EXPERIMENT 3

Aim To observe and compare the pressure exerted by a solid iron cuboid on fine sand/
wheat flour while resting on its three different faces and to calculate the pressure
exerted in the three different cases.

Theory

1. Thrust: The net force exerted by a body in a particular direction. (Thrust =

weight of body)
2. This force is perpendicular to the surface. When you stand on loose sand or
lie down on the sand, the thrust acting on the surface is same, but the
effects are different. Pressure increases with decrease in the area of
contact. S.I. unit of Thrust is newton (N).
3. Pressure: The thrust acting on unit area is called pressure.
4. S.I. unit of pressure = (N m-2) or pascal (Pa)

Cuboid and its surface area

Cuboid: It is a rectangular parallelepiped whose faces are not equal in length. A solid
cuboid has six faces. A pair of opposite faces are equal and have same surface area.
In the given cuboid

Area of face ABCD

i. e. Surface Area = length x breadth = 15 cm x 10 cm =150 cm 2

Area of face BCGF

Surface Area A2= length x breadth = 10 cm * 5 cm = 50 cm2
Area of face ABFE
Surface Area A3 = length x breadth = 15 cm x 5 cm = 75 cm2

Materials Required A solid cuboid made of iron with dimensions 5 cm x 10 cm x 15

cm, a tray with fine sand, spring balance, string and clamp stand.

A. Determination of weight of the given cuboid

Procedure

1. Tie the string to the cuboid.

2. Note the zero error of the spring balance.
3. Suspend the cuboid on the hook of the spring balance that is hung on the
clamp stand.
4. Note the reading of the spring balance. If the spring balance shows the
reading in newtons, record the reading shown as the weight of the cuboid.
If the spring balance shows the reading in g, then convert the reading into
newtons, as follows:
Convert the ‘g’ into kg. Multiply it with (g = 9.8 m/s2)

B. Determination of the pressure exerted by different faces of cuboid

Procedure

1. On a plain table keep a tray as shown in the figure.

2. Fill in the tray with fine sand.
3. Place the solid cuboid on the tray with fine sand as follows:
Case (a) Face 5 cm x 10 cm should be in contact with the sand.
Case (b) Face 10 cm x 15 cm should be in contact with the sand.
Case (c) Face 5 cm x 15 cm should be in contact with the sand.
4. Carefully observe the depressions made by all the three cases and record
the maximum and the minimum depression caused by the cuboid using a
scale.
5. Do the calculations to find the pressure exerted by each dimension i.e. case
a, b and c.

Observation

1 The maximum depression in the sand is seen in case (a) .

2 The minimum depression in the sand is seen in case (b) .

Calculations
1. The weight of the cuboid = 1 kg
2. Thrust exerted by the cuboid = (Force) = m x a
e.g. = 1 x 9.8 m/s2 = 9.8 N
Thrust exerted by any surface of the cuboid remains the same = 9.8 N.
3. Surface area
Case (a) 5 cm x 10 cm = 50 cm2 = 5 x10-3 m2
Case (b) 10 cm x 15 cm = 150 cm2 = 15 x10-3 m2
Case (c) 5 cm x 15 cm = 75 cm2 = 75 x10-4 m2

Observation Table
Mass of the cuboid (m) = 1000 g = 1 kg.

Conclusion
For any given cuboid 1 Smaller the surface area of contact, greater is the pressure
exerted. 2
The pressure exerted by the body depends on the surface area that comes in contact
with the sand.

3 The depression on the sand is directly proportional to the pressure exerted by the
body.

Precautions

1. Carefully and gently place the cuboid on the sand.

2. The spring balance should be checked for proper range and zero error.
3. Weight of the cuboid and measuring of the height of depression on sand
should be taken accurately.
4. Sand should be wet.
 EXPERIMENT 4

Aim To determine the melting point of ice and boiling point of water.

Theory

1. Melting Point: The temperature at which the solid changes into liquid at the
atmospheric pressure is called melting point. For example, ice melts at 0°C
to form water.
2. Boiling Point: The temperature at which the liquid boils and changes into
gaseous state at the atmospheric pressure is called boiling point. For
example, water boils at 100°C to form water vapour (at 76 cm pressure).
3. Latent Heat of Fusion: The heat energy absorbed during the melting of ice
is stored in the water formed, this energy is called latent heat of fusion. The
amount of heat energy that is required to change 1 kg of a solid into liquid
at atmospheric pressure at its melting point is known as the latent heat of
fusion.
4. Latent Heat of Vaporisation: The heat energy absorbed by water when it
changed its phase to steam, this hidden heat is called latent heat of
vaporisation.

Conditions Affecting Melting Point and Boiling Point

Materials Required Two thermometers, (Celsius scale), boiling tube, a glass rod, two
iron stands, a bunsen burner, wire gauze, beakers, tripod stand, distilled water, ice cubes
prepared from distilled water.

Procedure
(A)To determine the boiling point of water.

1. Take 25-30 ml of water in a boiling tube and add few pumice stones to it.
2. Clamp the boiling tube on iron stand with two holed cork, in one hole fix the
thermometer and in the other one fix the delivery tube.
3. Place the thermometer above the water in the flask as shown in the figure
and record its temperature.
 4. Place a burner under the boiling tube.
5. Read the temperature and record it in the given observation table till the
water boils. Record the reading after the time interval of 1 minute.

Observation Table

Result Boiling Point of water is 100 °C. (Once the boiling point is attained the
temperature reading on thermometer does not change for sometime.)

(B)To determine the melting point of ice.

1. Take a beaker half-filled with the dry crushed ice obtained from distilled
water.
2. Suspend a Celsius thermometer from the clamp stand such that the bulb of
the thermometer is completely surrounded by ice.
3. Read the thermometer reading and record the temperature after every 1
minute till the ice melts and the thermometer reading remains stationary
for 2 minutes.
 4. Note the readings in the observation table.

Observation Table

Result Melting point of ice is 0 °C.(Once the melting of ice begins the temperature
remains constant for some time.)

Precautions

1. Choose a better quality thermometer whose graduated scale is clearly

readable.
2. Record the temperature in whole numbers.
3. While reading the thermometer the eye level should be parallel with
mercury level.
4. Dip only the bulb of thermometer into water/ice.
5. Thermometer should not touch the walls of beaker or boiling tube

EXPERIMENT 5
Aim To verify the laws of reflection of sound.

Theory

1. Sound: It is a form of energy produced by vibration and it needs medium to

propagate.
2. Reflection of sound: As light reflects when it strikes any hard object
(opaque), sound also gets reflected when it strikes any object.

Laws of Reflection of sound

1. The angle of incidence is always equal to the angle of reflection.

2. The incident sound wave, the normal and the reflected sound wave lie in the
same plane.

Materials Required Two highly polished metal tubes made up of stainless steel or
aluminium of length 25 cm and diameter 2 cm, a drawing sheet, metal plate, a
geometrical set, thumb pins, drawing board/table, stopwatch, metal stand.

Procedure

1. Fix the white sheet on drawing board with thumb pin.

2. Draw a line AB to place the metal plate as reflecting surface with the help of
metal stand, and draw normal OP to this line as shown in the figure.
3. Now draw a line OC making an angle of 30° with the line OP.
4. Place one metal tube near to the point O of normal and metal plate on the
line OC.
 5. Place the ticking watch closer to one end of this metal tube.
6. Now place the second tube so that its one end is near to the point O. Bring
your ear close to the other end and adjust its position such that it collects the
maximum reflected sound.
7. Mark the position of the tube when it collects the clear and maximum reflected
sound.
8. Draw an extended line of reflected sound wave and mark it as OD.
9. Measure the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection.
10. Follow the above procedure and record your observation thrice.
11.

Observation Table

Result 1 The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

2 The incident, normal and reflected sound waves lie in the same plane.

Precautions 1 The metal plate should be placed vertical on the drawing board.
2 Both the pipes used should be clean and shining.
3The sound producer i.e. stopwatch should be placed closer to the end of the metallic tube.
4Avoid touching of the source of sound to the metal tube
5 .Maintain complete silence in the lab.

EXPERIMENT 6

Aim To identify parenchyma and sclerenchyma tissues in plants, striated muscle fibres
and nerve cells in animals, from prepared (permanent) slides and to draw their labelled
diagrams.
Theory Tissues: A group of cells having similar structure, origin and functions is called
a tissue. There are two types of tissues — plant tissues and animal tissues.

Materials Required
Permanent slides of parenchyma tissues, sclerenchyma tissues, straited muscle fibre,
nerve cell and compound microscope.

Procedure Place the compound microscope where proper light can be received and
reflected on the slide. Place the permanent slides one by one. Observe its structure and
draw diagrams.

Observations
I. Plant tissues

(a) Parenchymatous tissues:

1. All cells are same in size and length.

 2. Corners of the cells show intercellular spaces.
3. Each cell shows prominent nucleus and a large central vacuole.
4. Each cell has thin cell walls.
5. Intercellular spaces are present in between the cells.

Inference

1. These are plant cells as large vacuole is seen and cell wall is present.
2. These are all living cells.
3. These cells are present all over the plant body i.e. — stems, leaves, roots,
flowers and fruits.

(b) Sclerenchymatous tissues:

1. These cells show thick comers and thick cell walls.

2. They do not have any protoplasm in it.
3. They show lignified walls.
 4. They can be divided into two types: sclerenchyma fibres and sclereids.
5These cells are dead.

Inference
The sclerenchymatous tissues are dead cells, with hard cell wall and provides
mechanical support to plant. For e.g. coconut husk, hard shells of fruits.

(c) Collenchymatous tissues:

1. The cells of collenchyma may be oval or elongated.

2. Each cell consists of central nucleus with cytoplasm at the periphery.
3. Cell walls are thickened at the comers. The thickening is due to cellulose
and pectin.
4. Intercellular space is absent.
5. These cells are commonly seen below the epidermis in petiole, leaves and
stems.
6 Its main function is to provide mechanical strength.

Inference
 1. These cells have thick comers.
2. There is no space between the cells.
3. The nucleus is prominent at the periphery with cytoplasm but the centre of
the cells consist of vacuole.

II. Animal tissues

(a) Striated muscles:

1. These muscles show long cylindrical fibres.

2. The cells are multinucleated.
3. The muscles show alternate dark and light bands.
4. The cells are surrounded and held by connective tissue.
5. The cells are surrounded by a membrane called as sarcolemma.

Inference

1. The slide shows cylindrical fibres, with dark and light bands
2. These are voluntary muscles and work according to our will.

(b) Non-striated muscles or Smooth muscles:

1. The cells are spindle-shaped.

2. Nucleus is centrally located.
3. These muscles do not show dark and light bands striations.
4. Non-striated muscles are involuntary in nature.
 5. They are found in blood vessels and in alimentary canal.

Inference

1. The cells of non-striated muscles are tapering at both the ends i.e., spindle-
shaped.
2. The nucleus is prominent and is centrally located.
3. The dark and light bands are not seen.

(c) Cardiac muscles:

1. Cardiac muscle cells are long, branched and uninucleate.

2. They show alternate light and dark bands.
3. These are involuntary muscles.
4. They are seen only in the walls of heart.
 5. They are non-tiring muscles and responsible for rhythmic contraction and
relaxation of heart muscles throughout life.

Inference

1. These cells are branched and each cell consist of single nucleus.
2. The striations are seen.

(d) Nerve cell:

1. The nerve cells has a neuron with a large body called cyton.
2. The cyton has a prominent nucleus.
3. It has projections called dendrites.
4. One of the dendrite which is long called axon.
5. The nerve endings are attached to muscles.

Inference
Each nerve cell consists of prominent nucleus and granular cytoplasm with projections
called dendrites
Precautions

1. Handle the microscope carefully.

2. Handle the permanent slides carefully.
3. Always focus the slide first at low power and then at high power.
6.