Geomorphology 354 (2020) 107038

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Geomorphology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/geomorph

Quaternary environmental evolution in the South Carpathians

reconstructed from glaciokarst geomorphology and
sedimentary archives
Laura Tîrlă a,b,⁎, Virgil Drăgușin c, Petra Bajo d,e, Silviu Covaliov f, Nicolae Cruceru c, Vasile Ersek g,
Diana Hanganu h, John Hellstrom e, Dirk Hoffmann i, Ionuț Mirea c,j, Tiberiu Sava k,
Gabriela Sava k, Ionuț Şandric a,b,l
a
University of Bucharest, Faculty of Geography, N. Bălcescu 1, Bucharest, Romania
b
Research Institute of the University of Bucharest (ICUB), M. Kogălniceanu 36-46, Bucharest, Romania
c
Emil Racoviță Institute of Speleology, Romanian Academy, Frumoasă St. 31, Bucharest, Romania
d
Croatian Geological Survey, Milana Sachsa 2, Zagreb, Croatia
e
School of Earth Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 2010, Australia
f
Danube Delta National Institute for Research and Development, Babadag St. 165, Tulcea, Romania
g
Northumbria University, Department of Geography, Ellison Building, NE1 8ST Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
h
ArchaeoScience#RO Platform, Research Institute of the University of Bucharest (ICUB), M. Kogălniceanu 36-46, Bucharest, Romania
i
Georg-August-Universität, Faculty of Geoscience and Geography, Department of Isotope Geology, Goldschmidtstraße 3, D-37077 Göttingen, Germany
j
Babeș-Bolyai University, Department of Geology, M. Kogălniceanu 1, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
k
Horia Hulubei National Institute for R&D in Physics and Nuclear Engineering, IFIN-HH, 30 Reactorului St., Măgurele, Romania
l
ESRI Romania, Washington St. 25, Bucharest, Romania

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The Carpathian island-type glaciokarst has a great potential of preserving signals of past environments, archived
Received 22 May 2019 in cave deposits like speleothems and clastic infills. We present here the geomorphology and structural control of
Received in revised form 7 January 2020 several relict alpine caves and the surrounding glaciated marble karst in the Făgăraș Mountains. Four truncated
Accepted 9 January 2020
and partially unroofed caves remained on the ridge-top of Mușeteica Mountain, above the glacial cirque, while
Available online 10 January 2020
a ponor cave that developed on the cirque bottom could be related to the Last Glacial Period. Structural measure-
Keywords:
ments and cave morphology showed that the conduits formed at the intersection of foliation planes and tectonic
Carpathians fractures on the NE-SW and NW-SE directions. Cave development reflects three speleogenetic stages: 1) texture-
Speleothem and fabric-controlled dissolution and distension; 2) structurally-controlled breakdown; and 3) truncation,
Glaciated karst unroofing, and cave infilling with sediments. Slow diffuse dissolution was typical for the ridge-top caves, whereas
High-altitude cave M1 Cave developed by pressure flow.
Further, we report the first U\\Th speleothem ages, related to the evolution of alpine caves and island
glaciokarst in the South Carpathians during the Middle and Late Pleistocene. Dating results show a mini-
mum estimated age of ~560 ka for the ridge-top caves, and that speleothem deposition met optimal condi-
tions only during warmer periods, largely corresponding to interglacials. Stable carbon isotope values in
speleothems range between −9.96‰ and −4.11‰, indicating the presence of plant and soil organic activity
at the time of deposition. In total, five speleothem growth phases were distinguished during the last
~560 ka.
We excavated the sediment infill of a ridge-top doline down to a 2-m depth. Radiocarbon dating revealed that it
was deposited during the Late Holocene, and preliminary pollen analysis identified a plant assemblage domi-
nated by grasses.
Using the relationships between karst development, glaciation, and cave sedimentary archives, we present a time
slice chronology of alpine landscape evolution at N560 ka, ~400 ka, ~330 ka, the Last Glacial Period (70–12 ka),
and the Late Holocene. Our geomorphological, isotopic, and geochronological results also support the existing

⁎ Corresponding author at: University of Bucharest, Faculty of Geography, N. Bălcescu 1,

Bucharest, Romania.
E-mail address: tirla@geo.unibuc.ro (L. Tîrlă).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2020.107038
0169-555X/© 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
4 L. Tîrlă et al. / Geomorphology 354 (2020) 107038
hypothesis that the South Carpathians may have experienced at least two glacial phases during the Pleistocene.
Glacial erosion rate during the Last Glacial Period, and most likely during the penultimate glaciation, averages
around 0.6 mm yr−1.
1. Introduction
Glacial activity leaves geomorphological imprints on carbonate rock
bodies isolated at high altitudes, resulting in what is known as the is-
land type glaciokarst (Veress et al., 2019). Glaciated karst is a complex
landscape, sensitive to climate change and capable of preserving unique
evidence of past environmental change in alpine regions (Žebre and
Stepišnik, 2015). The presence of speleothems, the most used
paleoenvironmental archive found in karst, often indicate the existence
of periods with optimal environmental conditions for their deposition,
which at mid- and high-latitudes are restricted mostly to warm periods
(McDermott, 2004). The initiation of cave formation itself, as resulting
from a complex feedback between geology, geomorphology, climate,
hydrology, and organic activity, is difficult to date but can be
constrained using speleothem or clastic sediment deposition events
(Polyak et al., 1998; Sasowsky, 1998; Stock et al., 2006; Häuselmann
et al., 2015). The most common dating technique uses uranium series
in speleothems (Richards and Dorale, 2003; Dorale et al., 2004; White,
2007; Scholz and Hoffmann, 2008), but trapped charge techniques
such as OSL have also been used (Constantin et al., 2014).
In a glaciated environment, caves can be either truncated or
completely removed by glaciation (Mais, 1999; Klimchouk et al., 2006),
or be buried and preserved by infilling with glacial till (Cooper and
Mylroie, 2015). They can also preserve morphological traits and sedi-
ments that could offer information useful for the reconstruction of moun-
tain uplift (Meyer et al., 2011). Alpine caves and their associated
sedimentary deposits brought more light onto the Quaternary evolution
of the Alps (Spötl et al., 2002, 2007; Häuselmann et al., 2015), Apennines
(Columbu et al., 2015), Norwegian Alps (e.g., Lauritzen, 1995; Berstad
et al., 2002), or the Cantabrian Mountains (Ballesteros et al., 2015, 2019).
In Romania, glaciokarst does not reach a significant extent (Telbisz
et al., 2019), but a handful of glaciokarst islands developed on carbonate
rocks in the Rodnei and Parâng massifs (Teodorescu and Mitrofan,
1999), as well as Făgăraș (Mihai and Moldoveanu, 2006; Nedelea,
2006), and Piule-Iorgovanu (Ardelean, 2010) Mountains. However, es-
pecially owing to its scarcity, the Carpathian glaciokarst is significant
due to the fact that it may preserve unique information about its tec-
tonic and climatic history.
Late exhumation episodes during the Pleistocene favored a significant
extent of glaciations in the Carpathians (Urdea, 2004). Glacial geomor-
phology of the Făgăraș Mountains supports the notion of at least two
Pleistocene glacial phases (Florea, 1998; Mîndrescu and Evans, 2014).
Results of tectonic and thermochronological studies have shown that
the paleoaltitudes were high since the latest Sarmatian (e.g., Răbăgia and
Maţenco, 1999; Merten, 2011), but equilibrium line altitude (ELA) lower-
ing earlier than the Middle Pleistocene was unlikely. The first evidence of
two distinct glacial phases in the Bucegi Mountains were inferred by
Micalevich (1959) from cave deposits in the Ialomiţa Cave.
Moreover, the inner-outer cirque pairs identified in several
Carpathian massifs represent evidence of glaciations older than 130 ka
(Mîndrescu, 2016). Nonetheless, the best-preserved glacial deposits
date only since the Last Glacial Period (Reuther et al., 2007; Urdea
et al., 2011; Kuhlemann et al., 2013; Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al., 2016).
The last deglaciation has significantly contributed to the development
of present-day alpine landscape in the central Făgăraș Mountains
(Kuhlemann et al., 2013; Popescu et al., 2017). 10Be analysis of the gla-
cial moraines from Capra Valley indicated exposure ages of 17 ± 3.1 ka
© 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
in the frontal part to 12.6 ± 2.0 ka in the glacial cirque (Kuhlemann
et al., 2013).
This study focuses on the geological conditioning of karst and glacial
relief development on the marble stripes of the central Făgăraș Moun-
tains in the high-altitude South Carpathians (N2000 m), defined by
present-day average uplift rates of about 2–3 mm yr−1 (Zugrăvescu
et al., 1998). We investigated tectonic features at different scales, as
well as geomorphological traits based on a high-resolution digital eleva-
tion model (DEM).
We present uranium‑thorium ages and carbon stable isotope data
from several speleothems retrieved from caves from around 2400 m al-
titude, and radiocarbon dates of a doline's sedimentary infill.
In addition to bringing new data on the morphology and genesis of
the Carpathian glaciokarst, our study also evaluates the reliability of
karst sedimentary archives for future paleoenvironmental studies.
2. Geological and geomorphological framework
The central Făgăraș Mountains host an isolated marble karst with
superimposed glacial features in the Mușeteica-Buda area, where
dolomitic-calcitic marbles outcrop on an area of about 3 km2 (Fig. 1).
The karst morphology of the Mușeteica glacial valley was preliminarily
investigated by Mihai and Moldoveanu (2006). These karst landforms
developed under particularly high-alpine climate conditions, typical
for the South Carpathians. Currently, mean annual temperatures are
0.8 °C at Bâlea Lake weather station, located at 2060 m elevation in a
north-facing glacial cirque (National Meteorological Administration,
2017), and 2.5 °C on the south-facing ridge crest at ~2400 m
(Drăgușin et al., 2019). Average precipitation amount is ~1300 mm/y,
and snow cover usually persists from November until June. The marble
bedrock is covered by a thin, discontinuous soil layer.
2.1. Lithology, tectonics, and structure
The Mușeteica-Buda area is defined by NE-SW-oriented marble
stripes of the Făgăraș terrane in the South Carpathian orogen, com-
prised of a polymetamorphic sequence of sedimentary origin
(Balintoni and Pană, 1993) of late Neoproterozoic-early Paleozoic
age (Giușcă et al., 1977; Kräutner, 1980; Balintoni, 1986; Gheuca,
1988; Pană, 1990; Balintoni et al., 2014). Up to four metamorphic
events affected the Făgăraș unit and were recognized in rock struc-
ture and texture (Stelea, 1992). The 40 Ar/39 Ar ages obtained by
Dallmeyer et al. (1998) fall mostly within the 320–300 Ma range,
showing the Variscan metamorphic imprint. The low-grade meta-
morphism was related to contraction and crustal thickening during
the Aptian emplacement of Supragetic Nappes and Maastrichtian
overthrust of the Getic-Supragetic nappe stack over the Danubian
nappe complex (Iancu et al., 2005, and references therein).
The lithology of the central part of Făgăraș Mts consists of gneiss,
micaschists, amphibolitic schists, amphibolites, and marbles. The latter
are arranged in stripes and lenses ranging from 30 to 250 m in thickness,
and up to 5 km in length. The marble sequence hosting the karst of
Mușeteica is the thickest (850 m) and longest of all (10 km). It consists
of dolomite and calcite across a perpendicular NW-SE transect. The
caves formed exclusively in calcite marbles, rich in quartz (0.72% to
18.57%) and micas (C. Marin, pers. comm.). Orientation of the stress
field during metamorphism determined a banded texture of marbles,
 L. Tîrlă et al. / Geomorphology 354 (2020) 107038 5

Fig. 1. A. Geographic setting of the Făgăraș Mountains (terrain map created from SRTM3 data, courtesy of USGS); Inset showing the location of the South Carpathians (SC) in Europe; B.
Geological map of the Făgăraș Mountains modified from Dessila-Codarcea et al. (1968) and location of marble caves (Silvășanu, 1982; Giurgiu, 1990; Drăgușin et al., 2019); C. Geological
and topographic setting of Mușeteica marble karst in the Făgăraș Mountains – modified from Schuster (1977); CNES/Airbus satellite image courtesy of Environmental Systems Research
Institute (ESRI).

similar to the general structural assemblage of the Făgăraș terrane. The infilled with sediments (M6 Cave). All the ridge-top caves and dolines
average dip of foliation planes ranges between 30° and 45°, locally ex- are clustered within a 5540-sqm area of triangular shape. They all host
ceeding 50°. It corresponds to the S2 foliation, which is the major struc- flowstones and stalagmites, some of which were progressively exposed
tural feature of the entire polymetamorphic sequence of the Făgăraș by slope retreat. In contrast, speleothems are absent in M1 Cave.
Unit (Stelea, 1992).
Faults and related fracture systems generally fall within two major
3. Methodology
structural sets, oriented NE-SW, and NW-SE, respectively. The first set
could be attributed to Late Cretaceous to Early Burdigalian
3.1. Aerial photogrammetry
transtension-extension and the clockwise rotation of the South
Carpathians (Maţenco et al., 1997; Schmid et al., 1998), whereas orien-
We surveyed a 1-km2 area of the Mușeteica glacial cirque using a DJI
tation of the second set suggests the effect of strike-slip movements
Phantom4 unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). A total of 1314 aerial images
during the Sarmatian tectogenetic events (Gheuca, 1988; Mațenco and
were collected at a speed of 5 m/s, with a vertical angle of 90°, and a side
Schmid, 1999).
and forward overlap of 70%. To increase the horizontal and vertical ac-
curacy, four ground control points were positioned using a Trimble
2.2. Cave setting
GeoXH 2008 DGPS. The root mean square error for all the points was
0.21 m. A high-resolution digital surface model (DSM) and digital eleva-
The Făgăraș Mountains host several small caves developed in mar-
tion model (DEM) of 50 cm/pixel, and an orthoimage of 10 cm/pixel
bles at elevations of 1200 m (five caves in the Capra Valley at Piscu
were generated by using the Drone2Map™ software.
Negru), and 2080–2430 m (one cave near Budislavu Lake, five caves in
the Ciortea Mt., and six caves in the Mușeteica Mt). To the east, four
caves developed in the Prislop-Coți area, at 1500–1600 m (Silvășanu, 3.2. Geomorphological mapping and morphometry
1982).
The presence of ridge-top caves and cave remnants on the A detailed geomorphological map was created on a 1:5000 scale to
Mușeteica-Râiosu crest is a typical feature of glaciokarst landscapes identify different genetic types of landforms: structural, petrographic,
(Smart, 2004). M1 Cave is a former ponor (Giurgiu, 2006) developed glacial, periglacial, and gravitational. Contour lines were automatically
in the glacial cirque bottom at ~2100 m, whilst M3-R2, M4, and M5 generated from the DSM at different scales to match the mapping pur-
caves are found on the ridge top, at 2400–2430 m a.s.l. (Fig. 2). One of pose. The 5-m contour interval served as a mapping support of all
the collapse dolines (D2) is an unroofed cave remnant, a former passage other geomorphic features on the 1:5000 scale.
6 L. Tîrlă et al. / Geomorphology 354 (2020) 107038

Fig. 2. Location of ridge-top caves and dolines (cave remnants) in the Mușeteica area on the UAV oblique aerial photograph. Elevation of summits (m a.s.l.) are given in meters. The white
rectangle is about 30 m in width, and the dolines in the inset are ~7 m in width.

The glacial morphometry of Mușeteica cirque was used in order to
determine data on the average glacial erosion rate during the Last
Glacial Period, the event which left the only physical markers with
this respect. In the lack of other evidence, we presumed that the cirque
started forming at the beginning of MIS 4 (~70 ka). Five topographic
transects were extracted across the cirque, perpendicular to its longest
axis at approximately equal intervals, and used to calculate the height
range. The cirque height (H) is the difference between the lowest
(Hmin) and the highest (Hmax) altitude within a glacial cirque
(e.g., Federici and Spagnolo, 2004). We calculated the cirque height as
the maximum difference in altitude on each profile, then we used the
average of these values and the time lapse between the beginning and
the end of the Last Glacial Period (LGP) to estimate the maximum glacial
erosion rate (Eg) within the cirque, according to the formula below.
! opment on preferential orientations.
1

X
n
1


Eg ¼ Hi ;
n T
i¼1
to explore the regional and local controls of structural assemblages on
cave development. Over 500 fault and fracture segments were extracted
in the central Făgăraș Mts from CNES/Airbus satellite images (courtesy
of Digital Globe). Documented faults (Dessila-Codarcea et al., 1968;
Schuster, 1977) were plotted against the manually-extracted fault set.
A supplemental set of fractures and fault segments was extracted from
the high-resolution DSM of Mușeteica glacial cirque, and compared to
those mentioned above.
Orientation data of underground and surface karst features were
either collected during field survey or extracted from the DSM. Cave
passages, ridge-top dolines, and shaft entrances were analyzed to-
gether, to better constrain the cave system's structural arrangement.
The lengths of cave passages rather than frequencies were considered
meaningful for analysis, allowing for better highlighting the cave devel-
3.4. Cave morphology

where n is the number of calculated height range values (here, n = 5),
Hi is the value of each calculated item (i.e., the cirque height), and T is
the estimated LGP time lapse. The duration of the LGP was estimated
at ~59 ka, according to Lisiecki and Raymo's (2005) MIS 5–4 age bound-
ary of ~71 ka, and the deglaciation age for the Făgăraș Mountains of
~12 ka provided by Kuhlemann et al. (2013). The maximum glacial ero-
sion rate is assumed to have occurred along the lowermost points on the
cirque floor, and gradually decreased up the headwall towards the crest.
3.3. Structural measurements and orientation analysis
We surveyed the M1, M3-R2, M4, and M5 caves using a modified
Leica™ Disto X310 range finder. The processed data were used to ex-
tract segments of cave passages, and calculate their morphometry
and orientations. We then calculated the pattern morphometric indi-
ces (Table 1), synthesized by Piccini (2011), suitable for characteriz-
ing the geometry and morphometry of short alpine caves typical to
Table 1
Morphometric parameters and indices calculated for Mușeteica caves.
No. Parameter Abbr. Description/Formula (from Piccini, 2011)

We performed a comparative orientation analysis of cave passages 1 Real length Lr Real development of the cave, cumulating all the
and structural features (joints, faults and fractures). Results were plot- passages, including branches and pits.
2 Plan length Lp Total length of the plan view of all the cave
ted on rose diagrams with a bin width of 10° and on equal-area projec- passages.
tion spheres on Schmidt stereonet. 3 Vertical range Rv Sum of negative and positive drops.
Three sites ranging in size from 50 to 100 m2 were selected for 4 Extension Ex Horizontal distance of the most far-away points of
microtectonic measurements on marble outcrops in the vicinity of the cave.
5 Verticality index Vi Rv/Lr
caves. We sampled 50\\60 joints/site and measured the joint azimuth
6 Horizontality Hi Lp/Lr
and dip. The best fit great circles of joint families were compared to ste- index
reographic projections of cave passages in order to compare each joint 7 Linearity index Li (Ex2-Rv2)1/2/Lr
family with cave conduit data. 8 Horizontal Hci Lp/Ex
Fault and fracture sets were digitized from various sources at differ- complexity
index
ent scales, and plotted against each other on rose diagrams (half circles)
 L. Tîrlă et al. / Geomorphology 354 (2020) 107038 7

stripe karst (Lauritzen, 2001). The focus was placed on indices' reli-
ability for highlighting the most important morphometric features
of a cave, and that they should be selected according to cave geomet-
ric properties and spatial complexity (Piccini, 2011). We therefore
avoided to use indices that would be better fit for maze or horizontal
caves.
The length of M3-R2 Cave was conventionally calculated as the sum
of all its passage segments (n = 10), although the lengths of ridge-top
branches (n = 3), accessible only via the D1 collapse doline (Fig. 6),
were not initially added (Tîrlă et al., 2016). However, for analytical pur-
poses these branches will be considered in this study and their lengths
cumulated to that of the cave itself. Vertical range coincides with nega-
tive drop, since no cave in the Mușeteica system has positive altitude
difference.
Cave morphology was analyzed in relation to the three main genetic
groups of erosive features and deposits considered relevant for cave de-
velopment: erosive, chemical, and breakdown forms (Ballesteros et al.,
2015). These were illustrated on the geomorphological maps scale 1:300.

Fig. 3. Karst and glacial landforms with cave deposits in the Mușeteica area. A. Ridge-top dolines and M6 Cave; B. Stalactites and flowstones discovered in the unroofed M6 Cave; C. The
entrance of M5 Cave, yellow square indicates the extent of flowstone in Fig. 3D; D. Exposed flowstones near M5 Cave (GPS receiver is 10 cm in length); E, F. Glaciokarst landforms in the
Mușeteica cirque (Dn – dolines; Rm – roches moutonnées); G. Kluftkarren formed on roches moutonnées (the size of rock hammer is 40 cm).
8 L. Tîrlă et al. / Geomorphology 354 (2020) 107038
3.5. Speleothem U\\Th dating and stable isotope analysis
Three flowstone samples and a stalagmite were collected from
M3-R2, M5 and M6 caves for U\\Th dating. Stalagmite M3-R2-1
was collected from the main chamber of the M3-R2 Cave, at 15 m
from the entrance. It is 5-cm long and composed of densely
compacted, white translucent calcite and presents a thin outer
clayey crust. Seven samples for U\\Th dating, averaging 100 mg,
have been hand drilled at equal intervals along the growth axis and
measured at CENIEH (Burgos, Spain). A total of 197 samples were
micro-milled along the growth axis and their stable isotope compo-
sition (δ13C and δ18O) was measured on a Thermo Delta V Advantage
mass spectrometer coupled with a Kiel IV carbonate device, at the
University of Oxford.
Flowstone M3-R2-3 was collected from the middle of the main
chamber of M3-R2 Cave. Its basal 3 cm are composed of dark brown cal-
cite with two thin moonmilk layers and two clayey detrital layers. The
next 1.7 cm are composed of lighter, more amorphous calcite with dis-
tinct light brown lamina and is finally followed by 1.2 cm of moonmilk.
Four U\\Th sub-samples were hand-drilled: one from the base, two
bracketing the petrographic transition at 3 cm and one from the top of
the second section, just below a thick moonmilk layer that forms its top.
Flowstone M5-1 is 13-cm thick and composed of a succession of
light and dark calcite, with two thin moonmilk layers in its upper part.
Several oxide-rich layers can also be distinguished in the section.
Three U\\Th samples were retrieved from base, top, and above a transi-
tion from light to brown calcite, at 8 cm from the base.
Flowstone M6–1 (Fig. 3B) was collected from the western wall of the
M6 collapse doline, after the excavation of ~1 m of infilling material.
Two U\\Th samples were taken from its base and top.
Fig. 4. Topographic profiles across the Mușeteica glacial cirque. Double arrows indicate the cirque height for each profile.
All flowstone U\\Th samples were prepared and analyzed at the
Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology (Leipzig,
Germany) following the procedures of Hoffmann et al. (2007) and
Hoffmann (2008), and at the University of Melbourne (Australia) ac-
cording to the procedure of Hellstrom (2003).
Samples for low resolution isotope profiles were hand-drilled at
5 mm distance for M3-R2–3 (n = 12) and M5–1 (n = 27). Powder sam-
ples were also taken by hand drilling from three host rock samples from
near the ridge-top caves, labeled M5–3, M3-R2–1, and M3-R2–2
(should not be confused with speleothem labeling). They were analyzed
at Northumbria University, using a Thermo Delta V Advantage coupled
with a GasBench II sample preparation device.
14
3.6. Sediment infill of doline D2 – stratigraphy, C dating and pollen
content
The clastic sediment infill of the D2 doline was excavated to a depth
of ~2 m, without reaching the bottom. Stratigraphy was described based
on field observations. Bulk samples were taken at 10-cm intervals, on
thicknesses of around 2–4 cm, and kept refrigerated in plastic bags.
Grain size content of seven global samples was analyzed at the
Geotechnics Laboratory of the University of Bucharest, following the
standard procedure STAS 1913/5–85. First the samples were weighed
and introduced into the oven at 105 °C for 24 h, to remove the organic
matter. Water and lithium carbonate were added in the dry samples
and left for 24 h, then the cement was separated using the 0.063 mm
sieve. The mass of the cement resulting from washing exceeded 10%
of the sample and was further analyzed by applying the sedimentation
and Sieve-pipette methods for the fine fractions and sieving only for
the coarse fractions (Gee and Bauder, 1986). Based on the data obtained,
 L. Tîrlă et al. / Geomorphology 354 (2020) 107038 9

Table 2 Since no macrofossils were identified, we decided to separate the or-

Morphometric parameters of the Mușeteica glacial cirque, calculated from DEM-derived ganic carbon fraction by leaching the inorganic carbon from the bulk
values.
sample. This operation was done by dissolving the carbonate with
Profile Max. elevation (m a.s.l.) Min. elevation (m a.s.l.) Cirque height (m) 0.5 M HCl during three days of treatment, with ultrapure water rinsing
A 2295 2255 40 in between the acid steps. At the end of the procedure, the pH was set to
B 2235 2175 60 neutral adding ultrapure water, followed by sample drying at 60 °C. The
C 2240 2154 86 organic carbon was then collected for the graphitization step. The 14C
D 2220 2128 92
ages were calibrated using the Oxcal online program (Bronk Ramsey,
E 2175 2094 83
2009), based on the IntCal13 calibration curve of Reimer et al. (2013).
One random 2-cm3 sediment sample (M6-16, from ~140 cm deep)
particle size and percentage were determined for each of the following was selected and prepared in order to extract and assess the quality of
Udden-Wentworth classes: a) larger than 2 mm; 2–0.063 mm; preservation of pollen and spores, following the procedure described
c) 0.063–0.004 mm; d) smaller than 0.004 mm (Wentworth, 1922). in Moore et al. (1991). Pollen and microspore identifications were
Three samples for optically stimulated luminescence dating were made under 400× magnification using the descriptions and identifica-
taken by hammering a 20 cm long plastic tube into the sediment and tion keys in Moore et al. (1991) and Beug (2004), and by comparison
were analyzed at the Babes-Bolyai University in Cluj-Napoca, to reference collections.
Romania. No age estimation could be obtained, possibly due to a very
young age of the deposition (A. Gabor, pers. comm.). 4. Results
Following the indication of a very young age and in order to obtain a
preliminary chronology for the sediment infill, we performed radiocar- 4.1. Glaciokarst landforms
bon measurements on three bulk samples (M6-4, M6-10, and M6-19)
taken from depths of 37–40 cm, 98–100 cm, and 188–192 cm respec- 4.1.1. Alpine karst
tively. Samples were prepared and measured at the Horia Hulubei Na- Apart from caves, the most common karst landforms are dolines,
tional Institute for Physics and Nuclear Engineering (RoAMS) in karren, ponors, and dry valleys. Three dolines (D1-D3) lined up on the
Măgurele, Romania, following the procedures described in Sava et al. NNW-SSE-oriented fracture that dissects the Mușeteica Mt. formed by
(2019). The samples were first observed under optical microscope to the collapse of cave passages, thus being genetically different from the
check for the presence of macrofossils (i.e., seeds, twigs, plant remains). rest of twenty-two dolines (Fig. 4A). These dolines formed by

Fig. 5. Geomorphological map of the Mușeteica glaciokarst (scale 1:5000). The average strike and dip of marble bedrock is indicated to the upper-left corner of the map. Truncated and
unroofed ridge-top caves are shown to the right-up corner.
10 L. Tîrlă et al. / Geomorphology 354 (2020) 107038

dissolution, and twelve formed partially by the subsidence of glacial till.
Such dolines are typical to covered karst morphology (Veress, 2016).
Their position indicates a possible origin of subglacial streamflow
subsapping, the cuvettes evolving into dolines during postglacial disso-
lution. Seven additional dolines have developed by dissolution, atop or
amongst the roches moutonnées. The largest solution doline (D20,
Fig. 4F) preserves a functional ponor and suggests that an important
karst conduit developed underground, to the north of M1 Cave, on the
same N-S direction. Both doline D20 and M1 Cave close the valley line
right above the plucking slope face which marks the threshold between
the cirque and the glacial valley. Karren are best developed on the
western-facing side of the glacial cirque, cutting perpendicularly on fo-
liation, on the lee sides of roches moutonnées (Fig. 4G).
4.1.2. Glacial and periglacial landforms
Inherited glacial features include the Mușeteica cirque, the
Mesteacănu, Robița, Mușeteica, and Râiosu pyramidal peaks, and
the interconnecting crests. Mușeteica and Râiosu glacial cirques de-
veloped entirely on marbles. The boundary between the cirque and
the glacial valley consists in a 15-meter high plucking slope face,
which matches the lithologic contact between marbles and the
more friable actinolite schists.
Morphometric parameters of the Mușeteica glacial cirque reflect a
pronounced allometry, which is typical for the cirques of the Făgăraș
Mountains (Mîndrescu and Evans, 2014): 1 km in length, 524 m in
width, and an amplitude of 280 m, resulting a length/width ratio of
1.9. The height range is 2100 to 2380 m, and the headwall height is
120 m. It is a valley-head cirque with an area of 0.49 km2, comparably
larger than the Râiosu cirque to the east (0.12 km2), and the small,
nested cirques (0.02–0.08 km2) hanging on the western and northern
slopes of Mușeteica Mountain at ~2000 and ~2200 m a.s.l.
The values used for calculating the average glacial erosion rate are
given in Table 2. The five topographic profiles across the Mușeteica
glacial cirque along which we calculated the cirque height are illus-
trated in Fig. 4.
The cirque height varies in thickness from 40 m in the vicinity of upper
crest to N90 m near the threshold, resulting in an average height of 72.2 m.
Roches moutonnées have distinct morphologies in the upper cirque
compared to those in the lower cirque. The former features are smaller,
more discrete (1–2 m in height) and generally subsequent to marble

Fig. 6. The geomorphological map of the Mușeteica caves and cave remnants. Arrows indicate speleothem sampling sites (sample names in black framed text). Sample M3-R2–1 was
analyzed and discussed by Drăgușin (2013). Rose diagrams show orientations of passage ways (black arrays) and joint sets (grey) for each site.
 L. Tîrlă et al. / Geomorphology 354 (2020) 107038
foliation. The latter group comprises well-developed features (5–10 m
in height), with well-preserved lee side facets due to ice flowing in
the same direction as the dip of marble foliation. Glacial till is preserved
only on the western side of the cirque bottom. Lateral moraines reach
between 5 and 20 m in height and host subsidence dolines. Avalanche
channels are well developed on the steep, eastern-facing side of the
cirque headwall. These channels end with imbricated triangular marble
scree cones, which partly cover the lateral moraines.
4.1.3. Gravitational landforms
A large, meter-deep mass movement breaks the continuity of the
glacial rim to the NW. Field observations show that it is a massive con-
sequent rockslide, seeming to have been driven parallel to the marble
foliation dip plane. A rockslide deposit is superimposed on the lateral
moraines accumulated on the right side of the cirque bottom. Another
distinctive linear feature was observed at the glacial headwall base,
striking on a NW-SE direction, perpendicularly to the direction of cirque
development. It has a sackung-like morphology, more similar to a
smoothed slope break along an inherited fracture. Sackungs
(sackungen) are upslope-facing scarps formed in (but not restricted
to) glaciated mountains near the ridge crest in postglacial time intervals
due to gravitational spreading (e.g., Gutiérrez-Santolalla et al., 2005). In
Mușeteica Mt., both gravitationally developed landforms are deep-
seated gravitational slope deformations, an evidence of postglacial
unloading. These can be observed on the digital surface model as
smooth terrain discontinuities.
The geomorphological map of the area that hosts the caves
(Mușeteica ridge crest and the cirque from the SW slope) shows the va-
riety of genetic types of landforms which could have influenced the
conduit development and cave deposit formation to some extent
(Fig. 5). Surface deposits like talus scree, glacial till and rockslide de-
posits increase the landscape complexity, but these also cover, destruct
or hinder surface karst development. Triangular talus scree deposits
with angular marble fragments fringe at the base of snow avalanche
channels, developed only on the eastern-facing cirque headwall.
Fig. 7. Unfolded longitudinal profiles of the M1, M3-R2 and M4 caves. Passage inclination is displayed below the profiles, and cave depth at the ends.
11
The glaciokarst is divided into two areas: a) the area above the
trimline containing the ridge-top caves and collapse dolines; b) the relict
glacial cirque with solution and subsidence dolines, ponors, karren-
incised roches moutonnées, and dry valleys.
4.2. Cave geometry, morphometry and geomorphology
The caves have a single level, are very short and have a simple or-
thogonal pattern, imposed by the structural control of joint and fault
network (Fig. 6). The highest caves (M3-R2, M4, and M5) developed
perpendicularly to the marble foliation dip, along a NE-SW direction
(40–50°). Only the upper part of the M3-R2 Cave, the M6 unroofed
cave and the ridge-crest collapse dolines are oriented NNW-SSE, con-
formably to foliation dip. Cave passages usually developed along frac-
tures and were widened along foliation planes.
M1 Cave developed preferentially at the contact between marbles
and an amphibolite stripe (more easily weathered), with subsequent
thin actinolite- and biotite-rich sheets interlayered within the marble.
The cave has the steepest profile of all the caves in the area, about 45–
53° on the foliation planes and 70–90° on the fault cross-cuts (Fig. 7).
It is nearly a subvertical cave with limited development, a feature
which is typical for stripe karst (Lauritzen, 2001). In the first section,
large chambers are filled with breakdown deposits, which often form
the walls and even ceiling of adjoining passages. The walls of the pri-
mary tube, covered by scallops, were only partially preserved. A very
low and narrow tube (W = 1 m, H = 0.3 m) links the upper chambers
to the lower passage of the deepest section (Fig. 8). This last passage also
has a tube morphology with an ellipsoidal profile evidencing the struc-
tural control of foliation planes upon the cave passage enlargement
under pressure flow. Consequently, the passage is very wide (~7 m)
compared to its height (0.3 to 1 m) and no breakdown evidence was ob-
served along this part. Overall, tube morphology is pervasive in the M1
Cave, except for the frontal part, recently collapsed and filled with
breakdown. Unlike the ridge-top caves, where they are abundant,
speleothems are absent in the M1 Cave, indicating different environ-
mental conditions which inhibited their growth.
12 L. Tîrlă et al. / Geomorphology 354 (2020) 107038

M3-R2 Cave is very wide and deep, in contrast to its shortness
(Table 2), showing a preferential development along the marble foliation
plane. A detailed description was made by Tîrlă et al. (2016). Its main pas-
sages intersect at 90° angle and are separated only by breakdown walls.
The passage ends with a large breakdown blocks accumulation, which
may indicate a possible continuation. The morphology and orientation
of exposed cave remnants are somehow different, controlled by the
NW-SE fracture that crosses through the Mușeteica north-western nested
cirques and the ridge crest.
M4 and M5 are truncated caves located next to each other (~15 m
apart), and very close to M3-R2 Cave. M4 Cave (25 m in length) is filled
with breakdown, mostly unstable, preserving only a thin (1–2 cm)
flowstone fragment on the outer wall, at the base of the entrance. M5
is the shortest remnant cave (16 m in length) consisting in a simple pas-
sage opened upwards through a 2.7-m shaft. Flowstone sample M5–1
was retrieved just outside the cave entrance – indicating a past larger
extent of this cave, since speleothems of this kind could have formed
only underground.
M6 is an unroofed cave passage found after excavating into the D2
ridge-top doline. The doline is filled with N2 m of sediment and seems
to continue with a small passage, although exploration work is still
needed to access it. The walls at the western end host well-preserved

Fig. 8. Morphological features of the M1 (A-G) and M3-R2 caves (H). A. Passage ways developed along foliation planes; B. Weakness planes along the marbles - amphibolitic schists
contact; C-D. Pressure tube morphology; E-F. Wall and ceiling pockets formed in the frontal cave sector by late-stage condensation corrosion due to invasion of warm air during the sum-
mer season; G. The lowermost point of M1 Cave (−70 m); H. Speleothem decorations in M3-R2 Cave.
 L. Tîrlă et al. / Geomorphology 354 (2020) 107038 13

speleothems, while many speleothem fragments can also be found Table 4

within the clastic infill. Main orientations of joints, faults, fractures, and cave passages.

Morphometric indices are typical for alpine small caves (e.g., Piccini,
2011) and have comparable values influenced mostly by the geological
conditions (Table 3).
The highest contrast is shown by the value of Li, which is much
higher for M1 Cave than for the ridge-top caves (0.36 vs N0.15, respec-
tively). Hi should be similar considering the dip of the main passages
(42–45°), which is conformable to the dip of marble foliation. However,
the Hi value of M3-R2 Cave is high (0.87) due to low-dipping branches
and upper passages. The cave has the highest Hci (1.92) and a low Li
(0.11) due to its complex areal development, which could be an evi-
dence of a formerly longer conduit network.
4.3. Orientations of structural and karst features
4.3.1. Fault and fracture system
Three main orientations of the major faults were distinguished:
NW-SE, W-E, and NE-SW (Table 4). With small differences, this
pattern matches orientations of the medium-scale fault and frac-
ture set extracted from the CNES/Airbus imagery (Fig. 9A). (See
Table 4.)
The NE-SW and N-S oriented fractures are the most frequent, in
contrast to the regional tectonic system. Several NNW-SSE-
oriented faults and fractures cross the upper part of the Mușeteica
glacial cirque and the Mușeteica-Robița ridge. The latter partially
controlled the development of the M3-R2 Cave and the passages
which were subsequently unroofed and infilled with sediments
(e.g., M6 Cave). This major fracture crosses the Mușeteica Peak and
is visible on the NW-facing slope. Recent dissolution and collapse oc-
curred along it between the M3-R2 and M6 caves, where it intersects
the main fracture of M4 Cave (Fig. 9B). Two NW-SE oriented main
fractures cross the upper part of the glacial cirque transversally.
The easternmost one forms the boundary between the cirque floor
and the headwall, and favored the opening of a shallow trench of
0.5–1 m in depth (Fig. 5).
The preferred orientations for development of underground karst
conduits in the Mușeteica area were NE-SW and NW-SE. The two pas-
sage sets normally intersect under 90° angles, forming orthogonal net-
works. Cave passages having a cumulative length of 114 m out of a
total of 236 m are NE-SW oriented, while those oriented NW-SE are
55 m in length. The WNW-ESE and NNE-SSW passages sum 22 m and
18 m, respectively.
4.3.2. Types of joints and the joint families
The joints generally form two systematic sets forming an orthog-
onal network (Fig. 9B), close-fitting a tension joint system (Passchier
and Trouw, 2005). Shear joints form conjugate sets that intersect the
former under a sharp angle (30–60°). This pattern is better observed
on the ridge, near the entrance of M3-R2 Cave. Frost-weathering
Structural / karst features (lettered a-e in Sample Orientations
Fig. 9D) size
a. Major faults (Făgăraș Mts) 36 NE-SW, W-E, NW-SE
NE-SW to ENE-WSW, and
b. Faults and fractures (Făgăraș Mts) 540
WNW-ESE to NW-SE
c. Local faults and fractures (Mușeteica
137 NE-SW, NW-SE, WNW-ESE
cirque)
d. Local joint sets, cumulated
162 NE-SW, NNE-SSW, NW-SE
(Mușeteica caves)
e. Cave passages (length distribution) 40 NE-SW, NW-SE
joints developed on preferred detachment planes of the minerals
and have sub-decimetric to sub-centimetric densities. They distin-
guishable by their high density compared to that of schistosity and
shear joints, the latter being strictly controlled by tectonics. The
joint sets measured near the caves fall into four families (Fig. 10),
of which only one (J1) seems to be common to the entire study
area. Another three joint groups were identified, two on the ridge-
top (J2, J3) and one on the valley bottom (J4). Results show that
the J1 joint family is responsible for the development of Mușeteica
caves. The main passages of M1, M3-R2, M4, and M5 caves developed
along NW-SE-oriented joints and fractures.
4.4. Speleothem U\\Th ages
Results of U\\Th dating are given in Table 5 and plotted in Fig. 11. A
low concentration of uranium can be seen across all sub-samples of the
four speleothems, with an average value below 20 ng/g, a maximum of
~50 ng/g (sample M6–1) and a minimum of ~10 ng/g (sample M3-R2-
3). Stalagmite M3-R2-1 seems to have formed during a short, 2000-
year period, roughly between 125 ka and 123 ka.
Flowstone M3-R2–3 has a base age of 329.8 ± 11.1 ka and a top age
of 97.6 ± 26.6 ka. The middle samples taken across the petrographic
transition at 3 cm are within the error bars of each other. The base
and top ages of the M5–1 flowstone are 440.2 ± 36.8 ka and 398.8 ±
29.8 ka, respectively, with high uncertainties, of about 8%. The sample
in the middle returned a 31% uncertainty (542.9 ± 168.7 ka), being nev-
ertheless within the uncertainty of the other two. The base age of M6-1
flowstone is older than 560 ka, beyond the limit of U\\Th dating
method, and its top age is 526 (+97/−52) ka.
4.5. Stable isotope results
In stalagmite M3-R2–1, δ13C values range between a minimum of
−8.51‰ and a maximum of −6.05‰. In flowstone M3-R2–3 values
range between −9.96‰ and −4.11‰, with an exceptional value of
−2.70‰ measured within a moonmilk layer. Flowstone M5–1 has
values between −9.30‰ and −4.49‰. The values of δ13C in the host

Table 3
Morphometric parameters and indices of Mușeteica marble caves. Dimension values are given in meters and angles in degrees.

Cave name Geographic coordinates Elevation No. of passage segments Lr Lp Rv Ex Vi Hi Li Hci Strike Dip
(m asl)

M1b 45°34′0.68″N 2106 15 132 104 −70.6 85.4 0.53 0.78 0.36 1.22 18.3 43
24°38′19.63″E
a
M3-R2 45°34′25.11″N 2430 13 55 48 −18.2 25 0.36 0.87 0.11 1.92 40 45
24°38′57.69″E
M4b 45°34′22.95″N 2401 4 25 14 −11.5 23.5 0.46 0.56 0.15 0.90 37 45
24°38′55.56″E
M5b 45°34′22.18″N 2396 5 16 14 −3.7 11.3 0.23 0.88 0.08 1.24 52 42
24°38′55.75″E
b
M6 45°34′23.15″N 2417 1 13 13 5? 13 – – – – 152 –
24°38′58.79″E
a
Tîrlă et al., 2016.
b
This study.
14 L. Tîrlă et al. / Geomorphology 354 (2020) 107038

Fig. 9. Structural framework of the central Făgăraș Mountains (A), and Mușeteica cirque (B). Orientation rose diagrams of faults, fractures, joints, and cave passages (C). Data source: A.
Documented major faults and fault segments extracted from medium-resolution DEM (courtesy of Digital Globe); C. Large-scale fault segments and fractures extracted from high-
resolution DSM (hillshade); D. Explanation of letters (a-e) in Table 3.

rock are positive, around 1‰: 1.15 ± 0.04‰ in M5–3, 0.87 ± 0.03‰ in
M3-R2–1, and 1.49 ± 0.07‰ in M3-R2–2.
4.6. Age and pollen content of D2 doline (M6 Cave) infill
The sedimentary infill of ridge-top doline D2 down to the depth of
2.10 m consists in three distinct layers (I-III) separated by brownish-
black clayey horizons (Fig. 12). Three global samples analyzed for
grain size, one from each layer (M6.a, M6.b, and M6.c), were plotted
on pie charts. Grain size analysis shows a slight increase in clay content
(11% to 15%) and decrease of sand (53% to 43%) downwards. The lower
layer III (cm 210–110 on the profile) is a 1-m thick, fine-grained massive
sediment with very loose rock fragments. The middle layer II (cm 110–
75) contains denser and larger lithoclasts of 5–20 cm in size, and is over-
lain by a 5-cm thick black clayey layer. The upper layer I (cm 70–15)
contains more sand compared to lower layers. The greenschist clasts
are angular or subangular, whereas the marble clasts are either
subangular or subrounded. A 15-cm regosol is developing atop of the
sedimentary deposit.
Radiocarbon dating of the three samples returned 14C age esti-
mates that are in stratigraphic order: 2589 ± 28 years BP, 1221 ±
26 years BP, and 1069 ± 26 years BP. The calibrated ages, reported
at 95.4% probability level, are as follows: between 2.77 and 2.55 ka
for M6–19, between 1.26 and 1.07 ka for M6–10, and between 1.05
and 0.93 ka for M6–4.
In sample M6–14, a total of 250 pollen grains were counted
and identified (excluding spores) along with 42 coniferous frag-
ments (Pinus/Picea). The pollen is dominated by alpine steppe
taxa: Asteraceae (44%), Poaceae (20%), Cyperaceae (18%), and
Apiaceae (4%). The arboreal taxa are represented by Alnus
(14%), Tilia (2%), and the coniferous fragments. As well, the
Ericaceae family taxa represent 4% of the total identified pollen
grains.
 L. Tîrlă et al. / Geomorphology 354 (2020) 107038 15

\Th measurements. Letters a,b, and c in the column Sample ID indicate the place of analysis: a - CENIEH, Burgos, Spain, b - University of Melbourne, Australia and c - Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany. 5. Discussion

1.729 ± 0.007
1.743 ± 0.032
1.743 ± 0.010
1.682 ± 0.007
1.699 ± 0.008
1.747 ± 0.009
1.763 ± 0.008
1.131 ± 0.009
1.179 ± 0.013

1.412 ± 0.031

1.109 ± 0.009
1.150 ± 0.010
(234U/238U)

±0.0105

±0.5799

±0.0951
5.1. Relations between karst, glacial and periglacial processes

1.3714

1.3861

1.4235
initial

The last glaciation left recognizable geomorphic evidence in the

Făgăraș Mountains (Urdea et al., 2011; Kuhlemann et al., 2013;
Corrected age

440.2 ± 36.8
398.8 ± 29.8
97.4 ± 25.9
124.9 ± 1.7
128.0 ± 5.5
123.2 ± 2.5
124.2 ± 1.5
122.4 ± 2.0
126.6 ± 2.1
123.6 ± 1.7
204.0 ± 5.6
199.5 ± 8.0
Mîndrescu, 2016). The crest, headwall and bottom of the Mușeteica rel-

+97/−52
ict cirque, like elsewhere, are well-defined features which evolved little

N560.0
±11.1
329.8

526.0
since the last deglaciation, affected only by erosion and local gravita-
(ka)

tional unloading.
The higher occurrence of dolines and ponors on the cirque bottom
1.5122 ± 0.0056
1.5174 ± 0.0290
1.5246 ± 0.0084
1.4802 ± 0.0057
1.4944 ± 0.0060
1.5220 ± 0.0071
1.5382 ± 0.0072
1.0739 ± 0.0054
1.1017 ± 0.0088

1.3126 ± 0.0088

1.0313 ± 0.0031
1.0487 ± 0.0039
delineates an important area of dissolution and water infiltration in a
concentrated flow, and the probable existence of an organized subterra-
(234U/238U)
corrected

nean network. The glacial infill of covered paleodolines would have

been subsequently affected by subsidence due to underground drain-
age, a process often seen in glaciokarst landscapes (Veress, 2016;
Veress et al., 2019). During the last glacial period, the fossil ridge-top
1.0860 ± 0.0076
1.1056 ± 0.0145
1.0874 ± 0.0110
1.0576 ± 0.0062
1.0594 ± 0.0090
1.1027 ± 0.0086
1.0999 ± 0.0069
0.9231 ± 0.0069
0.9446 ± 0.0105

0.9789 ± 0.0268

1.0248 ± 0.0050
1.0388 ± 0.0062

caves (M3-R2, M4, M5, and M6), located in the area above the trimline,
(230Th/238U)

were not directly influenced by glaciers, being subjected only to

corrected

periglacial processes.
Such caves most probably formed during interglacials, when waters
were more aggressive and able to enlarge cave passages (Häuselmann
et al., 2007). Glaciers do not have a significant impact on dissolution
441.3 ± 36.7
399.4 ± 29.7
125.0 ± 1.7
128.2 ± 5.5
123.4 ± 2.5
124.4 ± 1.5
122.6 ± 2.0
126.8 ± 2.0
124.5 ± 1.6
212.9 ± 4.3
211.3 ± 6.2

137.4 ± 7.3

speleogenesis (Audra, 2001; Häuselmann et al., 2002), due to the satu-

±301.70
age (ka)

ration in Ca2+ ions of the subglacial waters via incorporation of finely

±11.33

±77.04
329.86

717.11

531.31

ground calcite eroded by the glacier (Bini et al., 1998), and due to a
smaller CO2 concentration that should have originated only from the at-
mosphere, in the absence of soil.
1.5106 ± 0.0055
1.5155 ± 0.0289
1.5230 ± 0.0084
1.4787 ± 0.0056
1.4927 ± 0.0059
1.5204 ± 0.0071
1.5302 ± 0.0059
1.0674 ± 0.0033
1.0896 ± 0.0042

1.3125 ± 0.0088

1.0310 ± 0.0031
1.0484 ± 0.0039

Under the influence of cold surface temperatures, ice could have

(234U/238U)

formed in the frontal parts of the caves, contributing to passage enlarge-

±0.0026

±0.0038

±0.0026

ment during freeze-thaw cycles. This might explain for example the
1.1464

1.0442

1.0941

morphological differences between the front and the back of the M1

Cave.
1.0857 ± 0.0075
1.1052 ± 0.0145
1.0871 ± 0.0110
1.0574 ± 0.0062
1.0592 ± 0.0090
1.1023 ± 0.0085
1.0984 ± 0.0067
0.9299 ± 0.0051
0.9512 ± 0.0083

0.9788 ± 0.0267

1.0245 ± 0.0049
1.0386 ± 0.0061
(230Th/238U)

5.2. Structural control

±0.0057

±0.0081

±0.0058
1.1383

1.0661

1.1232

The cirque distribution in the Mușeteica-Buda area is highly con-

trolled by geological structure. Nested cirques are aligned at 2000
and 2250 m a.s.l. on the northern slope, leaning against interlayered
0.00381 ± 0.00004
0.00466 ± 0.00010
0.00381 ± 0.00013
0.00397 ± 0.00004
0.00423 ± 0.00008
0.00402 ± 0.00006
0.01851 ± 0.00015
0.11009 ± 0.00020
0.14908 ± 0.00029

0.0135 ± 0.00006
0.0076 ± 0.00003

marbles and schists. Mușeteica cirque is subsequent in relation to

marble structure (NE-SW strike, Fig. 5), whereas Râiosu cirque is
(232Th/238U)

consequent, with direct implications on their comparably different

±0.0004

±0.0113

±0.0014

±0.0004
0.0207

0.4327

0.0716

0.0188

shapes and sizes.

Arrangement and shape of dolines and roches moutonnées, the
plan shape of the dry valley, and kluftkarren development on the
284.96 ± 2.54
236.83 ± 2.47
285.14 ± 3.28
266.18 ± 2.17
250.23 ± 2.64
274.19 ± 3.37

137.23 ± 0.93

lower cirque bottom corresponds to orientations of local faults and

[230Th/232Th]

59.33 ± 0.46

76.15 ± 0.47
8.47 ± 0.04
6.40 ± 0.05

2.30 ± 0.07

fractures (Fig. 5). Dry valleys developed subsequently on foliation

±1.50

±1.50

±1.50

at the contact between marbles and silicate rock bands. The stepped
54.90

59.90
14.9

profile of the main dry valley is due to numerous swallow-holes

formed on the foliation planes, favoring the access of stream water
Age uncertainties are reported at 2σ confidence interval.

into the underground.

12.81 ± 1.02
Th (ng/g)

0.23 ± 0.00
0.29 ± 0.00
0.23 ± 0.01
0.24 ± 0.00
0.25 ± 0.00
0.22 ± 0.00
1.14 ± 0.01
7.78 ± 0.03
5.15 ± 0.02

0.59 ± 0.00
0.34 ± 0.00

Some faults and fractures fitting the major NE-SW and NW-SE
orientations, which define the structural framework of the Făgăraș
232

Mountains, were crucial for underground karst development. The

frontal part of M3-R2 Cave and the former ridge-top cave rem-
19.77 ± 0.12
20.48 ± 0.26
19.80 ± 0.13
19.92 ± 0.11
19.14 ± 0.10
18.03 ± 0.10
20.12 ± 0.10
23.21 ± 0.08
11.34 ± 0.04

14.33 ± 0.05
14.76 ± 0.06

nants (one of which is M6 Cave) are aligned on the NW-SE fault

9.66 ± 0.73
U (ng/g)

which crosses through the Mușeteica peak (2442 m). Further

35.70

23.62

50.90

two NW-SE-oriented fractures which cross perpendicularly on

238

the Mușeteica cirque are tension fractures formed due to postgla-

cial rebound and gravitational spreading, as suggested by the
M3-R2–1 - VII
Results of the U\

M3-R2–1 - IV

M3-R2–1 - VI

presence of a discrete sackung-like feature and the position of

M3-R2–1 - III

M3-R2–1 - V
M3-R2–1 - II

M3-R2–3 IV
M3-R2–1 - I

M3-R2–3 III
M3-R2–3-II
M3-R2–3-I

these fractures within the glacial cirque (Gutiérrez-Santolalla

Sample ID

M5–1-III

M6–1-II
M6–1-I
M5–1-I

et al., 2005). However, the unloading fractures inherited some

Table 4

older dextral transpression faults formed during the Late Miocene

b

b
a

(Mațenco and Schmid, 1999). Subsidiary fracture sets (WNW-ESE

16 L. Tîrlă et al. / Geomorphology 354 (2020) 107038

Fig. 10. Stereograms of joint and foliation planes combined with cave passages (best-fit great circles and poles to planes). Contour levels show the density of points representing polar
projections of cave passages.

and NNE-SSW) are less abundant, but perceptible at regional and
local scales.
Still, not all fractures have a tectonic trigger at the origin. Locally,
where slope disequilibrium was reached due to glacial lateral sapping,
followed by glacier retreat, it prompted massive rockslides oriented
conformably to marble foliation.
5.3. Speleogenetic stages
The observed speleogenesis in this area consists of three develop-
ment stages: 1) texture- and fabric-controlled dissolution on foliation
planes and tension fractures; 2) structurally-controlled breakdown;
3) cave unroofing and sediment infilling.

Fig. 11. Sampling of speleothem calcite for U\

\Th dating and stable isotope analysis. Sample names are bolded, and the ages with corresponding uncertainties are given in ka.
 L. Tîrlă et al. / Geomorphology 354 (2020) 107038
Fig. 12. Sediment profile showing position of the analyzed samples and basic stratigraphy. The sediment is sloping from left to right, towards the flat bottom of the doline. Black dots
represent the sub-samples collected for grain size analysis, and the white rectangles indicate the three most representative global samples with their grain size percentage plotted on
the charts to the right.
5.3.1. Texture- and fabric-controlled dissolution (M1 Cave) and distension
(ridge-top caves)
The importance of contact planes between banded minerals with
different physical and chemical properties in metamorphic rocks as
speleoinception horizons plays a similar role with that of bedding
planes in sedimentary rocks (Lowe and Gunn, 1997). Mineral segre-
gation and recrystallization followed the direction imposed by the
tectonic stress during metamorphism on the penetrative S2 foliation.
The caves developed in schistose impure marbles containing thin sil-
icate bands which have controlled the spatial development of fissure
aquifers inside the bedrock. The banded fabric determined primary cal-
cite dissolution preferentially along the silicate‑carbonate contact
planes, intersected by faults or pinnate fractures. The weakness of min-
eral cohesion resulted in the development of plane-parallel systematic
joints (J3), related to the S2 foliation. Exhumation of the metamorphic
rocks, followed by erosion, gradually released the pressure from the
overburden, and probably caused the formation of J3 plane-parallel
distension joints.
Thereafter, the central role on conduit development seems to have
been played by the tension fractures that cross marbles perpendicularly
on the S2 foliation. These fractures correspond to the J1 joint family,
which is the dominant joint system in the regional tectonic system
(Fig. 9). Evidence of pressure flow can only be observed in the M1
Cave, but none in the ridge-top caves. These caves could have developed
by diffuse water infiltration along the joint network, although organized
water flow at low discharge could have played a role. Where fissure
aquifers were intersected by faults or fractures, these evolved into
karst conduits as pressure tubes (M1 Cave).
17
5.3.2. Structurally-controlled breakdown
In a later stage, enlargement of karst conduits caused breakdown
due to decreasing stability of the ceiling, as described by White and
White (2000). Breakdown, comparable to rock dissolution, occurred
preferentially along the marble-schist contacts. Schist bands on the
cave ceilings or ceiling edges were found in M3-R2 and M1 caves,
which are larger and their morphology is better highlighted. The pro-
cess is active and contributes to enlargement of chambers and passages
and even to passage unroofing (surface breakdown).
Development of M1 Cave progressed along two main directions:
NW-SE and NE-SW, intersecting in a 90° angle, conformably to local
fractures geometry. The NW-SE passage depicts mostly a breakdown
morphology, which is abruptly replaced by a pressure tube morphology
in case of the NE-SW passage (Fig. 4A). This change in cave morphology
could be attributed to tectonics: distension caused breakdown, whereas
compression (or transpression) favored pressure tubes forming.
The breakdown-dissolution couple has gradually determined sub-
surface karst development along the marble foliation planes, whereas
the surface components are mostly represented by dolines with ponors.
M1 Cave is an exception, because it opens out on a roche moutonnée,
partially collapsed due to subsurface breakdown.
5.3.3. Truncation, unroofing, and sediment infilling
The entrance of the M3-R2 Cave hangs above the Râiosu cirque on
the eastern slope of Mușeteica Mt., indicating it was truncated by
slope retreat, which generated the present-day shape of the Râiosu
upper basin. As well, morphology of the D2 doline is evidence that for-
mer cave passages (M6 Cave) collapsed and were filled with sediment
18 L. Tîrlă et al. / Geomorphology 354 (2020) 107038
\Th dates and their respective error bars from speleothems and the benthic δ18O record of Lisiecki and Raymo (2005) in black. Marine isotope stages representing interglacials
Fig. 13. U\
and their warming peaks are indicated by odd numbers and accompanying letters below the age plots. For the M6–1 flowstone, only the top age is shown, as the bottom age was out of
U\\Th dating range.
washed in from the surrounding slopes. The sediment infill has pre-
served the collapse morphology and in situ speleothems.
All the studied caves except M1 are arranged into a very small, 5500-
m2 area on the mountain ridge top (Fig. 5). M4 and M5 caves, located
very close to each other (~15 m), were undoubtedly truncated as in-
ferred from the existence of in situ flowstones outside their entrance.
Given their close position, we propose that these caves are remnant seg-
ments of a single network, whose interconnecting passages are proba-
bly obstructed by breakdown and sediment infill. Dissolution by
percolating water was favored by the local tension fracture system
and slowly modeled the cave walls under lithologic control, producing
alternating sharp edges on the silicate sheets and corrosion grooves
on the marble bands. No scallops were observed on the passage walls,
indicating the lack of pressure flow. During cold periods (both
periglacial and glacial conditions), cryoclastic phenomena would have
played a role in developing the joint network. Some dissolution of
weathering and breakdown material during warmer and wetter climate
phases might have contributed to cave development, a process which
can be observed today. On the contrary, there is no evidence for an old
age or truncation of the M1 Cave.
5.4. Speleothem growth phases
Overall, the chronology of speleothem growth is generally well
constrained given the limitations of the U\\Th dating method. The largest
age errors given by flowstones M6-1 and M5-1 are due on the one hand
to the very low uranium content (between 14 and 51 ng/g), and on the
other to the closeness of the U\\Th dating limit, of ~500,000 years.
Speleothem formation seems to have occurred during at least five
distinct phases (or episodes). The first phase was recorded by flowstone
M6–1, which started growing before 560 ka, although this age estimate
does not benefit from error assessment. The top of this flowstone has an
age of 526 ka with an error defined as +97/−52 ka, which is not un-
usual for samples of similar age and with such low uranium content. A
second phase is identified in flowstone M5–1, which appears to have
grown between 440 ± 37 ka and 399 ± 30 ka, roughly overlapping ma-
rine isotope stages 10 to 13 if uncertainties are considered in full. The
third phase took place during MIS 9 and is identified at the base of
sample M3-R2–3, at 330 ± 11 ka. Also, in flowstone M3-R2-3, we can
identify the fourth phase around 200 ka. Here, a change in petrography
from dark brown to white, opaque calcite is defined by two age esti-
mates of 204 ± 6 ka and 200 ± 8 ka, during MIS 7a-7c. Taking into ac-
count the error estimates, there could have been no hiatus at all
between them, or a hiatus of at most 14 ka. One could speculate that
it might have been caused by detrimental environmental conditions
for speleothem formation during MIS 7b. A fifth phase is clearly defined
by stalagmite M3-R2–1, which grew only during the warmest part of
the last interglacial (MIS 5e), between 124.9 ± 1.7 ka and 123.6 ±
1.7 ka (Drăgușin, 2013). Moreover, the top of flowstone M3-R2–3 was
dated at 97.6 ± 26.0 ka, restricting its deposition to sometimes during
MIS 5.
The U\\Th ages fall mostly within interglacials (MIS 9, 7, and 5), ex-
cept for M6-1 and possibly M5-1, where large age uncertainties hamper
a good chronological control (Fig. 13). M3-R2-3 seems to even span sev-
eral glacial cycles and we suspect that there should be hiatuses within
the sample that cover the intervening glacial periods.
This might be due to the fact that mid-latitude speleothems form
generally during interglacials, whereas formation ceases during glacials
(Gordon et al., 1989; Baker et al., 1993; Lauritzen, 1995; Hercman, 2000;
Spötl et al., 2007). Continuous deposition throughout glacial periods is
characteristic only at circum–Mediterranean and sub–tropical sites
(McDermott, 2004).
At sites similar to ours, for example at high elevation in the Alps, Spötl
et al. (2002) and Holzkämper et al. (2005) showed that speleothems
formed only during interglacials. Similarly, Norwegian speleothems
were found to have formed during interglacials (Lauritzen et al., 1990;
Lauritzen, 1995; Berstad et al., 2002; Lauritzen and Lundberg, 2004). In
Søylegrotta (N Norway), the formation of stalagmite SG92-2 was re-
stricted to MIS 15, 13, 11, and 9 (Berstad et al., 2002). Also in N
Norway, flowstone LP6 from Laphullet Cave grew mostly during the
MIS 11 interglacial (Lauritzen et al., 1990; Lauritzen and Lundberg,
2004). This speleothem is very similar with our sample M3-R2–3 with
respect to its geomorphological and climatic setting. Laphullet Cave de-
veloped on a ridge-top in marble bedrock in an area with mean annual
temperature of 2.8 °C, near the Arctic Circle, and was repeatedly affected
by glacier advance and retreat.
 L. Tîrlă et al. / Geomorphology 354 (2020) 107038
Stable carbon isotope values (δ13C) from these speleothems can help
in discerning if calcite was deposited during warm periods, when soil
plant and microbial activity were high, for example during interglacials.
In our speleothems the lowest values are close to −10‰. They can be
the result of a mixing between organically derived CO2 which usually
has a δ13C value of about −23‰ (in a C3 dominated plant association),
and carbonate host rock (around 1‰ in our case), which usually gives a
δ13C speleothem value of around −11‰ (see for example the review
work of McDermott, 2004). The highest values that we measured can
be given by a wide range of processes intervening between host rock
dissolution and speleothem deposition, but is not the aim of this work
to discuss them. The most important information we want to convey
is that values of −10‰ cannot be produced in the absence of plant
and soil microbial activity specific to warm periods.
5.5. Significance of clastic sediment infill
The young age of the sediment infill, inferred both from the direct ra-
diocarbon dating of bulk organic matter but also from the failure of
obtaining OSL ages, implies that the collapse of the M6 Cave ceiling took
place very recently, during the Holocene or, in any case not during the
last glaciation. If the collapse doline generated by ceiling collapse would
have been exposed to intense periglacial conditions during a glacial pe-
riod, it would have been filled with cryoclasts and largely expanded out-
wards, whereas what we see at the moment are vertical walls, some of
them even retaining flowstones. The angular to subangular shape of sili-
cate rock clasts found in the sediment indicates little or no transport, and
therefore an in situ gravitational infill following the cave ceiling collapse.
Further excavation of the sediment in order to reach the bottom of the de-
posit will shed more light onto the collapse and sedimentation processes.
At the moment we see no explanation for the infill provenance in such
high quantities in such a short time interval.
Pollen preservation is rather poor given the presence of many
degraded and unidentified degraded grains (15%), and a rather low
number of taxa. Nevertheless, the sediment infill of the M6 Cave (doline
D2) provides a good opportunity for future studies on vegetation recon-
structions considering the abundance of grains. The availability of large
sample amounts that could be analyzed for a wide range of biogeo-
chemical proxies offers an opportunity that is not available for the
study of lake sediments, that relies on coring, and could be a welcomed
addition to such type of Holocene archives from high elevation.
Further improvements in pollen and spore retrieval could be
achieved by changes in the preparation protocol (e.g., removing the
acetolysis step and reducing the HF treatment).
5.6. Regional landscape evolution and reconstruction of cave assemblage
The U\\Th ages of our speleothems indicate that underground voids
developed in the Mușeteica area before ~560 ka. As the sample yielding
this age was retrieved from a wall, it also shows that this section of M6
Cave did not suffer from breakdown processes since its formation.
Evolution of the Mușeteica caves in a cold, glaciated environ-
ment was most likely dependent on surface erosion (via cirques
development and increased lateral migration of the crests under
the ice dynamics), coupled with water availability and soil devel-
opment. The most important effect on surface topography was
glacial and periglacial modeling, counterbalanced by mountain tec-
tonic uplift, and to a lesser extent by fluvial erosion and marble
dissolution.
5.6.1. Glacial erosion
The morphology of the Mușeteica glacial cirque itself is likely the re-
sult of several glacial phases during the Pleistocene. Studies have shown
that the necessary time for cirques to form may be between 125 ka and
beyond 400 ka (Barr and Spagnolo, 2015, and references therein).
Therefore, it is likely that the glaciers have eroded the bedrock at least
19
during the penultimate glaciation, MIS 6 (191–130 ka), and the Last Gla-
cial Period, MIS 4–2 (70–12 ka).
The exact time of ice formation during the LGP is unknown. Based on
the widely accepted fact that speleothems grow mostly during the in-
terglacials/warm periods, and that our youngest speleothem age is
97.6 ± 26.0 ka, we presume that local glaciation should have initiated
sometimes between 115 and 70 ka. However, isotopic studies have
shown that conditions for ice formation or advance were met mostly to-
wards ~70 ka, given that the last warming peak of the MIS 5 interglacial
(5a) was at 82 ka (Lisiecki and Raymo, 2005). The approximate age of
deglaciation in the nearby cirques was around 12 ka (Kuhlemann
et al., 2013). We can estimate that, over the cumulated intervals of the
penultimate and last glaciations (~120 ka), glacial erosion could have
removed a maximum of 72 m of bedrock, resulting in an average erosion
rate of 0.6 ± 0.02 mm yr−1. If the Mușeteica glacier melted earlier than
12 ka, then we may allow for a slightly higher value of the glacial erosion
rate, probably no N0.65 mm yr−1. Temperate glaciers are able to erode
the bedrock at rates between 0.1 and 10 mm yr−1 (Swift et al., 2015,
and references therein). In the European Alps, Valla et al. (2011) have
shown a minimum mean erosion rate of 1 mm yr−1. Yet, the Alpine
glaciers are better developed and more aggressive compared to former
Carpathian glaciers, considering the cirque size of the latter (Mîndrescu
and Evans, 2014).
5.6.2. Estimation of dissolution rates
During periods with no glacier presence, the dominant processes
which might have lowered the topographic surface were karst dissolu-
tion and fluvial erosion. These processes must have contributed consid-
erably less than the glaciers to surface erosion.
Regarding dissolution rates, Bögli (1971) reported values be-
tween 0.014 and 0.071 mm yr−1 for the bare karst in Muotatal
(Switzerland), while Lauritzen (1990) found values between 0.013
and 0.023 mm yr−1 for Norway karst. For a moderate climate with ef-
fective precipitation of 1000 mm yr−1 and bare karst area, Gabrovšek
(2007) has calculated a limestone dissolution rate of 0.04 mm yr−1. At
Innerbergli in the Swiss Alps, under climatic and karst conditions simi-
lar to those in the Făgăraș Mountains, the average value is 0.014 ±
0.007 mm yr−1 (Häuselmann, 2008). According to these studies, marble
dissolution rates do not exceed 0.1 mm yr−1 in such conditions, much
lower than our calculated glacial erosion rate of ~0.6 mm yr−1.
5.6.3. Mountain uplift estimates
Mountain uplift rates covering the Pleistocene epoch were not
reported to date. Significant uplift events during the Upper
Badenian, Upper Sarmatian, and uppermost Pannonian were re-
corded in the sediments of southern Transylvanian Basin, as shown
by the sequence stratigraphy results (Mațenco et al., 2010), and
show average uplift rates of 1, 0.8, and 1.88 mm yr−1, respectively.
Modern geophysical measurements indicate higher uplift rates of
2–3 mm yr−1 (Zugrăvescu et al., 1998). Despite the apparent in-
crease of the uplift rates since the Upper Miocene until present,
such a large time gap confines the arguments on paleoaltimetry
only to rough estimations, and therefore we excluded it from the
proposed scenario below.
5.6.4. Sequence chronology of cave development and landscape evolution
The scenario proposed below is based on speleothem ages, and the
assumption that the caves must be older than the deposits within. We
describe six time periods in the evolution of this landscape during the
past N560 ka, illustrated in Fig. 14:
I) Before ~560 ka. The minimum estimated age of M6 Cave is pro-
vided by the U\\Th dates of M6–1 sample, falling roughly within
the MIS 15-13 interglacial. At this point, there is no evidence
about the existence of any other cave nearby.
II) At ~400 ka. Most probably during the MIS 11 interglacial, M5
20 L. Tîrlă et al. / Geomorphology 354 (2020) 107038

Fig. 14. Evolution scenario of the Mușeteica glaciokarst: 1 – surface topography; 2 – hypothetical paleotopography; 3 – cave section; 4 – truncated cave; 5 – speleothem; 6 – mountain
glacier; 7 – slope erosion; 8 – marble; 9 – greenschist; 10 – amphibolitic schist; 11 – strike and dip of rock foliation.
 L. Tîrlă et al. / Geomorphology 354 (2020) 107038
Cave was already formed and was probably longer, allowing for
the deposition of flowstone M5-1. No datable cave deposit from
the M4 Cave could provide insights into its age.
III) At ~330 ka. The first evidence for the existence of M3-R2 Cave
during MIS 9 was the commencement of M3-R2-3 speleothem
growth. Meanwhile, the intervening surface erosion, enhanced
during the cold periods by glacial/periglacial conditions, should
have thinned the overburden of M6 and M5 caves.
IV) At ~70 ka. Speleothems grew during the last interglacial perhaps
only in the M3-R2 Cave. So far, we found no evidence of
speleothem formation at this stage in the other ridge-top caves
(M4, M5, or M6); therefore, we may assume that these caves
had already been strongly truncated by erosion at that time,
and speleothem growth was not possible anymore in the nearly
exposed passages or chambers.
V) Last Glacial Period (~70 ka – 12 ka). The area above the trimline
was subjected to periglacial processes, being close to erasing all
the cave passages from the ridge. The Mușeteica glacier has re-
moved a large amount of bedrock and dropped the altitude of
land surface by a maximum of ~70 m. M1 Cave was probably in-
vaded by ice in its frontal part, causing extensive breakdown, and
received periodically a water influx from the glacier above, which
subsequently modeled the tube in the back section.
VI) Late Holocene. Mountain uplift and erosion resulted in the
present-day morphology and altitudes. The landscape should
not have changed too much since the last deglaciation, except
for gravitational spreading and partial modeling of karst land-
forms and glacial deposits. The ridge-top caves are subjected to
slow dissolution, and passage enlargement by breakdown. M1
Cave is no longer enlarged by water flow under pressure, but
shows multiple evidence of wall modeling by condensation cor-
rosion in its frontal part. The roof of M6 Cave probably collapsed
during the Holocene and was filled with clastic sediments
washed from the nearby slopes, and is capped by active soil
layers.
The interpretation regarding the progress of glacial erosion illus-
trated in Fig. 14 is based on a geomorphological foundation. Morphom-
etry of the glacial cirques suggests that erosion progressed rather
headward in the Mușeteica cirque, whereas in the smaller cirques
around it (including the Râiosu cirque to the east) it acted mostly down-
ward at least during the last glacial period. The hosted ice could not have
removed enough material from the bedrock of these small cirques to
force a significant headwall erosion compared to Mușeteica cirque.
Here, the former glacier seems to have described a clockwise 70°–90°
rotation from south towards the east, imposed by the geological struc-
ture of marbles.
6. Conclusions
This study provides new geomorphological and geochronological in-
formation on the evolution of the Făgăraș Mountains (Romania) marble
karst and gives new insights into the relationship between
karstification and Pleistocene environmental changes in the central
South Carpathians. Our results show how the alpine karst and sedimen-
tary archives such as speleothems and clastic infills have recorded these
changes in an isolated high-altitude setting.
Geological structure seems to have controlled the spatial develop-
ment of karst and glacial landforms, primarily through the layered
structure of calcite marbles and the preferred orientation of faults and
fractures. The primary tectonic directions are NE-SW and NW-SE,
while WNW-ESE and NNE-SSW are secondary. Cave formation was re-
lated to four joint families measured on the marble bedrock, with the
NW-SE-striking joint family being dominant in the entire area.
21
The Mușeteica glaciokarst contains two distinct zones: a) the level
above the trimline comprises collapse dolines and cave remnants with
speleothems; b) the glacial cirque hosts solution dolines, dry valleys,
ponors, kluftkarren, a valley-bottom cave lacking speleothems (M1
Cave), roches moutonnées, and plucked slope facets. Morphological ev-
idence and lack of speleothems suggest that the M1 Cave is younger
than the caves above the trimline and developed under the glacier dur-
ing the last glaciation (MIS 4–2).
The ridge-top caves and former passages were truncated due to
slope retreat under glacial and periglacial erosion, throughout the Mid-
dle and Late Pleistocene. We discovered a cave remnant (M6) by exca-
vating the siliciclastic sediment infill of a ridge-top doline.
Three speleogenetic stages were outlined: 1) texture- and fabric-
controlled dissolution and distension; 2) structurally-controlled break-
down; 3) cave truncation, unroofing, and sediment infilling.
We reported the first speleothem U\\Th dates from the alpine karst
in the Romanian Carpathians, that range between ~70 ka and N560 ka,
spanning the Middle and Late Pleistocene. U\\Th dating shows that
speleothem deposition was limited mostly to interglacial periods. Stable
carbon isotope values of these speleothems have a minimum around
−10‰, indicating the presence of sustained activity from plant and
soil microorganisms, consistent with environmental conditions of
warm periods.
Based on speleothem ages and glaciokarst geomorphology, we pro-
posed a landscape reconstruction scenario comprising six time slices,
at N560 ka, 400 ka, 330 ka, 70 ka, 70 to 12 ka, and at present. Each chro-
nological sequence illustrates changes that occurred in cave develop-
ment, speleothem growth, and glacial/periglacial erosion.
The sediment accumulation we identified in the ridge-top dolines
has a late Holocene age, preliminary radiocarbon dating showing it
started depositing before ~3 ka. We showed that it preserved pollen
from a mostly herbaceous plant association. Combined with other bio-
geochemical proxies and a possibility for large sample availability,
these sedimentary archives can be a welcome complement to lake sed-
iment cored from the region.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the ICUB (University of Bucharest
Research Institute) grant no. 13055/2017 (to L.T.), and SEE 126/2019 -
KARSTHIVES 2 (to S. Constantin). V. D. would like to thank CENIEH
(Burgos, Spain) for supporting a research stay during which some of the
U\\Th work presented here was undertaken. We would like to thank A.
Gabor and A. Giurgea for preliminary OSL measurements on sediments,
as well as L. Faur and C. Ungureanu for measuring their grain size content.
The local authorities of Arefu and the Romanian Civil Aviation Authority
are acknowledged for providing the drone flight approval. We thank M.
Stoica and A. Nedelea for providing documenting materials and logistics,
D. Putici, A. Domozină, T. Cojocaru, and students involved in the field-
work, as well as M. Dinoiu and B. Dinoiu for providing accommodation
during fieldwork. We are grateful to J. de Waele and O. Pop for providing
constructive remarks and suggestions, which helped improve the quality
of this manuscript.
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