1.

0 Introduction
1.1 Abstract
This experiment aimed to compare and contrast the tensile strength and mechanical properties
of mild steel and aluminium. Using this testing procedure, yield strength, ultimate tensile
strength, ductility, strain hardening characteristics, and Young's modulus are all determined
and compared. By calculating the amount of force required to stretch a specimen to its
breaking point, material properties can be evaluated, allowing one to predict how a material
will perform in its intended application.

1.2 Introduction

Tensile Testing is a destructive engineering and materials science test in which a sample is
subjected to controlled tension until it fails completely.

This is one of the most used mechanical test methods. It is used to assess a material's
durability and the maximum strain that it can withstand before failing. Using this test method,
it is possible to evaluate the yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, ductility, strain
hardening characteristics, Young's modulus, and Poisson's ratio.

Tensile test specimens are created using a variety of techniques depending on the test
conditions. Most specimens have two shoulders and a standard cross section that is either
square or round, with a shorter section gauge length in between. The specimen can be
grasped thanks to the shoulders, and the gauge length shows how the elastic area fails when
extended under force. When using the load over area method to calculate engineering stress,
certain dimensions' shorter cross section gauge lengths are helpful.
Tensile testing shows data about a material's tensile mechanical characteristics. These
parameters may be represented as a stress/strain curve on a graph to highlight details like the
point at which the material broke as well as properties like modulus of elasticity, strain, and
yield strength.

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Tensile testing has a variety of uses, including:

 Selecting materials for an application

 Predicting how a material will perform under different forces
 Determining whether the requirements of a specification, contract or standard are met
 Demonstrating proof of concept for a new product
 Proving characteristics for a proposed patent
 Providing standard quality assurance data for scientific and engineering functions
 Comparing technical data for different material options
 Material testing to provide evidence for use in legal proceedings

1.3 Objective

1. Observe the Stress-Strain relation for Steel and/or other metallic material

2. For each metal tested, determine the following properties:

a. Proportional Limit
b. Yield Strength
c. Ultimate Strength
d. Young’s Modulus
e. Modulus of Resilience
f. Toughness
g. Percent Reduction of Area
h. Percent Elongation in 2 inches

3. Compare results with reference values

4. Compare formulas approximating E, Resilience and Toughness with values computed

from the Stress-Strain Curves.

PL
5. Assess the validity of the axial deflection equation,  
AE

6. Observe the characteristics of a tensile failure.

3
2.0 Theory

An understanding of the mechanical behavior of materials is necessary and essential for the
safe engineering design of all types of structures and machines. One of the most fundamental
concepts in strength of materials is the stress-strain behavior of a prismatic bar under axial
tension. Most materials are assumed to be homogeneous, i.e. having the same material property
throughout all parts of the bar (the same material property throughout all parts of the bar). For
ductile materials such as metals, at low stress level and according to Hooke’s Law, the stress-
strain curve is a straight line, of which the slope is equal to the Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s
Modulus (E) of the material, which is:

Stress  pl
E   (1-1)
Strain  pl

As the stress increases, a point on the curve where the linear stress-strain relationship ends is
commonly known as the “Proportional Limit” of the material. For some materials, two other
significant points may also be observed in close proximity to the proportional limit, which are
the Elastic Limit and the Yield Point. The former is the maximum stress that can be applied to
a member, at which upon unloading the material will return to its original length without
causing any permanent damage to the material. The latter is a critical stage of stress, Yield
Stress ( y), at which yielding starts. The Yield strength of metal is one of the critical
parameters used in most engineering designs. Once loading applied beyond the elastic limit,
permanent damage is induced in the material resulting to residual strain or permanent
deformation upon unloading. This can be visualized from the necking of the test specimens,
which directly corresponds to the reduction in the cross sectional area. Non-ductile or brittle
materials do not normally exhibit a well defined Yield Point. For these materials the stress that
causes 0.2% residual strain upon unloading is commonly used as the Yield strength of the
material. At high stress level, the maximum stress that the material can withstand is usually
referred to as the Ultimate Strength,  ult . For brittle materials, rupture usually takes place at
the ultimate load. However, in ductile materials, the Rupture Strength ( f) may occur after the
ultimate strength is reached as straining continues beyond the ultimate strain ( ult). See the
diagram shown in Figure 1-1.

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Figure 1-1 shows a typical stress-strain diagram for ductile steel in tension. The engineering
(nominal) stress is calculated using the original cross-sectional area (P/A) whereas the
strain is determined from the ratio of the elongation over the initial length of the member
(=L). According to Hooke’s law, i.e.  = E, where E is the Modulus of Elasticity or
Young’s Modulus, the elongation of the member can be calculated from:

L PL
  L   (1-2)
E AE

True Stress-Strain curve


E’
Ultimate stress,  ult
D Conventional or
Engineering
Yield stress,  y E stress-strain curve
B C Fracture
A
Proportional limit,  pl
f
 pl
E=
 pl
O


Linear Perfect Strain Necking

region  pl plasticity hardening  u f
or yielding

Figure 1-1: Typical stress-strain diagram for ductile metal in tension

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Axial Stress
Axial Stress is caused by a force operating perpendicular to an area of a body, causing the
material to extend or compress. Therefore, axial stress is defined by σ=P/A, where σ=total
axial stress (N𝑚−2), P= pressure or load (N), A=cross-sectional area (𝑚2 )

P

A

Axial Strain

Strain is a unitless measurement of how much an item expands or contracts as a result of a

load put to it. The Greek symbol epsilon denotes normal strain, which happens when an item
elongates in response to a normal tension. A positive figure means tensile strain, whereas a
negative value indicates compressive strain. Shear strain is indicated by the Greek letter
gamma and occurs when an item deforms in response to a shear stress. The normal strain is
equal to the change in length divided by the original length in the case of extension, or
longitudinal compression.



l

Young’s Modulus
Young's modulus is a mathematical term that describes how flexible something is. The
Young modulus, also known as the modulus of elasticity in tension or compression, is a
mechanical characteristic that quantifies a solid material's tensile or compressive stiffness
when applied longitudinally. The Young's modulus (E), which is defined as the ratio of
tensile stress (σ) to tensile strain (ε), is a material characteristic that shows us how easily it
can stretch and compress. Where stress equals force per unit area (σ = F/A) and strain equals
extension per unit length (ε = 𝛿/l).


E


6
Axial Deformation
Axial deformation is the deformation that happens in a body as a result of axial loading. The
structure's axis does not changed after axial deformation. The plane's cross section area will
stay constant. Therefore, by using the equation Young’s Modulus, strain and stress, a formula
for axial deformation can be derive as below.

Pl

AE
Properties under consideration
a) Proportional Limit

The proportional limit on a stress-strain curve is the location where the linear, elastic
deformation area transforms into a non-linear, plastic deformation region. The proportional
limit, in other words, determines the maximum stress that is proportionate to strain.

b) Modulus of Resilience

The modulus of resilience is defined as the highest amount of energy that may be absorbed
per unit volume without resulting in permanent deformation. It can be calculated by
integrating the stress-strain curve from zero to the elastic limit.

c) Yield Strength

The maximum stress that a material can tolerate without deforming plastically is measured by
yield strength. It is the stress at which a material exhibits a certain kind of persistent
deformation, and it is a reasonable approximation of the elastic limit.

d) Modulus of Toughness

The modulus of toughness describes a material's ability to absorb energy through plastic
deformation. It refers to the maximum strain energy density (strain per volume of material)
that a strength is the stress before failing. In PSI or Pascals, the toughness modulus is
expressed.

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e) Ultimate Strength

The ultimate tensile strength of a material is what gives it the best resistance to fracture
(UTS). It is comparable to the maximum load that one square meter of cross-sectional area
can support when the load is delivered as simple tension. The UTS is the highest engineering
stress in a uniaxial stress-strain test.

f) Percentage Reduction of Area

A ratio that depicts how much the specimen narrowed when compared to its initial size is
called percent reduction of area. It's computed by multiplying the difference between the
original and new cross-sectional areas at the failure point by the test specimen's original
cross-sectional area.

g) Modulus of Elasticity

The Modulus of Elasticity(E), which is defined as the ratio of tensile stress (σ) to tensile
strain (ε), is a material attribute that indicates how readily it can stretch and flex.

h) Percentage of Elongation

Percent elongation is a measurement that measures the amount a material will plastically and
elastically bend up to fracture. Percent elongation is one approach to assess and quantify the
ductility of a material. The percentage of elongation and ductility of a material are
determined by comparing its ultimate length to its initial length.

Equations for the Modulus of Resilience, Toughness and Modulus of Elasticity

Modulus of Resilience
𝑈𝑟 = 𝜎𝑝𝑙 2 ÷ 2𝐸

Modulus of Toughness
1
𝑈𝑟 = [(𝑆𝑦 + 𝑆𝑢 ) ÷ 2]× 𝜀𝑢-[(𝑆𝑦 + 𝑆𝑢 ) ÷ 2]2 × 2𝐸

8
Modulus of Elasticity

E


3.0 Procedures

Step 1: Using a Vernier caliper, the initial diameter specimen was measured twice in
perpendicular directions.

9
Step 2: Using a scale, the specimen's length was determined.

Step 3: Punch marks was made at a distance of 2.5d.

Step 4: The specimen was inserted into its position and extensometer were mounted on the
specimen

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Step 5: The dial readings on each extensometer are reset to zero.

Step 6: An experiment was carried out. Extensometer readings of the load were taken at
regular intervals up to the yield point. Readings on the ivory scale were recorded up until the
specimen failed.

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Step 7: After joining the two pieces of the fractured specimen, the diameter of the

Step 8: Between each of the three punch marks, the final length was calculated.

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 Measurement Value
Initial load 0kN
Maximum load 61kN
Initial diameter 12.6mm
Final diameter 8.83mm
Initial gauge length 186mm
Final length 212.68mm
Table 3.1 Data required for (Mild Steel)

Measurement Value
Initial load 0kN
Maximum load 57kN
Initial diameter 12.55mm
Final diameter 7.47mm
Initial gauge length 192mm
Final length 210.6mm
Table 3.2 Data required for (Aluminum)

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4.0 Results

4.1 Mild steel

Figure 4.1.1 Experimental stress-strain diagrams

Conventional or
Ultimate stress,  ult D Engineering
stress-strain curve
Yield stress,  y

B E
A C Fracture

Proportional limit,  pl
O

Linear Strain hardening  u Necking  f
region  pl
Figure 4.1.2 stress-strain curve

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 Figure 4.1.3 linear elastic portion of the stress-strain curve

I. Proportional Limit

41kN

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 II. Yield Strength

42kN

𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
Yield Stress = Ai = πd2 ÷ 4
𝐴𝑜
42 𝑘𝑁
= π (12.6mm) 2 ÷ 4
= 124.68 mm2 = 124.68 mm2
= 336.84 N/mm 2

III. Ultimate Strength

61kN
N

𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
Tensile Strength = 𝐴𝑖 Ai = πd2 ÷ 4
61 𝑘𝑁
= π (12.6mm) 2 ÷ 4
= 124.68 mm2
= 124.68 mm2

= 481.23 MPa

IV. Modulus of Elasticity (or Young’s Modulus)

1 𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Slope × 𝐿𝐶 ×𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝐼𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟= E

1 120𝑚𝑚
2.21 × 0.01 ×124.68𝑚𝑚2 = 212.7 GPa

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Percent elongation in the 2-inch gauge length
Percent of elongation
𝐿𝑓−𝐿𝑜
% elongation = × 100
𝐿𝑜

Where, Lo = Initial Length (62.88mm)

Lf = Final Length (87mm)
87𝑚𝑚−62.88𝑚𝑚
= × 100
62.88𝑚𝑚

= 38.36%

Percent reduction of cross-sectional area

𝐴𝑜−𝐴𝑓
% reduction in area = × 100
𝐴𝑜

Where , Ao = Initial Length (124.88 mm2)

Af = Final Length (61.24 mm2)
124.88 mm2− 61.24 mm2
= × 100
124.88 mm2

= 50.97%

Modulus of Resilience
𝑈𝑟 = 𝜎𝑝𝑙 2 ÷ 2𝐸
= (40𝑥103 )2 ÷ 2(212.7𝑥109 )
= 3.761x10−3 𝐽𝑚−3

Modulus of Toughness
1
𝑈𝑟 = [(𝑆𝑦 + 𝑆𝑢 ) ÷ 2]× 𝜀𝑢-[(𝑆𝑦 + 𝑆𝑢 ) ÷ 2]2 × 2𝐸
1
𝑈𝑟 = [(41𝑥103 + (60𝑥103 ) ÷ 2]× 38[(41𝑥103 + (60𝑥103 ) ÷ 2]2 × 2(212.7𝑥109 )

=1.919MPa

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 Property Experimental Reference Calculated Percentage
of error (%)
Proportional Limit (kN) 41 N/A N/A N/A
Yield Strength (N/mm2 ) 336.84 336.86 336.84 0.01
Ultimate Strength (N/mm2 ) 481.23 481.23 481.23 0.00

Modulus of Elasticity (GPa) 212.7 212.61 212.7 -0.04

Modulus of Resilience N/A N/A 3.761x10−3 N/A

(Jm−3 )
Modulus of Toughness N/A N/A 1.919 N/A
(MPa)
Percentage Reduction of 50.91 50.91 50.97 0.00
Area
Percentage Elongation of 38.36 38.36 38.36 0.00
gauge length
Elongation when the load at N/A N/A 1.403x10−7 N/A
50% (m)
Table 1. Summary Table of Results (Mild Steel)

4.2 Aluminum

Figure 4.2.1 Experimental stress-strain diagram

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 Conventional or
Ultimate stress,  ult D Engineering
stress-strain curve

Yield stress,  y E
B
C Fracture
A
Proportional limit,  pl
f

O

Linear Strain hardening  u Necking  f
region  pl
Figure 4.2.2 stress-strain curve

Figure 4.2.3 linear elastic portion of the stress-strain curve

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 I. Proportional Limit

35kN

II. Yield Strength

38kN

𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
Yield Stress = 𝐴𝑜
Ai = πd2 ÷ 4
38 𝑘𝑁
= 123.64 mm2 = π (12.55mm) 2 ÷ 4
= 123.64 mm2
= 307.34 N/mm 2

III. Ultimate Strength

57kN

𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
Tensile Strength = 𝐴𝑖
57 𝑘𝑁
= 123.64 mm2
Ai = πd2 ÷ 4
= π (12.55mm) 2 ÷ 4
= 461.02 MPa = 123.64 mm2

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IV. Modulus of Elasticity (or Young’s Modulus)

1 𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Slope × 𝐿𝐶 ×𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝐼𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟= E

1 120𝑚𝑚
2.18x10−3 × 0.01 ×123.64𝑚𝑚2 = 211.58 GPa

Percent elongation in the 2-inch gauge length

Percent of elongation
𝐿𝑓−𝐿𝑜
% elongation = × 100
𝐿𝑜

Where, Lo = Initial Length (62.88mm)

Lf = Final Length (87mm)
86𝑚𝑚−62.3𝑚𝑚
= × 100
62.3𝑚𝑚

= 38.04%

Percent reduction of cross-sectional area

𝐴𝑜−𝐴𝑓
% reduction in area = × 100
𝐴𝑜

Where, Ao = Initial Length (123.64 mm2)

Af = Final Length (43.86 mm2)
123.64 mm2− 43.86mm
= × 100
123.64 mm2

= 64.53%

Modulus of Resilience
𝑈𝑟 = 𝜎𝑝𝑙 2 ÷ 2𝐸
= (35𝑥103 )2 ÷ 2(211.58𝑥109 )
= 2.895x10−3 𝐽𝑚−3

Modulus of Toughness
1
𝑈𝑟 = [(𝑆𝑦 + 𝑆𝑢 ) ÷ 2]𝜀𝑢-[(𝑆𝑦 + 𝑆𝑢 ) ÷ 2]2 × 2𝐸
1
𝑈𝑟 = [(38𝑥103 + (57𝑥103 ) ÷ 2]27 − [(38𝑥103 + (57𝑥103 ) ÷ 2]2 × 2(211.58𝑥109 )

=1.283MPa

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 Property Experimental Reference Calculated Percentage of error
(%)
Proportional Limit (kN) 35 N/A N/A N/A
Yield Strength (N/mm2 ) 307.34 307.34 N/A 0.00
Ultimate Strength (N/mm2 ) 461.02 461.02 N/A 0.00
Modulus of Elasticity (GPa) 211.58 211.48 211.58 -0.05
Modulus of Resilience (Jm−3 ) N/A N/A 2.895x10−3 N/A
Modulus of Toughness (MPa) N/A N/A 1.283 N/A
Percentage Reduction of Area 64.53 64.53 64.53 0.00
Percentage Elongation of 38.3 38.36 38.3 0.00
gauge length
Elongation when the load at N/A N/A 1.284x10−4 N/A
50% (m)
Table 2. Summary Table of Results (Aluminum)

Figure 4.0.1 Simulation result from (Mild Steel)

Figure 4.0.2 Simulation result from (Aluminum)

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5.0 Question & Discussion

The percentage differences between the measured and the referenced for each speciment is
around -0.05% to 0.01 for both specimen that are Aluminum and Mild Steel. The difference
is low because of some unaccountable decimal that are too low too calculate. Hence the value
between the measured and the refferenced are slightly different. The material were proven to
be what it claimed because from it, the values of Proportional Limit, Yield strength, Ultimate
Strength, Young’s Modulus, Modulus of Resilience, Modulus of Toughness, percent
reduction of area and percent elongation are able to be obtain.

Both material testing and force measurement use the same test procedure, but the
measurement findings are different. A tensile test is used to determine a material's or
component's tensile strength. The deformation of the test sample is used to determine its
ductility or brittleness, as well as other essential properties including tensile strength, yield
point, elastic limit, percent of elongation, elastic modulus, and toughness.

The difference in modulus of elastic, modulus of resilience, and modulus of toughness may
be determined using the stress strain curve. The modulus of elasticity that were acquired from
the data has a larger value than the others.

Modulus of elasticity Modulus of Resilience Modulus of Toughness

(GPA) (Jm−3 ) (MPA)

211.58 (AL) 212.7 (MS) 2.895x10−3 3.761x10−3 1.283 (AL) 1.919 (MS)
(AL) (MS)

 Aluminium (AL)
 Mild Steel (MS)

Based on the above table, the modulus of elasticity is greater than the modulus of toughness
and resilience. This result is appropriate because toughness essentially absorbs or releases
energy when deformation occurs, compressive stiffness occurs in metals, and it makes sense
that the stress value is greater than modulus resilience.

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 Failure stress of Mild Steel Final stress of Mild Steel
𝑃 𝑃
𝜎=𝐴 𝜎=𝐴
47 41
𝜎=61.24 𝜎=124.68
𝜎=767.47 N/m𝑚 𝜎=328.84 N/m𝑚

Failure stress of Aluminium Final stress of Aluminium

𝑃 𝑃
𝜎=𝐴 𝜎=𝐴
48 35
𝜎= 𝜎=
43.86 123.64
𝜎=1.094 kN/m𝑚 𝜎=283.08 N/m𝑚

The engineering stress at failure for both specimens is greater than the final stress when
deformation results from ultimate tensile strength, when the stress is at its highest prior to
necking and fracture.

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The toughness value for Mild Steel is 1.919MPa and 1.283MPa for Aluminum. The ability of
a material to absorb energy during plastic deformation is measured by its modulus of
toughness. It is defined as the maximum amount of strain energy density (strain per unit
volume of material) that a material can absorb before breakage. Modulus of Resilience value
for Mild Steel is 3.761x10−3 Jm−3 and 2.895x10−3 Jm−3 for Aluminum. The energy needed
to break a solid material in tensile testing per unit volume is known as the modulus of
toughness. Resilience is an essential quality to consider when high elastic deformation is
desired, but toughness is critical for metal forming activities.

Because the stress needed to maintain plastic deformation increases to its maximum after
yielding, then decreases until the fracture point, both specimens fail by ductile means. The
peak of the stress-strain curve is the tensile strength, which equates to ultimate strength. Up
to this point, the tensile specimen has undergone consistent deformation. However, at this
maximum stress, a minor constriction, or neck, occurs (often toward the sample's centre), and
all subsequent deformation is restricted within this neck. This is referred to as "necking," and
eventually the neck will fracture.

6.0 Conclussion

As a conclusion, we were able to tensile test aluminium and mild steel using the universal
testing equipment, and from the data gathered, we were able to determine the two metals'
yield stress, young's modulus, and ultimate tensile strength. When the values of the two
metals are compared, it is clear that mild steel has greater values for all three characteristics
than aluminium, indicating that it is stronger and more ductile. Aluminum is a less dense
metal, making it lighter. But because it cannot bear as much stress as mild steel, more of it
must frequently be used, sometimes to the point where the cost difference is insignificant.
The test findings for the material properties of the two specimens studied were rather close to
the prescribed values. This confirms that the testing methodology was accurate and that the
materials under evaluation lacked any significant flaws. The little deviations from the target
values in the results were caused by instrument error and variations in the atomic structure
properties of the materials used.

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