be the style of the leader, the success
lies on two factors. a. Leadership style and b. Situational favorableness. To him situation is
influenced by 3 factors.

a. Leader member relationship --- Good/Bad.

b. Task Structure --- Structured/ Un structured.
c. Leader’s Power position ---- Strong/Weak.

He also advocates three stages in selecting a particular style for functioning.

a. Identify the style

b. Read the situation
c. Select the appropriate style.

According to him it is always better to change the situation rather than changing the
leadership style.

5. PAUL HERSEY AND KENNETH H. BLANCHARD’S SITUATIONAL

LEADERSHIP STYLE

Their principle behind this study was, “Leadership style should match with the maturity level
of the subordinates”. They identified two types of maturity.

a. Psychological Maturity: Self confidence, ability and readiness to accept responsibility.

b. Job Maturity: Relevant skills and Technical knowledge.

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 They advocate, “As the subordinate maturity increases, leader should be more relationship
oriented than task oriented”. Depending upon the level of maturity (Matured to Immature)
they developed four leadership styles.

Maturity level based leadership styles:

a. Telling (for highly immature): High task and low relationship.

b. Selling (for immature): High task and high relationship.
c. Participating (for matured): Low task and high relationship.
d. Delegating (for highly matured): Low task and low relationship.

To them the success of any leadership style is based upon the ‘Readiness ‘of the
subordinates.

Readiness: “It is the extent to which the followers have the ability and willingness to
accomplish a specific task.” The readiness has two components ‘Ability’ and ‘willingness’.

Ability refers to knowledge, experience, and the skill in doing a particular task.

Willingness refers to individual confidence, commitment, and motivation in doing particular

task.

Based upon the readiness, they classify four group of subordinates as follows:

a. Low readiness (Level:1) ---Unable and unwilling

b. Low to moderate(Level:2) ---Unable but willing
c. Moderate to high(Level:3) ---Able but unwilling
d. High readiness (Level:4) ---Able and willing.

The following table shows various leadership styles that suit various readiness level.

Low Readiness Telling

Unable and unwilling High task and low relationship

Low to moderate Selling

Unable but wiling High task and high relationship

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 Moderate to high Participating
Able but unwilling Low task but high relation

High readiness Delegating

Able and willing Low task and low relationship

6. REDDIN’S 3D LEADERSHIP STYLE

This style is introduced by Prof. Bill Reddin and it was named after him as Reddin’s 3D model.

This model is designed by him based on the following assumptions.

--- He accepted Ohio State studies two dimensions – Consideration and Structure.

---No leadership style is right or wrong.

---‘Situational Demand’ is important in selecting a leadership style.

--- He added a Third dimension ‘Effectiveness’.

According to Reddin, “Effectiveness is the result of selecting appropriate style depending upon
the ‘Situational Demand’.

Based upon the effectiveness of leadership style Reddin classified four Basic leadership styles –
Separated, Related, Dedicated and Integrated. Further in each basic style he classified two more
styles based upon effectiveness as High effective and Low effective. The following table
explains them.

LESS EFFECTIVE BASIC STYLE HIGH EFFECTIVE

STYLE STYLE

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 Deserter Separated Bureaucratic

Missionary Related Developer

Autocratic Dedicated Benevolent Autocratic

Compromiser Integrated Executive

3.3. FACTORS THAT ARE TO BE CONSIDERED FOR SELECTING LEADERSHIP STYLE

1. Personality of the leader and the persons led

2. Frame of mind of the leader and the persons led.

3. Leaders current frame of mind.

4. Leaders goal and objective.

5. Relative power of the leader and the persons led.

6. Importance of time of action.

7. Type of commitment requires in completing the task.

8. Rules, laws and authority of the leader in a given situation.

3.4. SUGGESTED LEADERSHIP STYLES IN EDUCATION

a. HIERARCHIAL: This traditional Top to Bottom approach. Here head(Leader) decides and
carries out all the actions --- Plan, Supervise, Analyze and Evaluate.

b. TRANSFORMATIONAL: It is working together not only for the immediate benefit but also
for the future. Here decisions are taken individually or by a small group of people, but always
there is an opening for the followers.

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c. FACILATATIVE: It is more or less like Transformational style but it is more democratic.
Here every follower has a say in decision making process. Here leader will be a part of the crew,
not on the top.

UNIT: 4. MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT

Models are the combination of (bundle of) various theories which have number of similar
properties but they are not identical.

Here we discuss six Managerial models along with six Leadership models and what type of
resemblances these Leadership models have with the relevant Managerial models in educational
context.

TYPOLOGY OF MODELS DEVELOPED BY BUSH AND GLOVER (2003)

MANAGEMENT MODELS LEADERSHIP MODELS

1 Formal Model Managerial Model

2 Collegial Model Participative Model

3 Political Model Transactional Model

4 Subjective Model Post modern Model

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5 Ambiguity Model Contingency

6 Cultural Model Moral Model

4.1 Formal Model of Leadership

a. This model considers the Organization as system of hierarchical structure. (Manager
to Peon)
b. Managerial decisions are made by managers in a rational way.
c. Authority of Manager is the product of his position in the office.
d. This model is closely associated with Authoritarian style.
Managerial Leadership is more closely associated with this model. Managerial
leadership leaders mainly focus on functions, tasks and behaviors of the subordinates.
Comment: Formal model focus on the organization as an entity and ignore the
individual contribution. So, there is always tension that demotivates the lower order
employees.

4.2 Collegial Model of Leadership

This emphasizes that power and decision making should be shared by some or all the
members of the organization.
Here decisions are reached by consensus.
There should be a common values and objectives among members.
Participative model leadership has most of the qualities of collegial model. Here the
leader is not on top but he is ‘the first among equals’.
Comment: Since schools and colleges have many experts (subject experts), their
participation in decision making improve the quality of decision, increases their
motivation and commitment. However, the decision-making process will be slow and
cumbersome. Individual bias and groupism play a vital role in decision making.

4.3 Political Model of Leadership

This model emphasizes the decision making as a process of negotiation and bargaining.
They tend to focus on group activities rather than the organization as a whole unit.
The goals of an organization are not stable and contested.
Concept of power is centre of focus here.
Transactional model leadership is closely aligned with this model. In transactional
model, leaders never engage the staff beyond the immediate gains arising from the
transaction. Here the leaders have no long-time goals and values.

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Comment: Since the organization is not considered as whole and it encourages the group
activities the development of the organization is always at stake.

4.4 Subjective Model of Leadership

Subjective model focuses on individuals within the organization rather than considering
the organization as whole.
To them “Organization exists to serve the human need rather than the reverse”.

Post modern leadership principles are highly related with subjective management
model.
To them,
------ Language does not reflect the reality.
----- Reality does not exist – there is always multiple realities.
----- Any situation is open to multiple interpretations.
----- Situations should be understood at local level.
Comment: Since individuals are given high priority, there is always tend to be a lot of
different ideas and opinion based on individual perception. Hence confusion always
exists there.
4.5 Ambiguity Model of Leadership
This model stresses unpredictability and uncertainty in organization. Organizations are
not one single unit but they are the bundle of many segments.
There shall be no clear goal, structure, evaluation process etc.
Contingency model leadership style recognizes the diverse nature and the advantages of
adopting different leadership styles to different situations; it is more related with
Ambiguity model.
Comment: Ambiguity models are more suitable to the organizations which are facing
rapid changes but not relevant to the developed organizations, which are stable.

4.6 Cultural – Moral Model of Leadership They concentrate more on values and
beliefs of individuals of an organization rather than the organization itself.
They assume ideology, value and beliefs are the heart of an organization.
Moral leadership model leaders’ focus is on values, morals and ethics, it is closely
related with cultural management models.
Comment: When the values and ethics are different between the leader and subordinates,
there will always problem of understanding. It heavily affects all organizational activities.

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UNIT: 5. ESSENTIAL SKILLS OF EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP

There are four skills that are identified as essential for effective leadership. They are
Relationship, Motivation, Communication and Conflict management. In this unit we
discuss these four skills and their components.

5.1 RELATIONSHIP
To maintain a good relationship, one should be able attach with them emotionally.
This type of emotional approach is based upon one’s Emotional Intelligence.
Goleman (2005) define Emotional Intelligence as, “The ability to understand
one’s emotions and how one’s emotions influence others. It also involves one’s
perception of others”.
He identified five elements of emotional intelligence – Self awareness, Self
regulation, Motivation, Empathy and Social skills.
a. Self awareness: It is the ability to understand one’s emotions and manage it.
It also includes knowing one’s strength and weakness.
b. Self regulation: Ability to manage one’s emotions like anger and jealousy.
c. Motivation: It is the willingness of an individual in undertaking a particular
task and committed to it without having any personal interest.
d. Empathy: It is the ability to understand other’s situation, conditions and
feelings.
e. Social skill: It is the ability to interact with a wide range of people from
different backgrounds in a variety of social settings.

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 SKILLS NEEDED FOR EFFECTIVE SCHOOL LEADERSHIP

a. Leaders know and understand what it means and what it takes to be leader.
b. Leaders have a vision for schools that they constantly share and promote.
c. Leaders communicate clearly and effectively.
d. Leaders collaborate and cooperate with others.
e. Leaders persevere and take the long view.
f. Leaders support, develop and nurture staff.
g. Leaders hold themselves and others responsible and accountable.
h. Leaders never stop learning and honing their skills
i. Leaders have the courage to take informed risks.

5.2 MOTIVATIONAL SKILLS

Motivation is willingness to undertake a particular task and committed to it.

There are many theories about motivation. Here we discuss a selected few theories.

a. Frederic Winslow Taylor (1856 – 1917)

Taylor argues that workers are motivated mainly by their pay. He said that the workers
should be trained for the particular task, tools to perform the task and on completion of
the task the pay assured to them should be provided.
This theory is more related to Autocratic style of management. Though the workers were
happy in the beginning, they were dissatisfied with the repetitive task and lack of human
element in the treatment they faced.

b. Elton Mayo (1880 – 1949)

Mayo conducted series of experiments in Hawthorne of the western electric company in
Chicago. Unlike Taylor, he added human relationship as an element of motivation.
His findings for higher motivations are,
--- Better communication between Manager and workers.
--- Greater Manager’s involvement in employee’s working life.
--- Working in groups or teams

c. Abraham Maslow (1908 – 1970)

Maslow along with Frederic Herzberg introduce “Neo – Human Relations School” in
which he introduced the psychological needs of motivation. He identified five factors in a
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 hierarchy. According to him, once the basic need is fulfilled the workers aspire for the
next. So, the incentives given to them should fulfill their need in the hierarchy. The
following Pyramid explains the need hierarchy of Maslow.

d. Frederick Herzberg (1923 - )

He introduced two factors theory of Motivation. He called them as Motivators and
Hygiene factors.
Motivators: The factors that directly motivate the workers to work hard – Reward,
Challenge, Pay etc.
Hygiene Factors: The factors that are not directly related but de motivate an employee if
it is absent.eg. Good relationship, Dirty environment, etc.
He also suggested two different techniques for motivation.
a. Job enlargement: Providing greater variety of tasks
b. Job enrichment: Providing wider range of more complexes, interesting and
challenging tasks.

5.3 COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Communication is the process of conveying some message, information or an idea, which

involves more than one person.

Types of communication

a. Intra personal communication: It is the communication with in one self.

b. Inter personal communication: Communication between two (one to one).
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 c. Group communication: Communication with three or more than three people.
d. Mass communication: Communication with a mass – a large group of people.

COMMUNICATION FLOW CHART

Noise

Encoding Encoder Message Decoder Decoding

Channel

Feed back

Components of communication:

a. Encoding: It is the mental process where the encoder selects the ideas, arrange them in
specific order, choose the correct language and align them.
b. Encoder: It is who communicates. Apart from the message conveyed, his gesture, body
language, tone, emotions etc also play a vital role in the process.
c. Message: The content that is conveyed by the encoder to the decoder.
d. Noise: Anything that interferes or distract the process.
e. Channel: This is the media through which the message passes. (verbal, visual etc.)
f. Decoder: The person who receives the message. His willingness, perception about the
speaker and the level of maturity plays a vital role in the process.
g. Decoding: It is the process where the receiver analyses the message, understand not only
the content, but also the purpose and feelings behind it.
h. Feed back: Response given by the decoder to encoder.
i. Context: The situation in which the communication takes place. It plays a vital role in
changing the content of the message.

FORMS OF COMMUNICATION

a. Visual communication: It is based upon one’s observation. (Signs, symbols drawings

etc)
b. Written communication: The highest form of communication generally used among
educated. (Office orders, notification, news paper etc)

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c. Verbal communication: It is the spoken form of communication used by everyone. It is
divided in to two types.

--- Formal: It takes place in meetings, seminars, training etc

---- Informal or Grape vine: Simple talking without any purpose. It flows upwards – Peon
to manager; down wards – Manager to peon; across – between relatives and friends. This
is the source for rumors and gossips.
d. Nonverbal communication: It is the communication through eyes, body language,
gesture, touch etc. This is the most effective means of communication.

BARRIERS OF COMMUNICATION

There are lots of instances where because of miscommunication or communication gap

problem arose between friends, relatives and even among countries. Hence a good
communicator knows the barriers of communication and able to avoid or control them.
Here we list out a few barriers of communication.
a. Physical Barriers: Physical environment like open place, noisy environment, closed
doors and separate areas for different people affects the communication process.
b. Perceptual Barriers: Every individual looks into the world differently. During
communication they try to understand the message according to their perception.
c. Emotional Barriers: Here the listener should respect the feeling of the speaker.
Further the emotions like fear, mistrust, suspicion etc hinder the process of
communication.
d. Cultural Barriers: When you want to communicate with a group, you have to accept
and possible adopt the behavior pattern of the group. Then the group accepts you as a
member of the group. This helps for effective communication. If this belongingness is
lacking, then the communication will be troublesome.
e. Language Barriers: Familiarity with words and expression affects the
communication. Sometimes buzz words, jargons and phrases disturb communication.
Even the interpretation of the message based on language used affects
communication.
f. Gender Barriers: Male speak in linear, logical and compartmental way using their
left brain. Women speak freely mixing logic and emotion using both part of their
brain.
g. Interpersonal Barriers: It is the impact of the way either the speaker or the listener
reacts; some type of this actions of this barrier are; Withdrawal, Rituals, Past times,
Closeness etc.

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 ROLE OF MANAGEMENT IN DEVOLOPING WORKERS
COMMUNICATION SKILLS
a. Approachable body language.
b. Call for a face to face meetings for important matters.
c. Give ears to employees’ concern and their feedback
d. Build a personal rapport with employee.
e. Involve them in important meetings and events.
f. Be a guide and friend – Help and motivate.

INDIVIDUALS ROLE IN IMPROVING WORK PLACE COMMUNICATION

a. Clarity – Don’t be ambiguous

b. Say what you want to say, don’t beat the bush.
c. Maintain good eye contact.
d. Avoid being personal.
e. Try to listen.

TIPS FOR EFFECTIVE TEAM COMMUNICATION

a. Learn to convey
b. Don’t talk but speak.
c. Be open to change.
d. Be a good listener.
e. Be patient and reasonable.
f. Feel for people.

5.4 CONFLICT MANAGEMENT SKILLS

The art of conflict resolution is a tactic that plays pivotal role in every walk of life. To
successfully run an organization, the leader should have the conflict management skills.
Here we discuss the various types of conflicts and ways and means of solving them.
Conflict: “Conflict is a situation in which two or more parties differ in thoughts,
actions and opinions”. In essence, conflict is state of disagreement on some or the total
aspects of an idea, opinion or act.

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There are Internal conflicts and External conflicts. Internal conflict is a war with in one
self or within an organization. External conflict is a struggle against an external force.
However, conflicts are classified in to three types.

Types of conflict:
a. Relationship conflict – It occurs mainly because of negative emotions and feeling
between two persons or parties. This is also called as Interpersonal conflict.
b. Data Conflict – It occurs because of wrong facts, wrongly interpreted information or
due to various communication barriers.
c. Conflicts in work place - It occurs due to personality clashes, egos, individual
perceptional differences among the employees.
SKILLS OF CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
a. Listening Skill: Either people are poor listeners or don’t want to listen to others
opinion. Most of the conflict arise because of lack of listening. Lack of listening leads
to wrong interpretation which in turn creates or increases the problem.
b. Controlling Emotions: At time of problem situation, emotional people tend to
behave in a wrong way. Hence, the leader should not get provoked and keep himself
cool, controlling his emotions. If he fails to do so, it increases the tension and
problem gets complicated.
c. Positive Attitude: It helps one to change his negative feelings and look into the
problem in a positive way. It enables him to approach the problem easily.
d. Maturity: Only a mature person with experience alone can solve the problem in a
systemic approach.
STRATEGIES OF CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
a. Avoidance: ‘Time will solve all the problems’ is their ideology here. Instead of
finding a solution for the problem, they simply avoid it or postpone it.
b. Accommodation: Here, by allowing other parties need to be fulfilled at the cost
of their need and interest they solve the problems.
c. Compromise: Here conflicts are resolved by taking both the parties into
confidence, the problems are settled.
d. Competition: Here, one gives more importance to his needs and even ready to
forgo the relationship of the other party in solving the problem.
e. Collaboration: This is the best strategy, where the problems are settled keeping
both parties interest by mutual understanding.

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TIPS FOR CONFLICT RESOLUTION

1. Try to understand the full dimensions of the problem by collecting information from
both parties and parties involved.
2. ‘Man is good but men are bad’. Have a common meeting only with the
representatives of the parties not with all members of the parties.
3. Be neutral and make all parties understand that you are neutral.
4. Allow each party to express their stand. While doing so don’t allow other party to
interfere.
5. Make everyone to stand on other’s shoe and look for solution.
6. Try to find a solution from the mutually agreed point.
7. Make them understand that the interest of the organization is your top priority than
the individuals or groups interest.
8. Try for a solution on long term basis.
9. Be bold and strong in making decision, if needed, be ready to take action against the
erring party.

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