Module1 2022

Subject: Fluid Mechanics II
Module 1: Compressible Flow
Prepared By
Dr. Kankan Kishore Pathak
Assistant Professor, ME Department, GIMT
Guwahati
Introduction to Compressible Flow
Fluid flow can be categorized as
1. Incompressible fluid flow : Density of fluid remains constant
2. Compressible fluid flow: Density of fluid changes from point to point

during the fluid flow.
Examples:
Liquids are always considered to be incompressible fluids, as density
changes caused by pressure and temperature are small.
Gases are compressible fluid.
[Note: Gases may seem to be incompressible fluids if its change in density is

small.]
6/22/2022 Prepared By Dr.K.K.Pathak,ME,GIMT G 2

Introduction to Compressible Flow contd..

Introduction to Compressible Flow contd..
On the basis of assumption of incompressible fluid, continuity equation,

Bernoulli’s equation and impulse momentum equation were derived. This
assumption is true only for flow of liquids. But in case of flow of fluids such as :
(i) Flow of gas through orifice and nozzle
(ii) Flow of gases in machines such as compressor
(iii) Projectiles and aeroplanes flying at high altitude with high velocity, the
density of the fluid changes with the flow. This change of density is
accompanied by change in pressure and temperature.
CFD Simulation of Centrifugal Compressor.
CFD simulation of Aeroplanes flying at high altitudes.
Fig.1. Representative Figures (Compressible flow).

Definition:
Compressibility of any
substance
is the measure of its change in
volume under the action of
external forces, namely, the
normal compressive forces.
The degree of compressibility

of a substance is characterized
by the bulk modulus of
elasticity

For a given mass of a substance, the change in its volume and density satisfies the
relation: V 

V 
dp
Thus, K 
d
Values of K for liquids are very high as compared with those of gases (except at very
high pressures). Therefore, liquids are usually termed as incompressible fluids though,
in fact, no substance is theoretically incompressible with a value of K as infinite. For
example, the bulk modulus of elasticity for water and air at atmospheric pressure are
approximately 2  106 kN / m 2 and 101 kN/m2 respectively. It indicates that air is about
20,000 times more compressible than water. Hence, water can be treated as
incompressible. Compressibility (  ), which is the reciprocal of bulk modulus of
elasticity, usually defined for gases.
1 d 1  dv 
    
 dp v  dp 
 is often expressed in terms of specific volume. For any gaseous substance, a change
in pressure is generally associated with a change in volume and a change in
temperature simultaneously.

Perfect Gas (Thermodynamic Relations)
A perfect gas is one in which intermolecular forces are neglected. By ignoring
intermolecular forces, the equation of state for a perfect gas can be derived from
theoretical concept of modern statistical mechanics or kinetic theory.
PV = MRT
or Pv = RT [As V/M = sp.volume (v)]
or P = ρRT (1) [As ρ = 1/v ]
Eqn. (1) is known Equation of state.
Where, P = Absolute pressure in N/m2
v = Specific Volume (m3/Kg)
R = Gas Constant = 0.287 KJ/Kg K or 287 J/Kg K
[ A functional relationship between the pressure, volume and temperature at any

equilibrium state is known as thermodynamic equation of state]
[There is a definite thermodynamic relationship between thermodynamic property

of a system]** zero zero law or zero law.
2

Perfect Gas
Thermally Perfect Gas Calorically Perfect Gas

dh
cp  @ p  Constant
dT c p , cv are Costant and cp and cv are not function of Temperature
h  f T 
du
cv  @ v  Constant
dT
u  f T 
Note: du  q  pdv
h, u, c p , cv  f (T ) h  u  pv
dh  du  pdv  vdp
dh  q  vdp
for adiabatic change of state
du   pdv, dh  vdp
u , q and v are specific quantities
Check associated material in the Google Class Room

Expansion and Compression of Perfect Gas
(i) P = c
(ii) V = c
(iii)T = c , PV = c

(iv)PV = c
(v) PVn = c
n may vary 0 to 
n = 0, pv0 = c, p = c
n =  , pv = c, v = (c/p)1/ , v = c1 

• When the expansion and compression of perfect gas takes place then
pressure, temperature and density changes. The changes in pressure,
temperature and density is brought about by two processes which are
known as:
(i) Isothermal Process
(ii) Adiabatic Process • The reversible adiabatic process or frictionless
Isothermal Process: adiabatic process is known as isentropic process.
Pv  RT • Losses are measured in terms of entropy.
P
 RT  CONSTANT

Adiabatic Process:
Pv   CONSTANT
P /    CONSTANT
c
Where,   c
p
  1.4 for air

Factors effecting compressible flow
1. Change in flow passage area

2. Heat Transfer
3. Friction
• If 1 and 3 are not there and allow only heat transfer then we get Rayleigh
Flow.
• If 2 and 3 are not there then we get Isentropic Flow.
• If 1 and 2 are not there then we get Fanno Flow. (Study of effect of friction).

Basic Equations of Compressible Flow

The above equation is known as continuity equation.

Euler’s Equation

No +

Momentum Equation
• The momentum per second of a flowing fluid or momentum flux is equal to the
product of (mass/sec) and (the velocity of flow).
• Mass flow rate is constant for every section of flow according to continuity
equation.
• Net force in one direction is equal to rate of change of momentum in that

direction
= (mass/sec) × (change in velocity) = AV  (V  0)  AV 2

Elastic Wave
• A wave is a disturbance in a medium that carries energy without a net

movement of particles. It may take the form of elastic deformation, a
variation of pressure, electric or magnetic intensity, electric potentetial, or
temperature.
• Elastic wave is a motion in a particular medium in which when particles are

displaced, a force proportional to the displacement acts on the particle to
restore them to their original position.
• If a material has the property of elasticity and the particles in a certain

region are set in vibrating motion, an elastic wave will be propagated.

Propagation of Elastic Waves
• Wave motion in a medium is the movement of a disturbance relative to the

medium. The effect of change at a given point in a medium is
communicated to other points through wave motion.
• Various types of waves in closed passages that may be considered are-
 Infinitesimal pressure wave or Sound wave

 Steep pressure wave or Shock wave
 Non-steep pressure wave
 Expansion wave
Note: 1. A wave which is at a lower pressure than the fluid into which it is moving is
called an expansion wave.
2. A wave which is at a higher pressure than the fluid into which it is moving is called
an compression wave.

Propagation of Elastic Waves-through solid medium
Let us consider a solid rod of uniform area of L
Strain  (1)
cross-section A, compressive stress f (N/cm2) at
is generated due to the sudden action of a Stress f
Modulus of elasticity , E   (2)
force at one end of the rigid rod. The Strain  L
distance travelled by the wavelength with a at
velocity ‘a’ in time ‘t’ is a×t .The change in L
Particle velocity of medium ( solid rod ), C  (3)
length of the portion of the rod through t
which the wave has travelled is L. f
Combining (2) & (3), C  ( 4)
E
a
Applying momentum equation
IMPULSIVE FORCE  CHANGE IN MOMENTUM
 f . A.t   . A.(at ).C
f
a
 .C
E
 a  a ( From Eqn.(4))

E
 a2 

a E

Note: The velocity of the material (wavefront) is dependent on the material properties.

Propagation of infinitesimal waves (sound waves)
Note:
A sound wave is an infinitesimal pressure wave. The changes across such a wave are small
and the speed of the process corresponding to these changes is fast. The velocity of sound
in a gas (compressible) depends on its bulk modulus of elasticity or the rate of change of
pressure with density. In elastic waves, the stresses are proportional to the strains, i.e.,
Hook’s law is satisfied. If the strain amplitude in a wave is so great that the stress exceeds
the elastic limit of a substance, plastic deformation occurs as the wave passes through the
substance, and the wave is said to be elastic plastic. In a liquid or gas, the same type of
wave is termed as finite amplitude wave.

Propagation of infinitesimal waves (sound waves)
(Expression for velocity of sound wave in a fluid)
• The disturbance creates pressure wave in a fluid.
• These pressure waves travel with the velocity of sound
wave in all directions.
• But for simplicity one-dimensional flow is considered for simplicity.
Figure shows a long pipe fitted with a piston of uniform

cross-section with compressible fluid which is at rest.
Initially the piston moves towards the right and a
disturbance is created in the fluid. The disturbance is in
the form of pressure wave which travels in the fluid with
a velocity of sound wave.
Let, A = cross sectional area of the pipe.

V= velocity of the piston.
p= pressure of fluid in the pipe before movement
of the piston.
ρ = density of the fluid before movement of the
piston.
dt = a small interval of time at which the piston is
moved.
C = velocity of pressure wave or sound wave
travelling in the fluid.
Distance travelled by the piston in time dt is = Vdt.
Distance travelled by the pressure wave in time dt is = Cdt
As C i.e., velocity of sound wave is very large compared to velocity of piston (V), Cdt
will be more than Vdt.
For the time interval dt, the pressure wave travell a distance L (Cdt) and piston has
moved through a distance x (Vdt).
The length of the tube in which the fluid is compressed is = L – x = ( C – V) dt.
Due to compression of the fluid, the pressure and density of the fluid will change
Let, p+dp = pressure after compression.
ρ + dρ = density after compression.
Mass of the fluid before compression = ρAL (Volume × density)= ρACdt
Mass of the fluid after compression=(ρ + dρ ) × A ×(L – x ) = (ρ + dρ ) × A ×(C – V) dt.
From Continuity equation, we have
Mass of the fluid before compression = Mass of the fluid after compression
 ACdt    d A(C  V )dt

 C    d C  V 
 C  C  V  Cd  Vd
 Cd  Vd  V

But velocity of piston (V) is very small as compared to the velocity of pressure wave
(C). Also, the value of dρ is very small. So, the data (Vdρ) will be very small and can be
neglected.
Hence, C dρ = ρV (1)
Now, when the piston will move with velocity (V) for time (dt), the fluid which was at
rest will move with a velocity equal to the velocity of the piston. Also, the pressure of
the fluid increases from p to p+dp due to movement of the piston. Hence, applying
impulse momentum equation, net force on the fluid:
 p  dp A  pA  Rate of change of momentum  mass / sec  Change in velocity

total mass AL ACdt
 dp  A   V  0  V  V
sec dt dt
 dp  CV
dp (2)
C 
V
Multiplying Eqn.(1) and (2); we get;
dp
 C 2 d  V
V
dp
C  (3)
d
The velocity of sound is equal to the square root of the ratio of change in pressure to the change in density.

Velocity of Sound in terms of Bulk-modulus
Increase in pressure
K 
decrease in volume
original volume
dp
K 
dV

V
Mass of the fluid  V  CONSTANT
 dV  Vd  0
d dV
 
 V
dp
Hence, K 
d

dp K
or , 
d 
dp K
Again, C 2  
d 
K
C (4)


Eq.(3)

Mach Number
Mach number is defined as the square root of the ratio of inertia force of a flowing fluid
to the elastic force or Mach number of a flowing fluid is the ratio of its velocity to the
local velocity of the sound (sonic velocity). Note: The modern classification of the
flow regimes is as follows:
Inertia Force 1. Fluid flows with 0 < M < 0.8 are called
M  subsonic flow.
Elastic Force
Inertia Force  mass  acceleration of flowing fluid
2. The flow in the Mach number range
V AV 2
0.8 < M < 1.2 is called transonic flow.
 AV  
time time
Again, Elastic Force  ( K  A) / time 3. The flow in the Mach number range
1.2 < M < 5 is called supersonic flow.
Inertia Force AV 2 V2 V
Hence, M    
4. The flow with M  5 is called
Elastic Force KA K C
 hypersonic flow.
V  Velocity of the object
C  Velocity of Sound * *Velocity of Sound: A pressure disturbance
propagates through a compressible fluid with a velocity
Subsonic Flow : M  1 depended upon the state of the fluid. The velocity with
From Classical Literature which these pressure waves moves through the fluid is
Sonic Flow : M  1 called the velocity of sound.
Supersonic Flow : M  1
Problems
Ans: 598.67 m/s or 2155.212 km/h
Ans: 352 m/s, 223 K

Stagnation Properties

Note:
For Incompressible Flow, M < 0.3
For Compressible Flow, M > 0.3
Speed of sound:
dp
(i) C 
d
(ii) C  K , K = Isentropic Bulk Modulus.
(iii) C  RT

Point Source
Point source will emit the radially outward spherical pressure waves
at the speed of sound (c) .

Case 1
Ex.

Case 2

Case 2
Ex.

Case 3

Case 3
Ex.

Case 4

Case 4
Ex.

Case 4

Mach Cone Angle Vs Mach Number.

ANS: 513.35 m/s
Ans: M = 0.931, Po = 12.24 N/cm2, T0 = 41.44 0C, ρ0 = 1.35 kg/m3
Ans: (i) Vmax =1417 m/s, (ii) T = 886.5 K, V = 477.6 m/s, (iii) M = 1.118, V = 634.03 m/s, (iv) T = 502 K, M = 2.225
P0 = 0.88 bar, T0 = 270K, V = 756.97 km/hr

Isentropic Flow
Converging duct (dA is negative) behaves as Nozzle

Isentropic Flow
Diverging duct (dA is positive) behaves

as Diffuser.

This arrangement is used in
Venturimeter
Flow measuring Devices

This type of arrangement is used in
Steam Turbine
De Laval Nozzle

Summary (case1 & 2)

Assumptions:
1. Perfect Gas
2. Isentropic Flow

Problem 9
Problem 10
M2

Problem 9_Solution:

Important Derivations
(Compressible Flow)
Follow the Pdf. Uploaded in the Google

classroom on 04.06.2021

Shock Waves
• A shock wave is a type of propagating disturbances which carries energy and can
propagate through mediums such as solid, liquid, gases and plasma.
• In physics, a shock wave, or shock, is a type of propagating disturbance that
moves faster than the local speed of sound in the medium. Like an ordinary wave, a
shock wave carries energy and can propagate through a medium but is
characterized by an abrupt, nearly discontinuous, change in pressure, temperature,
and density of the medium.
• Shock waves are highly localized irreversibilities in the flow.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BPwdlEgLn5Q

• Within the distance of a mean free path, the flow passes from a supersonic
to subsonic state, the velocity decreases suddenly and the pressure rises
sharply. A shock is said to have occurred if there is an abrupt reduction of
velocity in the downstream in course of a supersonic flow in a passage or
around a body.
• Normal shocks are substantially perpendicular to the flow and oblique

shocks are inclined at any angle to the flow.
• Shock formation is possible for confined flows as well as for external

flows.
• Normal shock and oblique shock may mutually interact to make another
shock pattern.

NASA
Airborne Background Oriented Schlieren Imaging (AirBOS) | NASA

Fig. Different type of shocks.

Assumptions for One dimensional Normal Shock Analysis
(1) A1-1 =A2-2

(2)   0
w
(3) Heat Transfer is not there (adiabatic)

One dimensional Normal Shock
Fig. A control surface that includes a normal shock.
For Normal Shock Analysis- Download the Google class notes uploaded

Oblique Shock
• Oblique shock is an inclined shock
wave or a compression wave inclined at
an angle to the flow occurs.
• The flow is deflected into itself by the
oblique shock. All the streamlines are
deflected to the same angle at the
shock, resulting in uniform parallel
flow downstream of the shock.
• The angle  is referred to as flow deflection angle.

• Across the shock wave, the Mach number decreases, and the pressure, density, and
temperature increase.
• The corner which turns the flow into itself is called compression or concave corner.
• Oblique shock waves are possible only if the upstream flow is supersonic.
• Unlike normal shocks in which the downstream Mach no. is always supersonic,
Mach no. of downstream oblique shock can be subsonic, sonic or supersonic
depending upon the upstream Mach no. & Turning angle.
• Oblique shock wave may prevail in two and three dimensional supersonic flows in
contrast to normal shock waves which are one dimensional.
Flow through Constant Area Duct: FANNO FLOW
(With Friction without heat and work transfer)
• Flow in a constant area duct with friction in the absence of work and heat
transfer is known as fanno flow.
• Such a flow can be explained with the help of fanno line.
• Fanno flow occurs in a no.of practical applications such as flow processes
occurring in gas ducts of air craft engines, air conditioning system, and
many other industrial flows (transport of natural gas in long pipe
lines/transport of fluids in chemical process plants/power plants). In case of
fanno flow, the flow parameters may
vary due to friction at wall.
• For theoretical representation of fanno flow, four assumptions are made-
(i) The fluid is a perfect gas.
(ii) Cross sectional area of the duct is constant.
(iii) One dimensional steady frictional flow.
(iv) Absence of heat and work transfer.

Unknowns: 7
No. of equations: 6
When no.of unknowns are more than no. of equations we have infinite no. of solutions
from Mathematics.
For solution, for the given set of inputs assume a particular temperature for T2 and solve
for other parameters. Say, for T2 =30 degree Centrigrade, 40 degree centrigrade, etc., we
will get different sets of solutions for other output parameters.

Rayleigh Flow
• A frictionless flow in a constant area duct with heat transfer is referred to as
Rayleigh flow.
• It can be closely approximated in many thermal system such as under some

conditions heat transfer processes in heat exchangers and combustion
chambers the flow can be considered as Rayleigh flow by ignoring the
frictional effect.
• The theoretical representation of Rayleigh flow is given by Rayleigh line

with the following 4 assumptions:
(i) Fluid is a perfect gas

(ii) The cross sectional area of the duct is constant
(iii) One dimensional steady frictionless flow
(iv) Absence of body force.

Difference Between Fanno Flow and Rayleigh Flow
Fanno Flow Rayleigh Flow
(i) Fanno flow is a flow with friction. Rayleigh flow is a frictionless flow.
(ii) In this flow, heat and work transfer is Considering the effect of heat and work
considered to be zero. transfer.
(iii) Body force is considered Body force is absent.

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Subject: Fluid Mechanics II

Module 1: Compressible Flow

2. Compressible fluid flow: Density of fluid changes from point to point

[Note: Gases may seem to be incompressible fluids if its change in density is

6/22/2022 Prepared By Dr.K.K.Pathak,ME,GIMT G 2

6/22/2022 Prepared By Dr.K.K.Pathak,ME,GIMT G 3

On the basis of assumption of incompressible fluid, continuity equation,

CFD Simulation of Centrifugal Compressor.

CFD simulation of Aeroplanes flying at high altitudes.

Fig.1. Representative Figures (Compressible flow).

6/22/2022 Prepared By Dr.K.K.Pathak,ME,GIMT G 4

The degree of compressibility

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[ A functional relationship between the pressure, volume and temperature at any

[There is a definite thermodynamic relationship between thermodynamic property

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Thermally Perfect Gas Calorically Perfect Gas

Check associated material in the Google Class Room

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  1.4 for air

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1. Change in flow passage area

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• Net force in one direction is equal to rate of change of momentum in that

6/22/2022 Prepared By Dr.K.K.Pathak,ME,GIMT G 21

• A wave is a disturbance in a medium that carries energy without a net

• Elastic wave is a motion in a particular medium in which when particles are

• If a material has the property of elasticity and the particles in a certain

6/22/2022 Prepared By Dr.K.K.Pathak,ME,GIMT G 22

• Wave motion in a medium is the movement of a disturbance relative to the

 Infinitesimal pressure wave or Sound wave

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Figure shows a long pipe fitted with a piston of uniform

Let, A = cross sectional area of the pipe.

 ACdt    d A(C  V )dt

6/22/2022 Prepared By Dr.K.K.Pathak,ME,GIMT G 27

 p  dp A  pA  Rate of change of momentum  mass / sec  Change in velocity

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Ans: 598.67 m/s or 2155.212 km/h

Ans: 352 m/s, 223 K

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