yahweh`

ESCI REVIEWER

Earth’s Internal Heat

The internal heat of the Earth - is the flow of

heat energy within the internal structure of Earth
by conversion of heat energy into other forms
of energy.

-internal heat of the Earth fuels the planet’s

dynamic processes including plate movements,
earthquakes, and volcanism.

internal heat is produced by residual heat

(extraterrestrial impacts and gravitational contraction)
and radiogenic heat.

-The transfer or flow due to the difference in

the temperature between 2 objects is called heat

radiogenic Heat
-Unstable elements undergo radioactive decay to attain a more stable form.
- produces heat as a byproduct.

Three processes of heat transfer

1. Conduction- governs the thermal condition in almost
solid proportion of the earth and plays import role in lithosphere
2. Covection- involves transfer heat by movement of mass
3. Radiation- process between exchange of heat in sun and
Earth

Extraterrestrial Impacts

- As proposed in the Nebular theory, the Earth was formed through

accretion of particles from a rotating cloud.

-kinetic energy is produced by the moving extraterrestrial

objects which were then converted to heat energy.

Gravitational contraction
-Collapsed clouds occur because accretion of more materials led to an increase in the
gravitational attraction causing the contraction of the Earth into a smaller volume which will then enable
them to spin faster.
Magma is defined as molten rock material
produced by partial melting of the mantle and crust.
It contains liquids, gases, crystals and rock fragments.

Formation of Magma
temperature increases with depth, which is called
geothermal gradient.

-Decrease in pressure causes adiabatic decompression.

- Volatiles are substances that evaporate easily and

can exist in gaseous form in the surface of Earth.
Examples are carbon dioxide and water

Magmatism occurs along plate boundaries or margins and

sometimes within the plate. Cracks on Earth's crust are the
result of these plate boundaries.

-hot mantle rock penetrates the crust and becomes magma.

Plate boundaries can be classified as convergent, divergent, and transform

Volcanism.

-process where magma rises to the surface of the Earth as lava.

In divergent plate boundaries, volcanism manifests as

ridges or fissures where products of decompression melting erupt.

Convergent plate boundaries host large number of volcanoes.

Lava flows and pyroclastic materials make up these volcanoes.

Lava flows may be classified as pahoehoe (pronounced as

“pah-hoy-hoy”) and aa (pronounced as ah-ah)

Pahoe hoe has smooth and ropy surface

Aa has jagged and angular corners

Examples of lava rocks are basalt, andesite, and rhyolite.

Mid-oceanic ridges
The rising magma in mantle convection cell brings heat to the surface,
transferring heat to the overlying rocks.

Mantle plumes (hot spots)

the transfer of heat and decompression result to magma
generation. The source of heat for mantle plumes is much deeper.

Subduction zones
As the oceanic slab is down-thrusted along subduction zones,
the change in temperature and pressure conditions brings about
mineral instability (e.g. hydrous minerals) and the release of water
to the surrounding hot rocks.

Volcanoes
-placed where magma reaches the earth’s surface

Types of Volcanoes
Shield Cone-
Composite/strato
Cinder Cone

PLUTONISM

Plutonism theory states that rocks were formed

from heat-driven processes. This heat comes from
the interior of the Earth.
the processes are constant and slow.

Neptunism

Neptunist theory of the origin of granites states that these

rocks are the oldest precipitates from a primordial sea.
-Plutonism opposed Neptunism’s idea

PLUTONS

plutonic can be used to classify rocks which formed

in the interior of the Earth.
Ex are :gabbro, diorite, and granite.

Discordant structures are those that cut across existing structures.

Concordant bodies are those that are injected parallel to features
in the country rock such as sedimentary beds.
ROCK FORMATION

A rock is an aggregate of mineral or minerals which

may or may not contain organic matter.
Geosphere is made out of rocks.

Rock cycle is a model used to describe how rocks are formed,

broken down, and reformed into other types of rocks.

Three types of rocks

Igneous rocks are formed from cooling of molten magma.
Sedimentary rocks are formed from pre-existing rocks and fossils
of organisms.
Metamorphic rocks are formed from pre-existing rocks through heat
and pressure.
Formation of Igneous Rock

Intrusive igneous rocks cooling rate is slower resulting in large crystal formation.

Extrusive igneous rocks cooling rate is faster resulting in smaller crystal formation.

Quenching-molten rock is cooled instantly

Felsic or Granitic rocks composed of light-colored minerals

Basaltic or Mafic rocks dark grey to black minerals.

Formation of Sedimentary Rock

Sedimentary Rocks Are formed from pre-existing rocks

and fossils of organisms.

Deposition occurs when all the unconsolidated materials settle in one area.
Lithification takes place when sediments turns into sedimentary rock.
It involves the processes of compaction and cementation.
Foliation refers to the sub-planar orientation of mineral grains or the layering found in the rocks.

two types of metamorphic rock:

Foliated metamorphic rocks have clear layers which are formed in areas where rocks are deformed by
stresses like plate boundaries.
Non-foliated metamorphic rocks have no definite layers which are formed in areas where deformation
is minimal.
Metamorphism

came from a Greek word meta which means to

change and morph means form.

-process of changing the characteristics of a rock as a r

esult of changes in temperature, pressure, or reactions with hot fluids.

It involves processes such as recrystallization, neocrystallization,

phase change, pressure solution, and plastic deformation.

protolith is a pre-existing rock that undergoes

protolith changes the texture and mineralogy

Recrystallization-Process where there is growth in size of

mineral grains of pre-existing materials.

The most common process involved in metamorphism.

Neocrystallization
-It is the formation of new minerals from the pre-existing minerals due to heat.

Different Processes Involved in Metamorphism

Phase Change-change in mineral structure but with the same chemical formula,
same chemical formula but different mineral structure are called polymorphs

Pressure Solution -it takes place when minerals are dissolved in areas with high pressure and
recrystallize in other areas with low pressure.

Plastic deformation occurs when mineral grains soften and deform at high temperatures.

Types of Metamorphism
Metamorphic Grade-refers to the relative temperature and pressure
conditions during the formation of the metamorphic rocks.

Prograde Metamorphism-takes place when

temperature and pressure are increased.

Retrograde Metamorphism-on the other hand,

happens when temperature and pressure decreases.
The process of metamorphism is controlled by four factors:
temperature, pressure, chemically active fluids, and time.

TEMPERATURE

Two sources of thermal energy

Intrusive bodies or plutons alter the texture and mineralogy of surrounding rocks
to form metamorphic rocks
The geothermal gradient of Earth is the rate of increase in
temperature with increasing depth from the Earth’s surface.

PRESSURE
-Pressure increases with depth and can be classified into
two types: Uniform and Differential Stress.

Uniform stress or hydrostatic stress refers to pressure with

equal amounts of force coming from all directions.
Differential stress refers to the pressure that is unequal in different directions.
○ Normal stress compresses objects from two opposing directions.
○ Shear stress smears objects in the direction of the stress.

Chemically active fluids

It enhances chemical reactions which alter the composition of rocks.
Metasomatism is the change in the composition of a rock due to
the addition or removal of substances or elements.

TIME- Metamorphism is a slow process that involves several processes.

LAYERS OF THE EARTH

The internal structure of Earth can be classified into

compositional layers and mechanical layers.
-The compositional layers include the crust, mantle, and core.

Crust- 5-80km thick composed of granites and basalts

Mantle- 84% earths volume 2900km thick composed of
Ultrafamic silicates materials
Core-Inner most layer 3480km thick 85% Iron, 5% nickel
Trace gases of oxygen and sulfur

Crust- outermost layer

This rigid layer is in the constant process
of destruction and renewal.

Tectonic plates are slabs of the brittle lithosphere, which

can able to move due to the plasticity of the underlying
asthenosphere.seismic activities including
earthquakes happen in between plates.

The continental crust makes up the land surface

of Earth which is about 32 km thick.

STRUCTURE OF CONTINENTAL CRUST

Mountain belts are uplifted regions of deformed

rocks.

Stable Interiors- Within these areas are expansive and

flat regions which are composed of deformed
crystalline rocks called shields.
Oceanic Crust

The oceanic crust is 5 to 7 km thick.

consists of mafic rocks, made up of silicates, magnesium and iron.

Structure on the Oceanic Crust

Continental margins are the areas which separate

continental and oceanic crust. It include:
continental shelf; continental slope; and continental rise.

TYPES OF SEISMIC WAVES

P-WAVES- travel through solids and liquids
S-WAVE-travel through solids only

core-mantle boundary known as Gutenberg discontinuity.

Subduction of the Plate

Earth has a heat engine due to mantle convection.

Heat is released to the ridges and collected at the subduction zone.
This creates forces called ridge push and slab-pull.

The inner core rotates in opposite the direction

of the flow of the outer core, creating a geodynamo effect

This magnetic field is very important in protecting Earth f

rom the charged particles emitted by the solar winds.
THE CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY

● Proposed by Alfred Wegener.

States that the movement of plates caused and is
still causing the movement of continents.

Evidence of Continental Drift Hypothesis

Continental Fit - the shapes of continents fit each other.

Fossil Evidence: Similar fossils found across continents.

Similarities in rocks and mountains across continents.

Glacial evidence: Similarities in possible conditions.

Plate Tectonics Theory

-The lithosphere behaves as a strong, rigid layer which is broken into segments known as plates

Evidence of Tectonic Plate Theory

Hotspots - radioactive dating of hotspots show age differences based on plate movements.

Paleomagnetism: The Earth’s magnetic pole has an influence of patterns in rocks.

Apparent Polar Wandering: Traced through the change in magnetic poles.

Ridge-push
This is a force that causes hotter, less dense
material to force itself up through a ridge.

Slab-pull
This is the pulling of oceanic lithosphere downward
at subduction zones.

Continental drift hypothesis proposes that Pangaea broke up into the modern continents.
Seafloor spreading hypothesis suggested that seafloor is moving away from the ridge which is driven
by mantle convection.
Plate tectonics combines the idea of the continental drift and seafloor spreading.
The Formation of Faults and Folds

Types of Stress on Rocks-

Confining stress - takes place when a rock or sediment is

buried and acts uniformly in all directions.

Directed stress - only acts in one direction and is

most likely associated with tectonic activities.

Types of Directed Stress

Rock Deformation
The type of deformation that rocks can undergo also
depend on the composition of rock,
or the type and intensity of stress.

TYPES OF DEFORMATION

FOLDS

The series of wave-like ripples or bends formed during mountain

building are called folds.

A fault is a discernible displacement where rocks

grind or slide past each other.

The Seafloor Spreading

 Proposed by Harry Hess and Robert Dietz

Paleomagnetic Evidence
Magnetic orientation of the oceanic crust and the age
of rocks help support that the ocean floor is spreading.

The Mid-Oceanic Ridge

-Comprises 20% of the ocean floor’s surface.

Transform Faults
These are abundant in the sea floor.

Parts of the Ocean Floor

Abyssal plains are flat parts of the ocean.

Smokers are vents that spew dark, mineral-rich fluids.
Oceanic trenches depressions on the seafloor
A seamount is a mountain above the sea floor.
If the structure rises above sea level, it is called a volcanic island.

TWO CLASSIFICATIONS OF OCEAN FLOOR

CONTINENTAL MARGINS -SUBMERGED OUTER EDGE OF A CONTINENT
OCEAN BASIC- THE DEEP SEAFLOOR BEYOND THE CONTINENTAL MARGIN 4