Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Chapter 7: Ocular Motor System: Valentin Dragoi, Ph.D. Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy Mcgovern Medical School
Chapter 7: Ocular Motor System: Valentin Dragoi, Ph.D. Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy Mcgovern Medical School
Search
7.1 Introduction
The simplicity of the motor systems involved in controlling eye musculature make them ideal for illustrating the mechanisms and
principals you have been studying in the preceding material on motor systems. They involve the action of few muscles and of well
defined neural circuits.
We use our eyes to monitor our external environment and depend on our ocular motor systems to protect and guide our eyes. The
ocular motor systems control eye lid closure, the amount of light that enters the eye, the refractive properties of the eye, and eye
movements. The visual system provides afferent input to ocular motor circuits that use visual stimuli to initiate and guide the motor
responses. Neuromuscular systems control the muscles within the eye (intraocular muscles); the muscles attached to the eye
(extraocular muscles) and the muscles in the eyelid. Ocular motor responses include ocular reflexes and voluntary motor responses
to visual and other stimuli. The complexity of the circuitry (the chain or network of neurons) controlling a ocular motor response
increases with the level of processing involved in initiating, monitoring, and guiding the response.
In this chapter we will start at the level of reflex responses and move onto more complex voluntary responses in the following
lecture. The eye blink reflex is the simplest response and does not require the involvement of cortical structures. In contrast,
voluntary eye movements (i.e., visual tracking of a moving object) involve multiple areas of the cerebral cortex as well as basal
ganglion, brain stem and cerebellar structures.
The ocular reflexes are the simplest ocular motor responses. Ocular reflexes compensate for the condition of the cornea and for
changes in the visual stimulus. For example, the eye blink reflex protects the cornea from drying out and from contact with
foreign objects. The pupillary light reflex compensates for changes in illumination level, whereas the accommodation responses
compensate for changes in eye-to-object-viewed distance. Note that reflex responses are initiated by sensory stimuli that activate
afferent neurons (e.g., somatosensory stimuli for the eye blink reflex and visual stimuli for the pupillary light reflex and
accommodation responses).
In general, ocular reflexes are consensual (i.e., the response is bilateral involving both eyes). Consequently, a light directed in one
eye elicits responses, pupillary constriction, in both eyes. In this chapter you will learn of the structures normally involved in
performing these ocular responses and the disorders that result from damage to components of neural circuit controlling these
responses.
Tactile stimulation of the cornea results in an irritating sensation that normally evokes eyelid closure (an eye blink). The response is
consensual (i.e., bilateral) - involving automatic eyelid closure at both eyes.
The corneal eye blink reflex neural circuit: This neural circuit (Figure 7.1) is relatively simple, consisting of the
trigeminal1° afferent (free nerve endings in the cornea, trigeminal nerve, ganglion, root, and spinal trigeminal tract),
which end on
trigeminal 2° afferent in the spinal trigeminal nucleus, some of which send their axons to
reticular formation interneurons, which send their axons bilaterally to
facial motor neurons in the facial nucleus, which send their axons in the facial nerve to
orbicularis oculi, which functions to lower the eyelid
Figure 7.1
The corneal eye blink reflex is initiated by the free nerve endings in the
cornea and involves the trigeminal nerve and ganglion, the spinal
trigeminal tract and nucleus, interneurons in the reticular formation,
motor neurons in the facial nucleus and nerve, and the orbicularis oculi.
As the afferent information from each cornea is distributed bilaterally to
facial motor neurons by the reticular formation interneurons, the eye
blink response is consensual, that is, both eye lids will close to
stimulation of the cornea of either eye.
The pupillary light reflex involves adjustments in pupil size with changes in light levels.
The reflex is consensual: Normally light that is directed in one eye produces pupil constriction in both eyes.
The direct response is the change in pupil size in the eye to which the light is directed (e.g., if the light is shone in the right
eye, the right pupil constricts).
The consensual response is the change in pupil size in the eye opposite to the eye to which the light is directed (e.g., if the
light is shone in the right eye, the left pupil also constricts consensually).
The pupillary light reflex allows the eye to adjust the amount of light reaching the retina and protects the photoreceptors from
bright lights. The iris contains two sets of smooth muscles that control the size of the pupil (Figure 7.2).
The sphincter muscle fibers form a ring at the pupil margin so that when the sphincter contracts, it decreases (constricts)
pupil size.
The dilator muscle fibers radiate from the pupil aperture so that when the dilator contracts, it increases (dilates) pupil size.
Both muscles act to control the amount of light entering the eye and the depth of field of the eye1.
The iris sphincter is controlled by the parasympathetic system, whereas the iris dilator is controlled by the sympathetic
system.
The action of the dilator is antagonistic to that of the sphincter and the dilator must relax to allow the sphincter to decrease
pupil size.
Normally the sphincter action dominates during the pupillary light reflex.
Dilato r mus c le
Iris
o f iris
S phinc te r
mus c le
o f iris
Pupil
CONTRACT
DILATE
c 2000 UTHS CH
Figure 7.2
Iris dilator and sphincter muscles and their actions.
The pupillary light reflex neural circuit: The pathway controlling pupillary light reflex (Figure 7.3) involves the
retina, optic nerve, optic chiasm, and the optic tract fibers that join the
brachium of the superior colliculus, which terminate in the
pretectal area of the midbrain, which sends most of its axons bilaterally in the posterior commissure to terminate in the
Edinger-Westphal nucleus of the oculomotor complex, which contains parasympathetic preganglionic neurons and sends
its axons in the oculomotor nerve to terminate in the
ciliary ganglion, which sends its parasympathetic postganglionic axons in the
short ciliary nerve, which ends on the
iris sphincter
RIGHT LEFT
Brac hium o f the
s upe rio r c o llic ulus
Po s te rio r
Pre te c tal c o mmis s ure Pre te c tal
are a are a
Oc ulo mo to r
ne rve Optic
Optic trac t
c hias m
Optic
ne rve
Ciliary Ciliary
g ang lio n g ang lio n
S ho rt c iliary
c 2000 UTHS CH ne rve
Figure 7.3
The pupillary light reflex pathway. The lines ending with an arrow
indicate axons terminating in the structure at the tip of the arrow. The
lines beginning with a dot indicate axons originating in the structure
containing the dot. Bilateral damage to pretectal area neurons (e.g., in
neurosyphilis) will produce Argyll-Robertson pupils (non-reactive to light,
active during accommodation).
Recall that the optic tract carries visual information from both eyes and the pretectal area projects bilaterally to both Edinger-
Westphal nuclei: Consequently, the normal pupillary response to light is consensual. That is, a light directed in one eye results in
constriction of the pupils of both eyes.
The pupils normally dilate (increase in size) when it is dark (i.e., when light is removed). This response involves the relaxation of
the iris sphincter and contraction of the iris dilator. The iris dilator is controlled by the sympathetic nervous system.
The pupillary dark reflex neural circuit: The pathway controlling pupil dilation involves the
retina and the optic tract fibers terminating on neurons in the hypothalamus and the
axons of the hypothalamic neurons that descend to the spinal cord to end on the
sympathetic preganglionic neurons in the lateral horn of spinal cord segments T1 to T3, which send their axons out the spinal
cord to end on the
sympathetic neurons in the superior cervical ganglion, which send their
sympathetic postganglionic axons in the long ciliary nerve to the
iris dilator.
Axons from the superior cervical ganglion also innervate the face vasculature, sweat and lachrymal glands and the eyelid tarsal
muscles. When the superior cervical ganglion or its axons are damaged, a constellation of symptoms, known as Horner's
syndrome, result. This syndrome is characterized by miosis (pupil constriction), anhidrosis (loss of sweating), pseudoptosis (mild
eyelid droop), enopthalmosis (sunken eye) and flushing of the face.
The accommodation response is elicited when the viewer directs his eyes from a distant (greater than 30 ft. away) object to a
nearby object (Nolte, Figure 17-40, Pg. 447). The stimulus is an “out-of-focus” image. The accommodation (near point) response is
consensual (i.e., it involves the actions of the muscles of both eyes). The accommodation response involves three actions:
Pupil accommodation: The action of the iris sphincter was covered in the section on the pupillary light reflex. During
accommodation, pupil constriction utilizes the "pin-hole" effect and increases the depth of focus of the eye by blocking the light
scattered by the periphery of the cornea (Nolte, Figure 17-39, Pg. 447). The iris sphincter is innervated by the postganglionic
parasympathetic axons (short ciliary nerve fibers) of the ciliary ganglion (Figure 7.3).
Lens accommodation: Lens accommodation increases the curvature of the lens, which increases its refractive (focusing) power. The
ciliary muscles are responsible for the lens accommodation response. They control the tension on the zonules, which are attached
to the elastic lens capsule at one end and anchored to the ciliary body at the other end (Figure 7.4).
Canal o f Co rne a
Trabe c ular s c hle mm
me s hwo rk
S c le ra
Ciliary
mus c le
Zo nule s
Po s te rio r
Ciliary bo dy c hambe r
Po s te rio r le ns
c 2000 UTHS CH c aps ule
Figure 7.4
The ciliary muscles, which control the position of the ciliary processes and the tension on the zonule, control the shape of the lens. The
ciliary muscles function as a sphincter and when contracted pull the ciliary body toward the lens to decrease tension on the zonules
(see Figure 7.5). The decreased tension allows the lens to increase its curvature and refractive (focusing) power. When the ciliary
muscle is relaxed, the ciliary body is not pulled toward the lens, and the tension on the zonules is higher. High tension on the zonules
pulls radially on the lens capsule and flattens the lens for distance vision. The ciliary muscles are innervated by the postganglionic
parasympathetic axons (short ciliary nerve fibers) of the ciliary ganglion
c 2000 UTHS CH
PLAY
Ciliary mus c le s
re laxe d
Figure 7.5
The accommodation response of the lens:
comparing the lens shape during near vision
(contraction of the ciliary muscle during
accommodation) with lens shape during distance
vision (relaxation of the ciliary muscle).
Convergence in accommodation: When shifting one's view from a distant object to a nearby object, the eyes converge (are directed
nasally) to keep the object's image focused on the foveae of the two eyes. This action involves the contraction of the medial rectus
muscles of the two eyes and relaxation of the lateral rectus muscles. The medial rectus attaches to the medial aspect of the eye
and its contraction directs the eye nasally (adducts the eye). The medial rectus is innervated by motor neurons in the oculomotor
nucleus and nerve.
The accommodation neural circuit: The circuitry of the accommodation response is more complex than that of the pupillary light
reflex (Figure 7.6).
retina (with the retinal ganglion axons in the optic nerve, chiasm and tract),
lateral geniculate body (with axons in the optic radiations), and
visual cortex.
Ocular motor control neurons are interposed between the afferent and efferent limbs of this circuit and include the
visual association cortex, which
determines the image is "out-of-focus"
sends corrective signals via the internal capsule and crus cerebri to the
supraoculomotor nuclei, which
is located immediately superior to the oculomotor nuclei
generates motor control signals that initiate the accommodation response
sends these control signals bilaterally to the oculomotor complex.
Exc ite d
c o rtic o te c tal
fibe rs
S UPRAOCULOMOTOR S UPRAOCULOMOTOR
AREA Exc ite d AREA
pre g ang lio nic
paras ympathe tic
axo n
EDINGER- EDINGER-
WES TPHAL WES TPHAL
NUCLEUS OCULOMOTOR Exc ite d OCULOMOTOR NUCLEUS
NUCLEUS o c ulo mo to r NUCLEUS
axo ns to
me dial re c tus
EXCITED
ABDUCENS Une xc ite d Une xc ite d ABDUCENS
S ho rt Ciliary
MOTOR abduc e ns abduc e ns MOTOR
Ne rve s
NEURONS ne rve to ne rve to NEURONS
late ral re c tus late ral re c tus
Figure 7.6
The accommodation pathway includes the afferent limb, which consists of the entire visual pathway; the higher motor control
structures, which includes an area in the visual association cortex and the supraoculomotor area; and the efferent limb, which
includes the oculomotor nuclei and ciliary ganglion. The lines ending with an arrow indicate axons terminating in the structure at the
tip of the arrow. The lines beginning with a dot indicate axons originating in the structure containing the dot. During accommodation
three motor responses occur: convergence (medial rectus contracts to direct the eye nasally), pupil constriction (iris sphincter
contracts to decrease the iris aperture) and lens accommodation (ciliary muscles contract to decrease tension on the zonules).
An excellent way to test your knowledge of the material presented thus far is by examining the effects of damage to structures
within the ocular motor pathways. The observed motor loss(s) provide clues to the pathway(s) affected; and the muscle(s) and eye
affected provide clues to the level of the damage.
Cranial nerve damage: Damage to cranial nerves may result in sensory and motor symptoms. The sensory losses would involve
those sensations the cranial nerve normally conveys (e.g., taste from the anterior two thirds of the tongue and somatic sensations
from the skin of the ear - if facial nerve is damaged). The motor losses may be severe (i.e., a lower motor neuron loss that
produces total paralysis) if the cranial nerve contains all of the motor axons controlling the muscles of the normally innervated
area.
The cranial nerves involved in the eye blink response and pupillary response are the optic, oculomotor, trigeminal and facial nerves.
Figure 7.7
Observe the reaction to a wisp
of cotton touching the patient's
Rig ht Le ft left and right cornea.
PLAY PLAY PLAY
Rig ht c o rne a Clo s e e ye s Le ft c o rne a
to uc h to uc h
c 2000 UTHS CH
has not lost cutaneous sensation in the upper left face area
does not blink when his left cornea is touched
cannot close his left eye voluntarily
not sensory
a lower motor neuron dysfunction
Pathway(s) affected: You conclude that structures in the following motor pathway have been affected
S pinal
trig e minal
trac t
Fac ial Abduc e ns
ne rve nuc le us
g e nu
Figure 7.8
Trig e minal The eye blink pathway
ne rve involves the trigeminal
nerve, spinal trigeminal
tract and nucleus, the
reticular formation, and
the facial motor nucleus
S pinal and nerve.
trig e minal
nuc le us
Fac ial
nuc le us Fac ial ne rve ro o t
c 2000 UTHS CH
When lower motor neurons are damaged, there is a flaccid paralysis of the muscle normally innervated. The action of the muscle
will be weakened or lost depending on the extent of the damage. There will be a weakened or no reflex response and the muscle
will be flaccid and may atrophy with time.
The Facial Nerve. Section of the facial nerve on one side will result in paralysis of the muscles of facial expression on the ipsilesional
side of the face. There will be an inability to close the denervated eyelid voluntarily and reflexively. The eyelids may have some
mobility if the oculomotor innervation to the levator is unaffected.
Figure 7.9
Observe the reaction to a wisp
of cotton touching the patient's
Rig ht Le ft left and right cornea.
PLAY PLAY PLAY
Rig ht c o rne a Clo s e e ye s Le ft c o rne a
to uc h to uc h
c 2000 UTHS CH
responds with direct and consensual eye blink when his right cornea is touched
can close his left eye voluntarily
has lost cutaneous sensation in the upper left face area
does not blink when his left cornea is touched
not motor
sensory
Pathway(s) affected: You conclude that structures in the following reflex pathway have been affected
The Trigeminal Nerve. Section of the trigeminal nerve will eliminate somatosensory sensation from the face and the eye blink reflex
(e.g., with section of the left trigeminal nerve, light touch of the left cornea will not produce an eye blink in the left or right eye).
However, light touch of the right cornea will elicit a bilateral eye blink. The effect of sectioning the trigeminal nerve is to remove the
afferent input for the eye blink reflex.
not sensory (the right pupil reacts to light directed at the left eye)
a motor dysfunction
Pathway(s) affected: You conclude that structures in the following motor pathway have been affected
S ho rt c iliary ne rve
O
O
O
O
O O
O
O
O
O
O
Figure 7.11
The pupillary light reflex
O O
O O O O
O O O O O
O O O O
O O O O O O
O O O O O O
O O O
O O
O
O O
c 2000 UTHS CH
Parasympathetic Innervation of the Eye. Section of the parasympathetic preganglionic (oculomotor nerve) or postganglionic (short
ciliary nerve) innervation to one eye will result in a loss (motor) of both the direct and consensual pupillary light responses of the
denervated eye. Section of the left short ciliary nerve or a benign lesion in the left ciliary ganglion will result in no direct response
to light in the left eye and no consensual response in the left eye when light is directed on the right eye (a.k.a., tonic pupil). When
the damage is limited to the ciliary ganglion or the short ciliary nerve, eyelid and ocular mobility are unaffected.
Figure 7.12
The patient presents with a left
eye characterized by ptosis,
lateral strabismus and dilated
pupil. Observe the reaction of
Rig ht Le ft the patient's pupils to light
directed in the left or right eye.
PLAY RES ET PLAY
Lig ht rig ht e ye Lig ht le ft e ye
c 2000 UTHS CH
not sensory
a lower motor neuron dysfunction
involving an autonomic dysfunction
Pathway(s) affected: You conclude that structures in the following motor pathway have been affected
The Oculomotor Nerve. Section of the oculomotor nerve produces a non-reactive pupil in the ipsilesional side as well as other
symptoms related to oculomotor nerve damage (e.g., ptosis and lateral strabismus). Section of the oculomotor nerve on one side
will result in paralysis of the superior levator palpebrae, which normally elevates the eyelid. It will also paralyze the medial, superior
& inferior rectus muscles and the inferior oblique, which will allow the lateral rectus to deviate the eye laterally and the superior
oblique to depress the eye. The parasympathetic preganglionic axons of the Edinger-Westphal nucleus, which normally travel in the
oculomotor nerve, will be cut off from the ciliary ganglion, disrupting the circuit normally used to control the iris sphincter response
to light.
not motor
sensory (because the responses in both eyes are weaker when light is directed in the left eye)
Pathway(s) affected: You conclude that structures in the following motor pathway have been affected
Side & Level of damage: As the pupillary light response deficit involves
The Optic Nerve. Partial damage of the retina or optic nerve reduces the afferent component of the pupillary reflex circuit. The
reduced afferent input to the pretectal areas is reflected in weakened direct and consensual pupillary reflex responses in both eyes
(a.k.a., a relative afferent pupillary defect).
Section of one optic nerve will result in the complete loss of the direct pupillary light reflex but not the consensual reflex of the
blinded eye. That is, if the left optic nerve is sectioned, light directed on the left (blind) eye will not elicit a pupillary response in the
left eye (direct reflex) or the right eye (consensual response). However, light directed in the right eye will elicit pupillary responses
in the right eye and the left (blind) eye. The effect of sectioning one optic nerve is to remove the afferent input for the direct reflex
of the blinded eye and the afferent input for the consensual reflex of the normal eye. Section of one optic tract will not eliminate
the direct or consensual reflex of either eye as the surviving optic tract contains optic nerve fibers from both eyes. However, the
responses to light in both eyes may be weaker because of the reduced afferent input to the ipsilesional pretectal area.
Observation: You observe that the patient has normal vision but that his pupils
do not respond when light is directed into the either of his eyes
do respond during accommodation
S uprao c ulo mo to r
are a
In the Argyll Robertson response, there is an absence of the pupillary light reflex with a normal pupillary accommodation
response. The Argyll Robertson response is attributed to bilateral damage to pretectal areas (which control the pupillary light reflex)
with sparing of the supraoculomotor area (which controls the pupillary accommodation reflex).
The accommodation response involves many of the structures involved in the pupillary light response and, with the exception of the
pretectal area and supraoculomotor area, damage to either pathway will produce common the symptoms. The most common
complaint involving the accommodation response is its loss with aging (i.e., presbyopia). Recall that presbyopia most commonly
results from structural changes in the lens which impedes the lens accommodation response.
7.10 Summary
This chapter described three types of ocular motor responses (the eye blink, pupillary light and accommodation responses) and
reviewed the nature of the responses and the effectors, efferent neurons, higher-order motor control neurons (if any), and afferent
neurons normally involved in performing these ocular responses. Table I summarizes these structures and the function(s) of these
ocular motor responses. Readers should understand the anatomical basis for disorders that result from damage to components of
neural circuit controlling these responses.
Table I
Classification of Consensual Ocular Responses & Their Motor Control Structures
Ocular
Function Afferent Input* & Motor Control Structures
Responses
Free Nerve Endings in cornea that are afferent endings of the Trigeminal Nerve,
Ganglion, Root & Spinal Trigeminal Tract*
Orbicularis Oculi
A patient is capable of pupillary constriction during accommodation but not in response to a light
directed to either eye. The lesion is most likely present in the...
A. optic nerve
B. abducens nucleus
C. Edinger-Westphal nucleus
D. pretectal areas
E. supraoculomotor nucleus