Arabian Journal of Geosciences (2022) 15:1159

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-022-10371-4

ORIGINAL PAPER

Fracture system and associated structures within the Variscan granitic

Ment massif (western Moroccan Meseta): an integrated mapping
approach
Abdelkarim Ait Baha1 · Isma Amri1 · Khalil El Kadiri1 · Adnane Tobi2 · Muhammad Ouabid3

Received: 4 January 2022 / Accepted: 21 May 2022

© Saudi Society for Geosciences 2022

Abstract
In the Central Massif of the Moroccan Western Meseta, the Aguelmous-Ment Permian granitic pluton intruded in the
Carboniferous flysch formations is affected by an important late Variscan compressive stage. This post-tectonic granite
massif (~ 100 k­ m2 in outcrop area) underwent striking fracture networks at different scales. Despite their scientific interests,
detailed mapping and characterization of the tectonic records remain elusive. The main purpose of this study is to fill this
gap through investigating (i) the fracture distribution, (ii) the statistical occurrence of lineaments, and (iii) the tectonics
paleostress, in order to provide detailed geological and structural maps. For this goal, several approaches are integrated,
including remote sensing, geographic information system (GIS), field microstructural, and schistosity analyses. Analysis
of fracturing through (i) Landsat 8 Oli imagery processing for automatic (principal component analysis PC1) and manual
extraction (Color composites 432 and 467) of lineaments and (ii) the GIS, which leads to reconstruct synthetic fracture map
accounting for 736 lineaments. The main results are as follows: (i) both fractures and schistosity ­S1 are dominantly directed
NE-SW and WNW-ESE; (ii) the density map exhibits an irregular geospatial distribution of lineaments, with the fractures
being essentially confined in the competent zones of the granitic pluton or controlled by the paleofaults in the country meta-
sedimentary rocks. Overall, these new results indicate also those compressive polyphase tectonics represented by sinistral
N160–170 and N10–30, and dextral N110–120 and N60–80 directed dextral strike slips affected the Ment Variscan granitic
pluton. These tectonic structures are consistent with the dominant regional tectonic event that occurred at the final stage of
the Variscan Permian orogenic phase.

Keywords Moroccan Western Meseta · Variscan granitic Ment massif · Fracture distribution · Density map · Schistosity ·
Late Variscan orogenic phase

Introduction

Traditionally, geological mapping uses aerial photography.

Recently, Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager (Oli) emerged
as a new generation of satellite imagery to map arid and
semi-arid areas. It gained increasing interest as it proved to
Responsible Editor: Biswajeet Pradhan
be a source of rich data, low-cost comparatively with being
* Abdelkarim Ait Baha relatively rapid, and a reliable alternative and/or comple-
abdo.aitbaha.geo@gmail.com ment to field geological investigations. Thus, Landsat 8 Oli
1 was developed to fill gaps left by the classical geological
Environemental Geology and Natural Ressources Lab, FS,
Abdelmalek Essaadi University, Tetouan, Morocco mapping techniques for delineation of lineaments such as
2 fractures (e.g., Bonetto et al. 2017). The importance of this
Applied Geology Laboratory, Faculty of Science
and Technology, Moulay Ismaïl University, Boutalamine, method can also be noticed through its widespread use by
B.P. 509, 52000 Errachidia, Morocco scientists around the world for remote structural/tectonic
3
Geology & Sustainable Mining, Mohammed VI studies, namely, in Somalia (Ibrahim and Mutua 2014),
Polyechnique University, 43150 Benguerir, Morocco Qatar (Dana et al. 2015), Iraq (Hassan and Adhab 2014;

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1159 Page 2 of 23
Thannoun 2013), Egypt (Kamel et al. 2016; Masoud and
Koike 2006), Antarctic Peninsula (Pour et al. 2017), Tunisia
(Chaabouni et al. 2012), Côte d’Ivoire (Koffi and Ouattara
2013), and in Algeria (Lamri et al. 2016; Nait Amara et al.
2019). This approach has proven to be a rapid, cost-effective,
and adequate solution for the high-altitude regions and inac-
cessible terrains.
In connection with this work dealing with the mapping
of fracture systems, spatially detecting lineaments were car-
ried out as a fundamental step for the identification of areas
of economic interest (Stefouli et al. 1996; Roy et al.2006;
Corgne et al. 2010; Marghany and Hashim 2010; Salui 2018;
Mathew and Ariffin 2018), or areas subject to landslide haz-
ard (Kannaujiya et al. 2019; Hammad et al. 2020; Mohan
et al. 2021; Nhu et al. 2020; Zhong et al. 2020; Cakrabuana
et al. 2021; Bachri et al. 2021). Overall, geomatic and geo-
spatial remote sensing are powerful methods for the extrac-
tion of lineaments, especially when used in combination
with field in situ structural analysis, consisting of (i) man-
ual extraction (Raj 1989), (ii) semi-automatic (Jordan and
Schott 2005; Moh et al. 2019), and (iii) automatic extraction
(Masoud and Koike 2011; Saadi et al. 2011).
In Morocco, remote sensing has been used in almost all
its geological orogenic belts (Fig. 1): the Anti Atlas (Mas-
sironi et al. 2008; El Janati et al. 2013; Mohamed Vall et al.
2016; Adiri et al. 2016, 2017; Bouramtane et al. 2017; El
Janati 2019; El Atillah et al. 2019; Hejja et al. 2020; Es-Sab-
bar et al. 2020; Saidi et al. 2020); the High-Atlas (Himyari
et al. 2002; El Moujahid et al. 2016; Si Mhamdi et al. 2016,
2017; Nouayti et al. 2017; Bentahar et al. 2020), the Tighza
area (Kassou et al. 2012), and the Northwest side of the
Fig. 1  Structural map of the
northern Moroccan Variscan
belt at the northern margin
of the West African Craton
(WAC) showing the location of
the studied Aguelmous Ment
Variscan granite pluton (in red)
(adapted from Hoepffner et al.
2005; Michard et al. 2010;
Gasquet et al. 2008; Ouabid
et al. 2017)
13
Arab J Geosci (2022) 15:1159
Alpine Rif belt (Skakni et al. 2020). However, the Moroccan
central Massif of the Western Meseta (Fig. 1), studied here,
remains out of the reach of this promising method. Indeed,
this massif was deformed and structured during the major
Carboniferous (Westphalian-Stephanian) phase, before being
intruded by km-scale granitic bodies, including mainly
those of Zear, Oulmès, and Aguelmous-Ment (studied area)
(Fig. 1) during the late-Hercynian Permian phase. Subse-
quently, the just emplaced granitic massifs acted as trig-
gering areas of an important fracture system, which hence
might host various mineralization of economic interests
(e.g., Sn, W, As, Pb). Despite the progress of remote sens-
ing in lithological discrimination, the reflectance of probable
zones of mineralization and the related lineaments mainly at
the surface remains too elusive to account for the subsurface
fracturing (Blind faults), which requires the intervention of
other complementary geophysical approaches (aeromagnetic
data, gravimetry, Nait Bba et al. 2019). The aim of this work
is to map the fracture system affecting the Aguelmous-Ment
granitic massif (at the east of Moroccan central Massif,
Fig. 1), and to decipher the chronological superposition of
the brittle over ductile structure in its surrounding. Hence,
we use a combination of (i) remote sensing including auto-
matic and manual on the satellite image (Landsat Oli. 8),
(ii) geographic information system (GIS), and (iii) statisti-
cal study of the extracted faults in view of their directions,
frequency, lengths, and density. The spatially obtained geo-
logical and fracturing maps are validated and detailed based
on field in situ analysis. The latter includes measurement of
the varying schistosity trending around the granite pluton, in
order to reveal a possible causal link with faults and restore
Arab J Geosci (2022) 15:1159
the field of the old tectonic constraints that recorded by this
Variscan granitic massif.
Aguelmous‑Ment granitic Massif: geological
setting, mapping, and mineral resources
The Moroccan Meseta orogen represents the northernmost
Variscan envelope of the Precambrian West African Craton
(= WAC, Fig. 1), i.e., outside of the Caledonian area. This
orogen derived first from a long-lasting Cambrian-Devonian
“mobile zone” at the latest Devonian (the so-called early
Variscan phase of the eastern Meseta (Faure-Muret and
Choubert 1975; Piqué and Laville 1993; Hoepffner et al.
2005), and then migrated westwards through a polyphased
Carboniferous scenario, to affect synorogenic thick flysch
packages (western Meseta)). The latter attained its paroxysm
at the late Namurian-early Westphalian, as a consequence
of the Gondwana-Laurussia collision, which resulted in the
closure of Rheic ocean (Matte 2001; Hoepffner et al. 2005;
Stampfli et al. 2013).
The Meseta Paleozoic massifs occur as large-scale inliers
(the so-called Paleozoic Boutonnières, Faure-Muret and
Choubert 1975) surrounded by Alpine formations. Their
Precambrian basement was precociously buried below 5-
to 7-km-thick Cambrian-Ordovician silico-clastic series. It
was drilled offshore in the Atlantic Mazagan plateau (Laville
and Piqué 1993), and emerges in the Anti-Atlas belt in the
so-called Precambrian Boutonnières (Michard 1976; Hoe-
pffner et al. 2005, 2006; Michard et al. 2010; Tahiri et al.
2010; Pereira et al. 2015; Ouabid et al. 2017, 2020; Karaoui
et al. 2021). The early Variscan collision that occurred at
the uppermost Devonian (360–370 Ma) points to the begin-
ning of a plate-tectonic rearrangement, whereas the main
orogenic phase during the Carboniferous-early Permian
(300–280 Ma) was modulated by crustal strike-slip shear
zones, leading to the formation of the Pangea mega-conti-
nent (Stampfli et al. 2013; Kroner and Romer 2013; Kro-
ner et al. 2016). Noteworthy that the first phase was con-
fined to both the eastern Meseta and the Coastal block (the
so-called Môle Côtier of the westernmost Meseta), being
converted into two emerged micro-plates during the Car-
boniferous tectono-sedimentary evolution. Concurrently,
the central Meseta, in between, underwent differential sub-
sidence (Khénifra and Sidi Bettache basins, separated by
the Zaer anticline) during the Visean-Namurian times. The
syn-schistose paroxysmal Carboniferous phase occurred
since the Westphalian B as a result of the west-verged colli-
sion of the two preceding micro-plates. It culminated at the
Stephanian-Autunian by a magmatic phase responsible for
the emplacement of several granitic intrusions. Then, the
whole Meseta domain emerged as a composite deformed,
metamorphosed, and granitized segment (Hoepffner et al.
Page 3 of 23 1159
2005, 2006; Michard et al. 2010). The magmatic activity
results mainly in granitoid plutons of peraluminous calc-
alkaline signature (Mrini 1985; Rosé 1987; Mrini et al.
1992; Boushaba and Cailleux 1992; Gasquet et al. 1996;
Amenzou and El Mourouah 1997; Haïmeur and El Hassani
2005; El Hadi et al. 2006; Michard et al. 2008, 2010).
The emplacement of most of these Variscan granitic mas-
sifs (including the studied Aguelmous-Ment pluton, Fig. 1)
generated contact metamorphism (with areoles of up 2 km)
within the low-grade hosting greenschists/rare amphibolites
(Aghzer and Arenas 1998; El Hassani 1990; Dahmani 1995;
Boushaba and Marignac 1996; Tahiri et al. 2007; Delchini
et al. 2016; Mahjoubi 2017; Elabouyi et al. 2019).
The studied Aguelmous-Ment Variscan granitic massif
(33° 14′ 40″ N/5° 54′ 00″ W) is located 2–3 km north of
Aguelmous village and 40 km northwest of Khenifra city
(Figs. 1, 2). It outcrops as subcircular plutonic structure
extending over ~ 100 ­km2 area. The field observations and
measurements show that this pluton has no preferential
mineral orientation. Petrographically, the granitic massif
reveals three unequal facies associations: (i) the porphyritic
granite (of up 90% of the intrusion) rich in basic dark and
clear enclaves as well as xenoliths, (ii) the syderophylite-
bearing monzogranites, and (iii) the fine two-mica, sidero-
phyllite, topaz, and zinnwaldite leucogranites (Fig. 2; e.g.,
Boushaba 1984, 1996). Overall, the emplacement of this
pluton generated three distinct metamorphic zones (Fig. 2,
Dahmani 1995): (i) chlorite + phengite ± biotite ± albite; (ii)
biotite + muscovite + andalusite; and (iii) K-feldspar + bio-
tite + andalusite + muscovite zones. In addition, the eastern
part of the massif has a strong metamorphic effect, while its
western part records only a weak effect. The Rb–Sr age and
emplacement depth of this massif can be summarized as
follows: 279 ± 6 Ma for porphyry granite, at depth of 12 to
13 km, monzogranite reaches 2 to 12 km, and leucogranite
is 270 ± 3 Ma at depth of 2 to 5 km (Mrini 1985; Mrini et al.
1992; Boushaba 1996). Besides, the porphyritic granite was
emplaced at low pressure and at temperature of about 750 °C
(Boushaba 1990). Volcanic effluxes derived from the initial
magma are developed in the form of veins during the major
Hercynian contractional phase (Fig. 2). These magmatic
pulses (lava flows, lamprophyres, and pre-/post-tectonic dol-
erite sills) outcropping in the plateau of Ment bear a middle
oceanic ridge basalt geochemical signature (Boushaba and
Marignac 1994a; Boushaba 1996). Plio-Quaternary alkaline
lavas (0.3 to 2 Ma) that invaded the NE part of Ez-Zirari-Sidi
Othmane and the Tawrirt areas consist of basalts, basanites,
and olivine nephelinites (Rachdi et al. 1985).
In terms of mineral deposits, the studied Aguelmous-
Ment granite body hosts variable mineralization (Fig. 2).
The latter are developed as dense veins and veinlets of
tourmalinite, quartz with orientations varying from N-S to
E-W, whereas the greisen formation occurs in the apexes
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1159 Page 4 of 23 Arab J Geosci (2022) 15:1159

Fig. 2  Geological and structural

map of Ment granite based on
field and petrographic analysis
(this work) and preexisting data
(Termier 1932; Dahmani 1995;
Boushaba 1996; Boushaba and
Marignac 1996; Andritzky et al.
2000; Fadli et al. 2007)

of the leucogranite domes (Boushaba and Marignac 1996).
In Fig. 2, we combine new field and petrographic observa-
tions with results from the literature (Termier 1932; Dahm-
ani 1995; Boushaba 1996; Boushaba and Marignac 1996;
Andritzky et al. 2000; Fadli et al. 2007) using GIS to pro-
pose a new detailed geological map of the Aguelmous-Ment
area. This map allows us also to reconstruct a field-based
structural section evidencing the relationship between
the studied granite and its hosting sedimentary rocks (see
Fig. 3).
The field investigation throughout the variant granitic
facies shows three main types of quartz veins containing
mineralization, irrespective of their hydrothermal ori-
gin (recall that quartz constitutes more than 70% of the

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Arab J Geosci (2022) 15:1159 Page 5 of 23 1159

Fig. 3  Structural section across

the study area showing the rela-
tionships between the granite
and its surrounding Paleozoic
rocks

porphyritic granite). Quartz exhibits three colors depend-
ing on the length of its hosting veins: (i) quartz of white
color (Fig. 4a) remains more abundant in the greater veins,
which are of up to 5 km long and 4 m wide, as seen in the
south of the studied Massif; (ii) grayish and purplish quartz
(Fig. 4b) occur precisely in smaller veins, i.e., not exceed-
ing 200 m long and 1 m wide, as observed in Ifzwane and
Khneg Dfa areas. From a structural point of view, the white
to pale quartz is clearly pre-kinematic as it is reworked in
cataclasit bands delineating dextral faults crossing the veins.

Fig. 4  Mineralized veins hosted

in the Ment massif. a White
quartz vein in the southern zone
of Bou Idjaa. b Pale pink quartz
vein in the porphyry granite of
Ifwzane. c Greisen vein cross-
cut by a white quartz vein. d
Massive tourmalinite found in
M’Zidant

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1159 Page 6 of 23 Arab J Geosci (2022) 15:1159

Fig. 5  a Aplite vein cross-

cutting the Ifzwan porphyritic
granite. b Rhyolite dyke cross-
cutting the porphyry granite

In contrast, the grayish and purplish quartz veins do not greisen (Fig. 4c) is composed of quartz and muscovite, as
show any evidence of such Permian tectonics. The observed major minerals, which seems to associate the post-magmatic

Fig. 6  Flow-chart of satellite

image processing methodology

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Arab J Geosci (2022) 15:1159 Page 7 of 23 1159

Table 1  Sobel kernel filters in Four main principal directions

four main directions
N-S NE-SW E-W NW–SE

−1 0 1 − 1.4142 − 0.7071 0 −1 −1 −1 0 − 0.7071 − 1.4142

−1 0 1 − 0.7071 0 0.7071 0 0 0 0.7071 0 − 0.7071
−1 0 1 0 0.7071 1.4142 1 1 1 1.4142 0.7071 0

alteration affecting the studied granite. They are confined in
the apex of finite-magmatic intrusions emplaced at shallow
depths (Ezi-Zirari leucogranite). This greisenisation appears
locally in porphyry granite in the form of veins and veinlets
in the Errif area, as well as in Amahroq and Ifzwane area,
both in the vicinity of the Plio-Quaternary lava (Fig. 2).
Tourmalinite (Fig. 4d) appears in study area as a massive
blackish rock intrusions emplaced at shallow depths (e.g.,
Ezi-Zirari leucogranite; Fig. 2) associated with quartz vein-
lets. This rock was found as patches in the Bou Idjaa area or
as veins dispersed in the porphyritic granite at the eastern
part of the leucogranite. Tourmalinite rock reaches 2 km
maximum length in the eastern part of the granitic massif,
Table 2  Parameters used for automatic lineament extraction
Name Caption Value range
RADI Radius of the edge detection filter 10
GTHR Threshold for edge gradient 100
LTHR Threshold for curve length 30
FTHR Threshold for line fitting error 3 to the Permian brittle phase that affected the whole Ment
ATHR Threshold for angular difference 30
DTHR Threshold for linking distance 35
and it is currently of 3 m wide. The granite-tourmalinite
boundary is generally clear cut but can be sometimes dis-
turbed by crossing greisen veins containing tourmaline vein-
lets. At the field scale, tourmalinite veins outline interpret-
able structures and are affected in turn by post-mineralized
tectonics, as can be established in the Errif zone. Cross-
cutting relationships point to the generation of greisen first,
followed by tourmalinite, and then by quartz (Amhroq and
Ez-Zirari zones exhibit good examples of this chronology).
The mapping of all these veins allowed us to conclude that
the zones rich in tourmalinite are poor in quartz.
The Ment intrusion contains light and dark enclaves and
magmatic veins of different petrographic nature. The por-
phyry granite contains decimetric to metric sporadic veins
and veinlets of aplites (Fig. 5a). They are variably directed
from N120 and N110 to N170 in the Amhroq zone, N170 in
the Errif zone, N45 and N65 to N50 at Khneg Dfa, and N110
and N130 at Ifzwan. Other magmatic dykes and veins of
rhyolite affinity (Fig. 5b) occur in the Ifzwan porphyry facies
trending N120 to N170. Phenocrysts of feldspars embedded
in a microlithic paste mark this porphyry texture.
The concentrated N-S trending tourmalinite vein-type
ores are observed mainly in the northwestern part of the plu-
ton. The generally E-W trending quartz veins in the southern
part of Kheng Dfa follow the Permian NE directed strike-
slip faults at the north of the massif (Dahmani 1995). This
indicates that the vein emplacement is either directly linked
Granite (Boushaba and Marignac 1996), or immediately
postdating this phase. In addition, several mineralized struc-
tures accompany the magmatic bodies (porphyritic granite
and leucogranite): (i) uranium clues, forming the inclusions
in the pyrite, chalcopyrite, or mispickel veins hosted in the
Bou Idjaa skarns (El Mbarki Kadiri et al. 2011); (ii) gold
traces hosted in the schists associated with sulfides-quartz
(El Mbarki Kadiri et al. 2011); (iii) arsenopyrite and pyrite-
quartz veins (Boushaba and Gagny 1986); (iv) wolfram-
ite clues at Ez-Zirari, Jbel Sidi Ben Mbarek, west of Jbel
Dahdouh, and at Amahroq (Boushaba 1996). This striking

Fig. 7  Schistosity statistics. a

Rose diagram illustrating the
trends of the regional Variscan
­S1 schistosity approaching
the Ment crystalline massif. b
Contoured stereonet pole plot
stereographic projection of
schistosity plans

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Fig. 8  Lineaments extracted from Sobel directional filters applied to PC1 principal component analysis. a N-S lineaments. b NE-SW lineaments.
c E-W lineaments. d NW–SE lineaments

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Arab J Geosci (2022) 15:1159
Fig. 9  Histogram showing the
frequency distribution of line-
ament orientations extracted
from four Sobel filters
diverse mineralization is likely to be the result, separately
or in any combination, of three distinct fluids enclosing
magmatic, meteoric, and metamorphic fluids (Boushaba
and Marignac 2009; Boushaba et al. 2016). According to
these authors, the Aguelmous Ment granite incorporated the
mineralization during its emplacement through the Hercyn-
ian hosting rocks where they initially originated. It is our
assumption that a precise dating is needed to clear up the
syncinematic nature of this granite-hosted mineralization,
versus their multiphase magmatic to meteoric origin.
Materials and methods
Figure 6 summarizes the adopted methodological framework
during the acquisition and processing of the datasets in this
study. We described in detail each step below.
Remote sensing
In this study, we use the USGS Landsat 8 Operational Land
Imager (Oli) satellite imagery provided on the site (https://​
earth​explo​rer.​usgs.​gov/). The corresponding images were
captured in excellent weather conditions (very low cloud
cover of 1.58%) and with excellent image quality. Landsat 8
Oli, launched in 2013, carries two sensors characterized by
eight spectral bands 1 to 7 and 9 with a spatial resolution of
30 m. One band (panchromatic) at a resolution of 15 m (band
8), and two thermal bands 10 and 11 collected at 100 m
(Roy et al. 2014). A scene acquired on June 02, 2020, level
L1T, with a Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) zone
30 N projection and Datum WGS 84 was used in this study.
The visible-near infrared (VNIR) and short-wave infrared
(SWIR) bands were combined into a single file, re-projected
Page 9 of 23 1159
to the Lambert Conformal Conic system, Datum Merchich,
and then corrected for atmospheric effects using the Fast
Line-of-sight Atmospheric Analysis of Spectral Hypercubes
(FLAASH) module. Then, the resulting multispectral image
was merged with the panchromatic band to enhance spatial
resolution, allowing us to reduce the pixel size to 15 m.
In order to raise the lineaments in the study area, two
different methodological approaches have been adopted.
The first approach consists in automatically extracting the
lineaments from the principal component analysis (PCA)
bands after applying spatial filters, and the second consists in
manually extracting the lineaments by visual image analysis.
The automatic extraction step (PCA) was used, which is a
widely adopted method in geological studies (Si Mhamdi
et al. 2016; Es-Sabbar et al. 2020). It allows the compression
of the information contained in the initial bands into new
bands called principal components (CPs) (Gabr et al. 2010;
Adiri et al. 2016). This will allow the elimination of data
redundancy and the enhancement of data targets in the image
(Amer et al. 2012). The automatic lineament extraction was
performed based on two fundamental calculations: (i) the
use of directional filters (n = 3 × 3) in the N-S, NE, E-W,
and SE directions to enhance the discontinuities (Table 1).
These allow the identification of areas of the sudden change
in the values of neighboring pixels, often referring to line-
aments. This makes it possible to highlight structural linea-
ments in all possible directions. (ii) The second calculation
is the detection and extraction of the lines. This was done
using the “Line Extraction” algorithm. After automatic line-
ament extraction tests on the PCA bands, we selected the
PC1 band which gave optimal results. The parameters used
for the extraction are listed in Table 2.
Furthermore, we used the manual extraction approach of
the lineaments by visual analysis on the screen of the image
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1159 Page 10 of 23 Arab J Geosci (2022) 15:1159

Fig. 10  Detailed map of the

whole lineaments obtained after
an automatic (PCA) and manual
(RGB) processing of the 8 Oli
satellite image superposed on
the digital terrain model (DEM)

in colors composite RGB (4, 6, 7) and (4, 3, 2). This opera-
tion leads to the establishment of a lineament field that will
be validated by the field data. Lineaments that coincide with
those extracted from the PCA tapes were eliminated to avoid
data redundancy.
Data collection, validation, and GIS processing
Fieldwork was carried out in all the various granitic
facies and their Carboniferous flysch host rocks. In total,
we mapped the direction and dip planes of 45 tourma-
linite, 84 quartz veins, 5 rhyolite dykes, 67 faults, and
102 schistosity planes were measured, in an attempt to
validate, assess, and corroborate the results which have
been extracted using remote sensing tools. At the same
time, particular attention was paid to the observation and
analysis of structures observed in the field, especially
for the different types of outcropping faults, where it
is occasionally difficult to discern their nature because
of weathering alteration. In addition, the boundaries of
these crystalline outcrops were monitored and updated by
recording geographic coordinates using a global position-
ing system (GPS). All data from the study area were ana-
lyzed in software and GIS tools with the aim of deducing

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Arab J Geosci (2022) 15:1159
Fig. 11  Validation of the resulting fracturing map by superposing our
results (lineaments in green) on the digitized data archive map. a, b
Histogram illustrating the distribution of lineament lengths for each
orientation and rose diagram showing the dominant direction (this
rosette diagrams, Pole Plot stereographic projections, and
histograms in the first instance, and creating a geologic
database containing all archives data on the Ment Granite:
topographic, structural, metallogenic, and geologic maps
in the second instance. Owing to integrating pre-existing
geological data and new field networks, an updated geo-
logical map was drawn.
Page 11 of 23 1159
study). c, d Directional rosette diagram of faults and length histogram
extracted from the treatment of database map of faults (Boushaba and
Marignac 1996)
Results
Schistosity distribution
New field data presented in this study complete the valu-
able schistosity analysis carried out by Dahmani (1995) in
the same area. However, the measures taken by this author
do not cover the entire granite massif, but rather focus on
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1159 Page 12 of 23
Fig. 12  a Directional rosette of the major direction. b Histogram of lengths and frequency for each orientation of all studied Variscan lineaments
recorded by Aguelmous-Ment granitic massif
specific sections in order to identify metamorphic zones and
mineral parageneses. This author reports that the ­S1 schistos-
ity becomes penetrative in the meta-sedimentary sequence
directly fringing the granite. This schistosity is well devel-
oped in the pelitic rocks (schist) and refracted in the compe-
tent rocks (quartzites). With respect to this result, we attempt
to (i) exactly delineate the boundaries between the geological
units throughout the granite complex, and (ii) evidence the
regional variation of schistosity along its external borders.
For this, we use the GPS field surveys, assisted by GIS and
remote sensing tools. The comparison of the newly gener-
ated geological contours with those in the undetailed sketch
geological map by Boushaba and Marignac (1996) reveals
cartographic shifts in the range of 100 to 200 m. Through-
out the pluton, the granite does not show any deformation
fabrics. Hence, the schistosity measurements were taken in
its surrounding Paleozoic mestasedementary series. The
obtained results show that the S ­ 1 planes are mostly directed
NE-SW, and occasionally N-S. Independently, their dipping
can variously be to the NW–SE as illustrated in Fig. 7.
Lineament distribution
The radiometers embarked on the satellites provide images
that allow delineating and assessing the importance of the
existing structural lineaments (Scanvic 1993), namely, faults
fractures, veins, and shear corridors. The obtained results
in this study were loaded into the GIS and superimposed
on the topographic maps of Aguelmous and Tifoughaline
(1/50,000) and the geological map (1/200,000) (Termier
1932). This allowed us to rule out “lineaments” outlined by
geological contours, cliffs, roads, and watercourses. Hence,
13
Arab J Geosci (2022) 15:1159
four synthetic fracture maps accounting for 534 lineaments
are reconstructed as shown in Fig. 8. The results show
that the lineaments occur throughout the study area with
four major groups (Figs. 8 and 9: (i) NE-orientated line-
aments(34% of all lineaments), frequent in the Bou Idjaa
zone; (ii) NS-orientated lineaments (30%), chiefly between
the Amhroq and Bled Zguida zones; (iii) EW lineaments
(21%), confined in Kheng Dfa area, most of them are filled
with quartz and spread at the kilometer-scale, which recall
the Aguelmous Major Fault; and finally, (iv) SE-oriented lin-
eaments (15%). These different operations lead to the estab-
lishment of a synthetic map of fracturing of the studied Ment
granitic massif, which originally includes 736 lineaments.
Except for the zones hidden below recent Plio-Quaternary
basalt lavas, the distribution of the fracture is quite clear and
well exposed throughout the granite massif as shown by the
obtained fracturing map (Fig. 10).
Interestingly, a comparison between the obtained data
and those from Boushaba and Marignac (1996) shows
that the lineaments we recognized fit well with their
digitized faults, with most of them corresponding to
mappable faults, or to their extension. Moreover, more
faults were revealed and identified by our newly gener-
ated fault network. The comparison between the rosette
of the extracted fractures and that of the faults from the
literature shows a remarkable similarity and analogous
in terms of orientation (Figs. 11a, b, c, and d), with a
dominance of the NE-SW and EW families. In summary,
this method that shows good correspondence between the
spatially obtained lineaments and the field-recognized
faults opens new promising opportunities to delineate
new major faults.
Arab J Geosci (2022) 15:1159
Fig. 13  Detailed map showing
the main areas of lineament
density (the lineaments agglom-
erate) of the Moroccan Meseta
Ment granite
Lineament length, frequency, density, and fieldwork
validation
Quantitative information on the length, density, and orienta-
tion of lineaments has been explored by authors to recon-
struct the geometry of the lineament network and to iden-
tify the dominant directions at the regional scale (Deslandes
and Gwyn 1991). The reconstructed directional rosette of the
Ment granite massif shows preferential NE-SW and ESE-
WNW trending fractures (Fig. 12a). Distribution frequencies
range from 1 to 11% in several fractures (Fig. 12b). The main
direction of N30–60 represents 29.7% of all lineaments,
Page 13 of 23 1159
while the N70–90 direction corresponds to 8.42%. The
remaining directions are N00–30 and N100–180, which are
not exceeding 7%. Similar trends close to NE-SW are shown
also by the lineament length diagram (Fig. 12b), and the
ESE-WNW directions have lengths up to 60 km.
Akin to the density, the lineament frequency is consid-
ered per unit of area. This parameter generated by the line
density algorithm was used to detect zones with strong frac-
turing. Figure 13 shows the distribution map of the zones
of fracture abundance. Accordingly, the three classes are
distinguished—enclosing low, medium, and high-density
classes—as shown in the legend values, reflecting fracturing
13
1159 Page 14 of 23 Arab J Geosci (2022) 15:1159

Fig. 14  Filed photographs from

the Moroccan Ment granitic
massif. a Dextral strike-slip in
the Bou Idjaa zone. b Reverse
fault in the Khneg Dfa porphyry
granite. c Quartz joint shows
dextral strike-slip. d Normal
fault in the monzogranite. e
Dextral strike-slip in the quar-
zitic enclosure. f Two conjugate
strike-slips in the porphyry
granite

heterogeneity throughout the study area. The map illustrated Discussion

in Fig. 13 shows that high-density areas are running roughly
E-W and NE-SW, with the most remarkable occurring at the
NW part of the granite (mostly in Ez-zirari region) and at its
southern part (Aguelmous region). Both parts host the most
interesting mineralized districts of the whole studied zone.
A field visit and observation are fundamental to map the
various structural features encountered in the different types
of granitic facies and their host meta-sedimentary rocks. Fig-
ure 14 shows the field in situ fracturing samples with cen-
timetric to metric scales, e.g., (i) strike-slip fault (Fig. 14a,
c, e, and f), normal fault at the monzogranite (Fig. 14d),
and reverse fault (Fig. 14b). Consequently, the main granitic
facies (porphyritic granite) is the most fractured compared
to the other granitic facies (monzogranite and leucogran-
ite), which are consistent with the results extracted from the
density map (Fig. 13). Statistical processing of these data, in
the form of a directional rosette, allows three distinguished
classes of dominant direction (Fig. 15): N20–40, N110–140,
and N150–180.
As a result of remote sensing, GIS, and fieldwork data
from the Variscan Aguelmous-Ment granitic massif of the
Moroccan Meseta, its hosting metamorphic-sedimentary
series bear differently the record of the polyphase Variscan
tectonics (Figs. 1, 2). The map in Fig. 16a summarizes the
regional variation within the schistosity that affected the
studied area. An ENE direction is observed in the Tayadirt
area on the east side of the granite massif. Whereas at its SW
side, i.e., at the level of Bou Idjaa and Errif, the schistosity
dips 45–70° towards the NNW. In the North, precisely in the
area between Jbel Sidi Ben Mbark and Ez-Zirari, we note
an ENE trend with a steep dipping up to 60–70° NW, but
can laterally experience a sudden shift towards the NNE.
This change is related to a local sinistral submeridian ductile
shear zone induced by the major Hercynian stress (Fig. 16b).
The direction of the schistosity varies progressively from
the Jbel Sidi Ben Mbarek zone from NNE to become NE
at the North and South of Ez-Zirari, i.e., on the NW side

13
Arab J Geosci (2022) 15:1159
Fig. 15  Fault measurements
based on the field in situ obser-
vations. a Directional rosette
of major directions. b The
contoured stereonet pole plot
stereographic projection of the
faults measurements in Ment
granite
of the massif. This schistosity variation can be assigned
to the running of a dextral ductile shear (Fig. 16b). In the
West of the granite massif, especially along the Amhroq
area, the same direction shifting occurs in the Southern side,
i.e., in the Aguelmous region. Beyond the studied granite
massif, the general interpretation of schistosity for the most
Mesetian Variscan granites was presented in the pioneering
works by Lagarde (1985, 1989) and Essaifi et al. (2001). A
broad and undetailed map of schistosity variation was done
throughout the western Meseta (Lagarde 1985) and presents
a similar interpretation and proved to be compatible with our
smaller-scale focused study. In the global sense, the Ment
granite has many characteristics: (1) geometry and subcir-
cular shape in plain view such that A/B ration = 16/12 = 1.3;
(2) multiple non-concentric intrusive phases (porphyritic
Fig. 16  Schistosity trajectory of the Ment massif. (a) The distribution
of schistosity with dip around the granite. (b) Interpretation of the
general variation in schistosity. (c) Parallel schistosity in the Visean
Page 15 of 23 1159
granite, monzogranite, and leucogranite); (3) lack of mag-
matic deformations within the pluton; (4) structures in the
country rocks reflect previous regional deformation and
weak or no deflection changes during emplacement; (5)
contact between granite-surrounding Paleozoic rocks and
granite-basalt is sometimes ambiguous but clearly evident
after satellite image processing; (6) the schistosity is glob-
ally intersected by the massif outcrop except in the south
as an exceptional case where the schistosity is parallel with
the granitic interface; (7) the metamorphic aureole of the
pluton shows an asymmetry of the isotherms on both sides
of the pluton, as well as it is post-tectonic (no preferential
orientation of the andalusite under the thin-sections) (e.g.,
Dahmani 1995); (8) lack of triple points, the Fig. 16b, also
schematizes a single type of ­S1 regional schistosity found in
schist south of Ez-Zirari. (d) Subvertical schistosity at the granite
boundary in the Taqllalt area. (e) Schistosity nearly parallel to bed-
ding planes (­ S0) at the Khng Dfa limit
13
1159 Page 16 of 23 Arab J Geosci (2022) 15:1159

13
 Arab J Geosci (2022) 15:1159
◂Fig. 17  a Different strike-slips found in the study area (Ment granite).
b Sinistral strike-slip at Sidi Othman. c Dextral strike-slip affecting
the quartz veins at Khneg Dfa South of the granite. d Dextral strike-
slip in the massive tourmalinite (Errif). e Dextral strike-slip in the
Amhroq leucogranite. f Dextral strike-slip at Jbel Belfdil. g Sinistral
strike-slip in the Ez-Zirari leucogranite
the field (Figs. 16c‒e). It proved to be oblique on the strati-
fication with a predominance of dextral ductile shears, with
the absence of triple points in the NE and SW, in contrast
to other Variscan granitoid massif (Lagarde 1989; Dahm-
ani 1995; Essaifi and Hibti 2008), reflecting a monophasic
deformation; (9) the long axis direction (A) of granite is
skewed (steep angle) to the NW–SE Hercynian shortening
and the main NE direction of the post-Visean S ­ 1 schistos-
ity. All these structural and metamorphic points mentioned
above provide a post-tectonic emplacement of the pluton in
agreement with the Rb/Sr dating of Mrini (1985). They also
suggest that the mechanism of its emplacement discards the
diapiric mechanism by correlating with the essential cri-
teria for this type of emplacement scenario, as reported in
several worldwide granitic massifs (e.g., Paterson 1988; He
et al. 2009; Galadí-Enríquez et al. 2003; Tahiri et al. 2007).
Furthermore, the Moroccan Meseta granite massif studied
here seems similar in structural characteristics and age to the
Argentina Chita Permian granitic pluton studied by Yosh-
inobu et al. (2003) and interpreted as a massif emplaced
under the magmatic stoping mechanism. In the study area,
no evidence of an unconformity contact between granite and
host rock was detected. Indeed, we have identified the exist-
ence of xenoliths imprisoned at the edge of the western part
Fig. 18  Different directions of the late Variscan paleo-stress affecting
the studied Meseta Ment granite massif during the Permian period
Page 17 of 23 1159
of the porphyry granite, ranging in size from centimeters to
several meters (located in the Bou Idjaa, Sidi Othman, and
Ez-Zirari areas). Therefore, we can admit that stoping is a
possible process that significantly contributed to the trans-
fer of magma into the hanging crust during the Variscan
orogeny. Similarly, to the Variscan plutons Bohemian Massif
(Žák et al. 2006).
Two parameters can help to interpret the occurrence of
lineaments density obtained in this study through automatic
and manual extraction: (i) the cartographic distribution of
rock-rheology (from the granitic massif towards its borders
and then its hosting sedimentary flysch) (see Fig. 2); (ii) the
granite age that postdates the Hercynian Visean-Permian
paroxysm. The density map (Fig. 13) shows clearly short-
range faults clustered to the north and south of Ez Zirari area
(in Aguelmous-Khneg Dfa). This can be attributed to the
presence of competent strata of quartzite beds and quartz-
ite lenses of the Visean and Namurian ages, respectively.
Furthermore, in the South part of granite, the short faults
are adjacent to the Aguelmous major fault that conditioned
their occurrence. The Fourhal basin enclosing the studied
granite is filled up with Visean–Namurian flysch successions
(Bouabdelli 1989; Tahiri and Medina 1989; Ben Abbou
1990; Piqué 1994; Izart et al. 2001; Berkhli and Vachard
2002). Here, the faults are longer and less frequent com-
pared to those mentioned above and keep the same geometry
even though their hosting flysch-rocks occur in the vicinity
of granite (precisely close to its eastern and western bor-
ders). The paucity of these lineaments can be ascribed to
the ductile rheology of the schistose flyschs. Within the
granitic massif, the faults are developed in short dense line-
aments on variable scales, especially in the khneg dfa and
the center of Bled Zguida areas, whereas these structures are
conspicuous in concentrations inside the porphyritic granites
as opposed to the other component facies of this outcrop
(monzogranite and leucogranite). This is possibly attributed
to its early chronological exposure (crystallization), and its
mineralogical composition (texture) that allow the occur-
rence of tensional fractures and the circulation/deposition
of hydrothermal mineralized fluids. In the same tendency,
most of the hydrothermal quartz, tourmalinite, rhyolite, and
aplite veins are clearly observed and confined in the studied
granitic massif (mostly in the dominant porphyry granite
facies, e.g., Figs. 2, 4‒5). Another successive low-intensity
compressive tectonic phase occurs after their deposit. There-
fore, a positive correlation can be made between quartz-
ites and granites in terms of distribution and length of the
affecting lineaments. While the faults within the granite
pluton are isolated, faults along its external borders are cut
by the sharp contact following a Y- and X-nodes shape (e.g.,
Peacock et al. 2018). These results are in agreement with
the results recently published from other worldwide areas,
e.g., southwest NigeriaDeng-Deng (Ayodele and Odeyemi
13
1159 Page 18 of 23
2010), Eastern Cameroon Alichur Area (Fossi et al. 2021),
SE Pamir (Javhar et al. 2019), and Moroccan Anti-Atlas Pan-
African belts (e.g., Hejja et al. 2020; Saidi et al. 2020), con-
firming that lithology is an important factor that controls the
spatial distribution of lineaments. In addition, the correlation
between the geological maps (Fig. 2) and density (Fig. 13)
shows that the lineaments have a spatial concentration fol-
lowing the mega-lineaments which are inherited from the
Variscan Visan-Namurian paroxysm ­(D2) that governed their
appearance, notably in the eastern part (Errif), northeastern
of Bou Mimoun, and in the south of the granite (Aguelmous
dextral strike-slip, Bouabdelli and Piqué 1996). According
to the results carried out in the Northwestern Himalayan at
the front of the thrusts (Pandey and Sharma 2019), and in the
Moroccan Central High Atlas (Farah et al. 2022), it seems
that the density and direction of the lineaments are extracted
following the pre-existing structures (e.g., paleo-faults).
Based on the mapped strike-slip faults from the Meseta
Variscan Aguelmous Ment granite performed in this study,
three sets of compressive systems have been deciphered
(Fig. 17). (i) NNE-SSW compressive system represented
by N20 to N30 trending sinistral strike-slip faults. These
are mainly recognized in the porphyritic granite of BouI
djaa (Fig. 14f), and the Ez-Zirari leucogranite (Fig. 17). (ii)
NE-SW compressive system represented by two families:
a sinistral N170-directed family found in Amhroq, Sidi
Otmane, and a dextral N110–120 directed family in the
Kheng Dfa and BouIdjaa areas (Figs. 14, 17). (iii) ENE-
WSW compressive system represented by N60–80 strike-
slip faults is poorly developed in the study area, locating in
the Jbel Blfdil porphyritic granite, where a dextral strike-slip
fault affects the Errif tourmalinite(Fig. 17), and Tawrirt unit
(Boushaba and Marignac 1996).
During the Plio-Quaternary, the opening of some of the
paleo-faults (as main extensive structures) is resulted in the
basaltic flows of the Ment plateau, and concurrently within
the granite itself, in quartz veins, and then in their cross-cut-
ting tourmalinite ores, both of decametric scale (Fig. 18; e.g.,
Boushaba and Marignac 1996). The quartz and tourmalinite
veins follow the E-W to NE and N-S faults, which recall the
compressive structures described in the Permian basins of the
Western Central- Meseta (Cailleux et al. 1983; Zouine 1986;
Tahiri and Medina 1989; Youbi et al. 1995; Tahiri et al. 1996;
Saidi et al. 2002). It is relevant to note that the faults in the
Paleozoic schistosity planes follow the same direction NE-SW,
which is classically ascribed to the major regional Variscan
Westphalian-Stephanian paroxysm described mainly in the
Fourhal-Azrou Khenifra basin (Bouabdelli and Piqué 1996)
and the Tighza area (Kassou et al., 2012). Identical major
structures also occur in the studied Aguelmous-Ment granite
massif and can be ascribed to the early Permian NW to WSW
contractional event as described by El Wartiti et al. (1990) at
the scale of the western Meseta. Therefore, the tectonic history
13
Arab J Geosci (2022) 15:1159
(Permian tectonics) of the Ment granite proved to be moni-
tored by the faults inherited from the Hercynian major phase
(e.g., El Wartiti 1994).
Conclusion
In this contribution, the integrating of remote sens-
ing and GIS studies provides a powerful remote tool
for the investigation of geological structures (mostly
lineaments), fills the cartographic gaps, and performs
the reliable and high-resolution fracturing maps from
the Moroccan Variscan Meseta Aguelmous-Ment unit.
The application of this integrated approach to the gra-
nitic massifs combined with the automatic and manual
methods on Landsat 8 Oli imagery allows to sharply
outline fault occurrences and geometry. Moreover, the
field in situ mapping and validation of all these struc-
tures had allowed updating the geological map, and
their statistical analysis (rosette diagrams and frequen-
cies) reveals four families of fractures dominated by the
major Variscan NE-trending faults. Hence, the density,
length, and direction of faults proved to vary depending
upon the rheological properties of the hosting rock. On
the other hand, the lineaments in the Ment granites are
attached to the rise of the magma, while the others are
confined in the metamorphic surrounding related to the
reactivation of pre-existing structures during the Per-
mian polyphase tectonic episodes. The schistosity (­ S 1)
and lineaments show a similar overall direction NE-SW,
whereas the distribution of S ­ 1 planes in the study area
shows a monophasic post-Visean deformation. Likewise,
the structures recorded by the granite pluton and the host
metasedimentary rocks involve an emplacement non-
diapiric, probably by magmatic stoping. These results
are expected to help geodynamic interpretations and pro-
vide a predictive basis for hydrological and metallogenic
explorations. For instance, the obtained results open a
new avenue in the subsequent studies to investigate the
kinematics joints and gravimetry in relation to the origi-
nal depth of the Permian granite emplacement.
Acknowledgements We thank US Geological Survey (USGS) for the
Landsat 8 Oli image used in this work. The authors thank also the
(anonymous) for reviewing this article.
Funding The first author would like to thank the support of the
National Center for Scientific and Technical Research (CNRST),
which funded this work within the framework of the research excel-
lence scholarship program.
Declarations
Conflict of interest The authors declare no competing interests.
Arab J Geosci (2022) 15:1159 Page 19 of 23 1159

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