Topic 3: Differential Calculus

Mathematics Applied to Marketing

Degree in Marketing
 Definition
Definition:
Let I be an open Interval that contains “a” and 𝑓: 𝐼 → ℝ a real function,
then if the following limit exists, we say f is derivable (or differential) in “a”
and we denote:

′
𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑦 𝑓 𝑎 + ℎ − 𝑓(𝑎) 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑎 = | = lim = lim
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝑎 ℎ→0 ℎ 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎

Geometrically:

𝑓 𝑎+ℎ −𝑓(𝑎)
The quatient represents the tangent of the angle dtermined by the
ℎ
Segment between two points (𝑎, 𝑓 𝑎 ) and (𝑎 + ℎ, 𝑓 𝑎 + ℎ ).

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 Interpretation
Making ℎ smaller and smaller, the derivative gives us the slope of the tangent
line to the curve 𝑓 at the point 𝑎, 𝑓 𝑎 .

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 Derivative as velocity
Derivaive as velocity:

• If the function 𝑓 = 𝑓(𝑥) describes the distance y in terms of time x,

the derivative 𝑓 ′ 𝑎 represents the limit between the mean
velocities in the Interval of time (𝑎, 𝑎 + ℎ) when ℎ tends to zero.

• The derivative = instantaneous velocity

For any given function, in general the derivative is the velocity

broadly speaking (measurement of the variation of the output as
a function of changes in the input).

Proposition:
𝑓 derivable in 𝑎 ⇒ 𝑓 is continous
in 𝑎

1
𝑓 𝑥 = is derivable in 0 because
𝑥
it is not continous in 0

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 Example
• 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 is not derivable in
0

𝑓 𝑥 −𝑓(0)
Because lim− at left of 0 is equal to -1 and from right is 1.
𝑥→0 𝑥−0

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 Example
3
• 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 is not derivable or differential in 0

𝑓 𝑥 −𝑓(0)
Because lim does not exist.
𝑥→0 𝑥−0
The quotient tends to ∞ (corresponding to vertical line)

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 Example
3 3
• 𝑓 𝑥 = 5 𝑥 2 − 2 𝑥 5 is not derivable in 0

𝑓 𝑥 −𝑓(0)
Because lim does not exist.
𝑥→0 𝑥−0

The limits from right and left of zero are different (there are a peak
or maximum)
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 Properties
In the following we asume that 𝑐 is a constant and 𝑓 and 𝑔 are differential
functions

5. If 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑐, then 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 0
2. If F 𝑥 = 𝑐. 𝑓(𝑥) then 𝐹 ′ 𝑥 = 𝑐. 𝑓′(𝑥)
3. If 𝐺 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥) then 𝐺 ′ 𝑥 = 𝑓′(𝑥) ± 𝑔′(𝑥)

4. Product Rule
If 𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 . 𝑔(𝑥) then 𝑃′ 𝑥 = 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 . 𝑔 𝑥 + 𝑓 𝑥 . 𝑔′(𝑥)

Example:
𝑑
𝑥+2 . 𝑥+3 = 1. 𝑥 + 3 + 𝑥 + 2 . 1
𝑑𝑥

5. Quotient rule
𝑓(𝑥) ′ 𝑓′ 𝑥 .𝑔 𝑥 −𝑓 𝑥 .𝑔′(𝑥)
If 𝑄 𝑥 = then 𝑄 𝑥 =
𝑔(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥)2

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 Properties
Example:
𝑑 3𝑥(2𝑥 + 3) 3 . 2𝑥 + 3 + 3𝑥 . 2 . 𝑥 + 2 − 3𝑥 2𝑥 + 3 . 1
= = …
𝑑𝑥 𝑥+2 𝑥+2 2

6. Power Rule:
Let n be any real number. If 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑛 therefore 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 𝑛. 𝑥 𝑛−1

Example:
𝑑
3𝑥 7 + 5𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 3 = 21𝑥 6 + 15𝑥 2 − 4𝑥
𝑑𝑥

7. Derivatives of common trigonometric functions

𝑑 𝑑
sin 𝑥 = cos 𝑥 csc 𝑥 = − csc 𝑥 . 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
cos 𝑥 = − sin 𝑥 sec 𝑥 = sec 𝑥 . tan 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
tan 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 = −𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥 = − 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

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 Properties
8. Chain Rule:
If 𝐹 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑜 𝑓 = 𝑔 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑓′(𝑥), 𝑔′(𝑥) exist, then 𝐹 ′ 𝑥 = 𝑔′ 𝑓 𝑥 . 𝑓′(𝑥)

Example:
𝑑
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (tan 𝑥) = 2. cos(tan 𝑥)(− sin(tan 𝑥)). (1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
9. Let f be one differential function in the point a. The linear approximation of f at a
is defined as a linear function 𝐿 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑓 ′ 𝑎 . 𝑥 − 𝑎 .

Example:
𝑓 𝑥 = −𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 2, 𝑎 = 1
𝑑𝑓
𝐿 𝑥 =𝑓 1 + | . x − 1 = 1 + 2. x − 1 = 2x − 1
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=1

Zoom of right side fig.

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 Properties
10. Theorem of extreme values:
If f is a continuous function in a closed interval 𝑎, 𝑏 , therefore that function has a
absolute maximum 𝑓 𝑐 and absolute mínimum 𝑓(𝑑) for certain points c,d in the interval
[𝑎,b].

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 Properties
11. Theorem of Fermat:
If f has a local extreme at c and 𝑓 ′ 𝑐 exists, so 𝑓 ′ 𝑐 = 0.

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 Critical Points
12. A critical point for one function f is a real number c from its domain such that
𝑓 ′ 𝑐 = 0 or 𝑓′(𝑐) does not exist.

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 Extremes
13. To find values of absolute maximum and mínimum of a continuous function
in a closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏]:

1. Find out values of f at critical points of f in [𝑎, 𝑏]

2. Compare those values with 𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑓(𝑏)

(the biggest value is a maximum while the smaller is the minimum.

Example: Find máximum and mínimum of 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 1 in the
Interval [−2,2]
−4
Critical Point: 2,
3
Values of function at critical point
−4 203
𝑓 2 = −11 𝑓 = = 7,52
3 7

Values at the extremes of the

interval:
𝑓 −2 = 5 𝑓 2 = 11
203
Max and Min of f in [-2,2] are: and
7
− 11
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 Theorem of Rolle
14. Rolle’s theorem:
Let f be a function that satisfies the following 3 properties:
1. f is continuous on the closed interval 𝑎, 𝑏
2. f is differentiable on the open interval 𝑎, 𝑏
3. 𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑓(𝑏)
Then, there is at least one number c in (𝑎, 𝑏) such that 𝑓 ′ 𝑐 = 0

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 Mean-value theorem
15. Mean-value theorem:
Let f be a function satisfying the two following hypotesis:
1. f is continuous on the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏]
2. f is differentiable on the open interval (𝑎, 𝑏)
Then, there exists a number c in (𝑎, 𝑏) such that
𝑓 𝑏 − 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓′ 𝑐 =
𝑏−𝑎

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 Behaviour
16. If 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 0 for every 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏), then f is constant on (𝑎, 𝑏).
17. If 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 𝑔′ (𝑥) for every 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏), then 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑥 + 𝑐 for 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏)
18. Criteria for monotone functions:
Le f be a continuous function on the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] and differentiable on
(𝑎, 𝑏)
1. If 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 > 0 for every 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏), then f is increasing on [𝑎, 𝑏]
2. If 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 > 0 for every 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏), then f is decreasing on [𝑎, 𝑏].

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 Concavity
19: Criterium for concavity:
Let f a twice differentiable functionon an interval I
1. If 𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 > 0 for all 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏), then the graph of f is Concave Up
2. If 𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 < 0 for all 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏), then the graph of f is Concave Down

20. A given point P of the curve is said to be Saddle Point if the

curve at P changes from concave-up to concave-down and
viceversa.
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 Use of second derivative
21. Criterium of second derivative for local extreme points:
Let us asume that 𝑓′′ is continuous on an open interval that contains a point c
1. If 𝑓 ′ 𝑐 = 0 and 𝑓 ′′ 𝑐 > 0, then f has a local minimum at c
2. If 𝑓 ′ 𝑐 = 0 and 𝑓 ′′ 𝑐 < 0, then f has a local máximum at c.

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 Drawing a graph
22. Procedure to sketch a graph of a function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
Find out:
Its domain →Intercepts (with axes) → Symmetries → Asymptots →tendency →local
Extremes →Concavity and saddle points.
Example:
5 − 5cos(𝑥)
𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥

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