Lectures

Presented by
B.K.ROY
Assistant Professor
Mechanical Engineering Department
Lecture 1
Course Outcomes (COs): At the completion of the course the
students will be able:
CO1: Classify the various types of convective heat transfer
problems and discuss their applications.
CO2: Apply dimensional analysis in convective heat and mass
transfer to derive empirical equations.
CO3: Compare different types of boundary layers formed in
various flow problems and evaluate various parameters of
hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layers.
CO4: Design different types of heat exchangers by deducing
sizing and thermal analysis methods and analyse two-phase
problems.
CO5: Evaluate the heat transfer rate in forced and free
convection modes using corresponding empirical correlations.
Chapter 1
Fundamentals of convection heat transfer
Convection: Thermal convection occurs when a temperature
difference exist between a solid surface and fluid flowing
past it. Convection is essentially a process of energy
transport affected by the circulation or mixing of a fluid
medium which may be gas, a liquid or a powdery substance.
The transport of heat energy during convection is directly
linked with the transport of medium itself and as such
convection presents a combined problem of conduction and
mixing. Depending upon the nature of circulation, convection
is of two types-
(i) Forced convection
(ii) Free or natural convection
(i) Forced convection - The
fluid is forced to flow over a
surface by external means
such as a fan, pump, or the
wind.
(ii) Free or natural convection -
The fluid motion is caused by
buoyancy forces induced by
density differences due to the
variation of temperature in
the fluid. Fig: forced and free convection
 Mechanism of convection
 In natural convection the
circulation of the fluid medium is
caused by buoyancy effect i.e., by
the difference in the densities of
cold and heated particles.
 When the water at the bottom of
the pan is heated the
temperature increases.
 Because of temperature rise
these particle becomes less
dense than the surrounding
particles.
 Mechanism of convection(Contd…)
 The lighter particles move
upward to a region of low
temperature where they mix
with and transfer a part of their
energy to the cold particles.
 Simultaneously the cold particles
descend downward to fill the
space vacated by the hot
particles.
 This circulation movement of the
particle is called convection
current.
Convection rate equation: The rate equation for the convective
heat transfer between a surface and an adjacent fluid is prescribed
by Newton’s law of cooling.
It states that the rate of heat transfer per unit area is directly
proportional to the temperature difference between a surface and
a fluid. Mathematically,
𝑄
∞ 𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡𝑎
𝐴
𝑄
𝑞 = = 𝑕 𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡𝑎
𝐴
Where, ts = surf ace temperature °C
tα = fluid temperature °C
A = surface area for convection heat transfer, m2
h = constant of proportionality called heat transfer
coefficient, W/m2°C or W/m2K
 The coefficient of convective heat transfer h also known
as film heat transfer coefficient may be defined as the amount
of heat transfer for a unit temperature difference between the
fluid and unit area of surface in unit time.
The value of h depends on the following factors-
(i) Surface condition: Roughness and cleanliness
(ii) Geometry and Orientation of the surface: Plate, tube,
cylinder placed vertically or horizontally
(iii) Thermo-physical properties of the fluid: Density,
viscosity, specific heat, coefficient of expansion and
thermal conductivity
(iv) Nature of fluid flow: Laminar or turbulent
(v) Boundary layer configuration
(vi) Prevailing thermal condition
Bulk temperature and mean film temperature:
The mean bulk temperature (tb) denotes the equilibrium
temperature that would result if the fluid at across-section was
mixed in an adiabatic container. For turbulent flow of fluid in
ducts, this temperature is very nearly equal to the fluid
temperature near the duct exit. In heat exchangers the bulk
temperature is taken to be the arithmetic mean of the
temperatures at inlet and outlet from the heat exchanger. i.e.,
𝑡𝑖 + 𝑡𝑒
𝑡𝑏 =
2
The mean film temperature (tf) isthe arithmetic mean of the
surface temperature (ts) of a solid and the undisturbed
temperature (tα) of the fluid which flows past it. i.e.,
𝑡𝑠 + 𝑡𝛼
𝑡𝑓 =
2
Local and average convective coefficient:
Consider the flow of a fluid with velocity Uα and temperature
tα over a stationary flat plate of length l and width B as
shown in the fig. Consider an elementary strip of length dx at
a distance x from the leading edge.

Fig. local and average convection coefficient for flow past a flat plate
The local heat flux is given by
𝑄𝑥 = 𝑕𝑥 𝑑𝐴 𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡𝛼
= 𝑕𝑥 𝐵𝑑𝑥 𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡𝛼
Where hx= local convection coefficient.
The total heat transfer rate Q is given by
𝑙 𝑙

𝑄= 𝑄𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐵 𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡𝛼 𝑕𝑥 𝑑𝑥 … … . (𝑖)
0 0
If 𝑕 is the average coefficient, the total heat transfer rate
may be expressed as
𝑄 = 𝑕 𝐵𝑙 𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡𝛼 … … … … (𝑖𝑖)
From equation (i) and (ii)
𝑙
1
𝑕= 𝑕𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑙
0
Thank you
Lecture 2
PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DIMENSIONLESS
PARAMETERS
1. Reynolds Number: It is the ratio of inertia force to
viscous force in the velocity boundary layer. It is used in
forced convection and approximated as:
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝜌𝑢𝐿𝑐 𝑢𝐿𝑐
𝑅𝑒 = = =
𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝜇 𝜈
Where Lc= characteristics length of flow geometry, m
=x, distance from the leading edge in the flow
direction for a flat plate
= D, diameter for flow through or across a
cylinder and a sphere
u=free stream velocity, m/s
ρ=fluid density, kg/m2
 μ=dynamic viscosity of fluid, Ns/m2 or kg/m/s
ν=kinematic viscosity of fluid, m2/s
Reynolds number characterises the type of flow, weather
it is laminar or turbulent.

2. Critical Reynolds Number: It is a value of Reynolds

number, where boundary layer changes from laminar to
turbulent nature. It is denoted by Recr
For flow over a flat plate, the transition from laminar to
turbulent boundary layer occurs when critical Reynolds
number is
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑟 ≥ 5 × 105
 For flow through tubes, the transition from laminar to
turbulent boundary layer occurs, when
𝑅𝑒𝐷,𝑐𝑟 ≥ 2300
3. Prandtl Number: It is defined as the ratio of the momentum
diffusivity ν to the thermal diffusivity α
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜈 𝜇𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝜇𝐶𝑝
𝑃𝑟 = = = =
𝑇𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝛼 𝜌𝑘 𝑘
It provides a measure of relative effectiveness of momentum
and energy transfer in the velocity and thermal boundary
layers, respectively.
For gases Pr=1; i.e., both momentum and heat diffusion
through the fluid take place at the same rate.
For liquid metal Pr<<1; indicates heat diffuses in the fluid
very quickly.
For oils Pr>>1; indicates heat diffusion is very slow in the
fluid relative to momentum.
Further the thickness of velocity and thermal boundary layer
can be related as
𝛿𝑡𝑕
= 𝑃𝑟 𝑛
𝛿
Where δth=thickness of thermal boundary layer
δ= thickness of velocity boundary layer
n=exponent
4. Grashof Number: It is defined as the ratio of the buoyancy
forces to the viscous forces acting in the fluid layer. It is used in
free convection and its role is same as that of Reynolds number
in forced convection. The Grashof number characterises the
type of boundary layer developed in natural convection heat
transfer. It is denoted by Gr and expressed as
𝑔𝛽∆𝑇𝐿3𝑐
𝐺𝑟 =
𝜈2
Where g=acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
β= coefficient of volumetric expansion
ΔT=temperature between surface and fluid, °C or K
ν=kinematic viscosity of fluid, m2/s
 Lc=characteristics length of the body, m
=height L for vertical plates and cylinders
=diameter D for horizontal cylinder and sphere
For free convection, the transition from laminar to turbulent
occurs, when Grcr=109
5. Nusselt Number: It is defined as the ratio of convection heat
flux to conduction heat flux in the fluid boundary layer.
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑕∆𝑇 𝑕𝐿𝑐
𝑁𝑢 = = =
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑘∆𝑇/𝐿𝑐 𝑘
Where ΔT=temperature difference between wall surface and
fluid, K
h=heat transfer coefficient, W/m2K
 k=thermal conductivity of the fluid, W/mK
Lc=characteristics length of fluid flow, m
Based on the interpretation, the value of Nu as unity indicates
that there is no convection, the heat transfer is by pure
conduction in the boundary layer. Large value of Nu indicates
large convection in the fluid.
6. Stanton Number: It is the ratio of the heat transfer at the
surface to that transported by fluid by its thermal capacity.
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑕∆𝑇 𝑕
𝑆𝑡𝑥 = = =
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑢∆𝑇 𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑢
Mathematically it is the ratio of Nusselt number and product of
Reynolds number and Prandtl number.
𝑁𝑢
𝑆𝑡𝑥 =
𝑅𝑒 × 𝑃𝑟
7. Peclet Number: It is the ratio of heat transfer by convection
to heat transfer by conduction. It is denoted by Pe and
expressed as
𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑃𝑒 =
𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑚𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇 𝜌𝑉𝐶𝑝 𝐿
= =
𝑘∆𝑇/𝐿 𝑘
Mathematically the Peclet number is the product of Reynolds
number and Prandtl number
Pe=Re x Pr
8. Graetz Number: It is the ratio of fluid stream thermal
capacity of fluid flowing per unit length to thermal
conductivity of fluid. It is denoted by Gz and expressed as
𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕
𝐺𝑧 =
𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝜋 𝐷
= = 𝑅𝑒. 𝑃𝑟
𝑘𝑥 4 𝑥
Where x=hydrodynamic entry length
D=inside diameter of the tube
Generally it is associated with thermal entry length of a fully
developed flow through tube
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
SL NO VARIABLE SI UNIT MLTθH MLTθ
1 Mass kg M
2 Length m L
3 Time s T
4 Temperature K θ
5 Heat J H
6 Area m2 L2
7 Velocity m/s L2T-1
8 Gravity m/s2 LT-2
9 Force/Resistance N MLT-2
SL NO VARIABLE SI UNIT MLTθH MLTθ
10 Density Kg/m3 ML-3
11 Dynamic viscosity Kg/ms ML-1T-1
12 Kinematic viscosity m2/s L2T-1
13 Energy/Work N.m ML2T-2
14 Convective film W/m2K HL-2T-1θ-1 MT-3θ-1
coefficient
15 Volumetric expansion Per deg C Θ-1 Θ-1
or K
16 Specific heat kJ/kg°C HM-1θ-1 L2T-2θ-1
17 Thermal conductivity W/mK HL-1T-1θ-1 MLT-3θ-1
THANK YOU
Lecture 3
Problem 1: show by dimensional analysis that data for forced
convection may be correlated by the equation of the form:
𝑁𝑢 = ∅(𝑅𝑒, 𝑃𝑟)
Where Nu=Nusselt number=hl/k
Re=Reynolds number=ρvl/μ
Pr=Prandtl number=μcp/k
Solution:
Variable Symbol Dimension
Fluid viscosity μ ML-1T-1
Fluid density ρ ML-3
Fluid thermal conductivity k HL-1T-1θ-1
Fluid heat capacity Cp HM-1θ-1
Temperature differences Δt= ta-tf) θ
Flow velocity V LT-1
Plate length l L
Heat transfer coefficient h HL-2T-1θ-1
Buckingham π-method:
The functional relationship is
𝑓 𝜇, 𝜌, 𝑘, 𝑐𝑝 , ∆𝑡, 𝑉, 𝑙, 𝑕 = 0
No. of variable=8
No. of fundamental dimension=5
No. of π-term=8-5=3
Choosing μ, k, V, l as repeating
variable
𝜋1 = 𝜇𝑎 𝑘 𝑏 𝑉 𝑐 𝑙𝑑 𝜌
𝜋2 = 𝜇𝑎 𝑘 𝑏 𝑉 𝑐 𝑙𝑑 𝑐𝑝
𝜋3 = 𝜇 𝑎 𝑘 𝑏 𝑉 𝑐 𝑙 𝑑 𝑕
For 𝜋1 = 𝜇𝑎 𝑘 𝑏 𝑉 𝑐 𝑙𝑑 𝜌 … … . . (𝑖)
= 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −1 𝑎
𝐻𝐿−1 𝑇 −1 𝜃 −1 𝑏
𝐿𝑇 −1 𝑐
× 𝐿 𝑑
𝑀𝐿−3
Equating the exponents of fundamental dimensions on both
sides:
M: 0=a+1
L: 0=-a-b+c+d-3
T: 0=-a-b-c
Θ: 0=-b
H: 0=b
Solution gives:
a=-1; b=0; c=1; d=1
substituting these values in equation (i)
 −1 0 1
𝜌𝑉𝑙 1
𝜋1 = 𝜇 ×𝑘 ×𝑉 ×𝑙 ×𝜌 =
𝜇
For 𝜋2 = 𝜇𝑎 𝑘 𝑏 𝑉 𝑐 𝑙𝑑 𝑐𝑝
1 = 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −1 𝑎 𝐻𝐿−1 𝑇 −1 𝜃 −1 𝑏 𝐿𝑇 −1 𝑐 × 𝐿 𝑑 𝐿2 𝑇 −2 𝜃 −1
Solving: a=1; b=-1; c=0; d=0
𝜇𝑐𝑝
𝜋2 = 𝜇1 𝑘 −1 𝑉 0 𝑙0 𝑐𝑝 =
𝑘
For 𝜋3 = 𝜇𝑎 𝑘 𝑏 𝑉 𝑐 𝑙𝑑 𝑕
1 = 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −1 𝑎 𝐻𝐿−1 𝑇 −1 𝜃 −1 𝑏 𝐿𝑇 −1 𝑐 × 𝐿 𝑑 𝑀𝑇 −3 𝜃 −1
Solving: a=0; b=-1; c=1; d=0

0 −1 0 1
𝑕𝑙
𝜋3 = 𝜇 𝑘 𝑉 𝑙 𝑕=
𝑘
Thus the functional relationship becomes:
𝜌𝑉𝑙 𝜇𝑐𝑝 𝑕𝑙
∅ , , =0
𝜇 𝑘 𝑘
𝑕𝑙 𝜌𝑉𝑙 𝜇𝑐𝑝
𝑜𝑟 =∅ ,
𝑘 𝜇 𝑘
𝑁𝑢 = ∅ 𝑅𝑒, 𝑃𝑟
𝑁𝑢 = 𝐶 𝑅𝑒 𝑎 𝑃𝑟 𝑏

The constant C and the exponents a and b are evaluated

through experiments.
Problem 2: Show by dimensional analysis that for problems in
heat transfer involving free convection only, the Nusselt number
can be expressed as a function of the Prandtl number and the
Grashof number.
Solution:
variable
Fluid viscosity
Fluid density
Fluid thermal conductivity
Fluid specific heat
Coefficient of thermal
expansion
Temperature difference
Significant length
Heat transfer coefficient
Symbol Dimension
μ ML-1T-1
ρ ML-3
k HLT-3θ-1
cp L-1T-2θ-1
β θ-1
Δt=(ta-tf) θ
l L
h MT-3θ-1

The variables are: 𝜇, 𝜌, 𝑘, 𝑐𝑝 , 𝛽𝑔, ∆𝑡, 𝑙, 𝑕

The functional relationship is
𝑓 𝜇, 𝜌, 𝑘, 𝑐𝑝 , 𝛽𝑔∆𝑡, 𝑙, 𝑕 = 0
Total number of variables: 8
Number of fundamental dimension=5
Number of π-terms=8-5=3
Choosing μ, k, βgΔt, l as repeating variables
𝜋1 = 𝜇𝑎 𝑘 𝑏 𝛽𝑔∆𝑡 𝑐 𝑙𝑑 𝜌 … … . (𝑖)
𝜋2 = 𝜇𝑎 𝑘 𝑏 𝛽𝑔∆𝑡 𝑐 𝑙𝑑 𝑐𝑝 … . . (𝑖𝑖)
𝜋3 = 𝜇𝑎 𝑘 𝑏 𝛽𝑔∆𝑡 𝑐 𝑙𝑑 𝑕 … . (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
For 𝜋1 = 𝜇𝑎 𝑘 𝑏 𝛽𝑔∆𝑡 𝑐 𝑙 𝑑 𝜌
= 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −1 𝑎
𝐻𝐿−1 𝑇 −1 𝜃 −1 𝑏
𝐿𝑇 −2 𝑐
𝐿 𝑑 𝑀𝐿−3
Equating the exponents of fundamental dimensions on both
sides:
M: 0=a+1
L: 0=-a-b+c+d
T: 0=-a-b-2c
Θ: 0=-b
H: 0=b
Solution gives:
a=-1; b=0; c=1/2; d=3/2
Substituting these values in relation (i)
3 2
−1 0 1/2 3/2
𝑙 𝜌 𝛽𝑔∆𝑡
𝜋1 = 𝜇 𝑘 𝛽𝑔∆𝑡 𝑙 𝜌=
𝜇2
For 𝜋2 = 𝜇𝑎 𝑘 𝑏 𝛽𝑔∆𝑡 𝑐 𝑙𝑑 𝑐𝑝
= 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −1 𝑎
𝐻𝐿−1 𝑇 −1 𝜃 −1 𝑏
𝐿𝑇 −2 𝑐
𝐿 𝑑
𝐿2 𝑇 −2 𝜃 −1
Solving for: a=1; b=-1; c=0; d=0
𝜇𝑐𝑝
𝜋2 = 𝜇1 𝑘 −1 𝛽𝑔∆𝑡 0 𝑙0 𝑐
𝑝 =
𝑘
a b c d
For π3 =μ k βg∆t l h
= ML−1 T −1 a HL−1 T −1 θ−1 b LT −2 c L d MT −3 θ−1
Solving for: a=0; b=-1; c=0; d=1
𝑕𝑙
𝜋3 = 𝜇0 𝑘 −1 𝛽𝑔∆𝑡 0 𝑙0 𝑕 =
𝑘
Thus the functional relationship becomes:
𝑙3 𝜌2 𝛽𝑔∆𝑡 𝜇𝑐𝑝 𝑕𝑙
∅= 2
, ,
𝜇 𝑘 𝑘
𝑕𝑙 𝑙3 𝜌2 𝛽𝑔∆𝑡 𝜇𝑐𝑝
=∅ 2
,
𝑘 𝜇 𝑘
 𝑁𝑢 = ∅(𝐺𝑟, 𝑃𝑟)
𝑎 𝑏
𝑁𝑢 = 𝐶 𝐺𝑟 𝑃𝑟
The constant C and exponents a and b are evaluated through
experiments.
Problem 3: show by dimensional analysis for forced convection
that
𝑆𝑡 = ∅(𝑅𝑒, 𝑃𝑟)
𝑕
Where 𝑆𝑡 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 =
𝜌𝑉 𝑐𝑝

𝜌𝑉𝑙
𝑅𝑒 = 𝑅𝑒𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 =
𝜇
𝜇 𝑐𝑝
𝑃𝑟 = 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑡𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 =
𝑘

Solution: choosing μ, ρ, cp, V) as repeating variable

Thank you
Lecture 4
 HYDRODYNAMIC AND THERMAL BOUNDARY LAYER

Velocity boundary layer:

Consider real fluid flows past a stationary flat plate with a velocity
Uα in x-direction as shown in the fig. A layer of fluid which comes
in contact with the boundary surface, adheres to it and condition
of no slip occurs. Thus the layer of fluid which cannot slip away
from the boundary surface undergoes retardation; this retarded
layer further causes retardation for the adjacent layers of the fluid,
thereby developing a small region in the immediate vicinity of
the boundary surface in which the velocity of the flowing fluid
increases rapidly from zero at the boundary surface and
approaches the velocity of the main stream.
The region of the flow over the surface bounded by δ in
which the effects of viscous shearing forces caused by fluid
viscosity are observed, called velocity boundary layer or
hydrodynamic boundary layer or simply the boundary layer.
The thickness of the boundary layer δ is generally defined
as a distance from the surface at which local velocity u=0.99 of
free stream velocity Uα
Boundary layer definitions and characteristics:
Consider the boundary layer formed on a flat plate kept parallel
to flow of fluid of velocity U
- The edge facing the direction of flow is called leading edge.
- The rear edge is called the trailing edge.
- Near the leading edge the boundary layer is wholly laminar.
 For a laminar boundary the velocity distribution is parabolic.
- The thickness of the boundary layer (δ) increases with
distance from the leading edge x as more and more fluid is
slowed down by the viscous boundary, becomes unstable
and breaks into turbulent layer over a transition region.
For turbulent boundary layer, if the boundary is
smooth, the roughness projections are covered by a very
thin layer which remains laminar, called laminar sublayer.
Characteristics of a boundary layer:
(i) δ increases as distance from leading edge x increases
(ii) δ decreases as U increases
(iii) δ increases as kinematic viscosity ν increases
𝑈
(iv) 𝜏0 = 𝜇 ; hence τ0 decreases as x increases.
𝛿
(v) When U decreases in the downward direction,
boundary layer growth is reduced.
(vi) When U decreases in the downward direction, flow near
the boundary is further retarded; boundary layer is
faster and is susceptible to separation.
(vii) The pattern of flow in the boundary layer is judged by
the Reynolds number Re=Ux/ν
𝑈𝑥
(viii) 𝐼𝑓 < 5 × 105 boundary layer is laminar
𝜈
𝑈𝑥
(ix) 𝐼𝑓 > 5 × 105 boundary layer is turbulent
𝜈
(x) Critical value of Ux/ν at which boundary layer changes
from laminar to turbulent depends on:
- Turbulence in ambient flow
- Surface roughness
- Pressure gradient
- Plate curvature
- Temperature difference between fluid and boundary
Boundary layer thickness δ : It is defined as that distance from
the boundary in which the velocity reaches 99 percent of the
velocity of the free stream. (u=0.99U)
1. Displacement thickness δ*): It is the distance measured
perpendicular to the boundary by which the free stream is
displaced on account of formation of boundary layer.
𝛿
𝑢
𝛿∗ = 1− 𝑑𝑦
𝑈
0

2. Momentum thickness θ : It is defined as the distance,

measured perpendicular to the boundary of the solid body,
by which the boundary should be displaced to compensate
for reduction in momentum of the flowing fluid on account
of boundary layer formation.
 Momentum thickness is given by
𝛿
𝑢 𝑢
𝜃= 1− 𝑑𝑦
𝑈 𝑈
0

3. Energy thickness δe): It is defined as the distance,

measured perpendicular to the boundary of the solid body,
by which the boundary should be displaced to compensate
for reduction in K. E. of the flowing fluid on account of
boundary layer formation.
𝛿
𝑢 𝑢2
𝛿𝑒 = 1 − 2 𝑑𝑦
𝑈 𝑈
0
Momentum equation for hydrodynamic boundary layer
over flat pate:

This is the force or momentum equation of the boundary

layer.

Continuity equation:
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
+ =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Blasius exact solution for laminar boundary layer flow:
The following results are of particular interest:
(i) Boundary layer thickness: The boundary layer thickness
δ is taken to be the distance from the pate surface to a
point at which u=0.99U; it occurs at 𝜂=5.0. Therefore, the
value of 𝜂 at the edge of boundary layer y=δ is given by
𝑈 𝑈
𝜂=𝑦 =𝛿 =5
𝜈𝑥 𝜈𝑥
𝛿 𝜈 5
=5 =
𝑥 𝑈𝑥 𝑅𝑒𝑥
𝑈𝑥
Where 𝑅𝑒𝑥 = is the local Reynolds number based on
𝜈
distance x from the leading edge of the plate.
(ii) Skin friction coefficient Cfx : It is defined as the ratio of
1
shear stress τ0 at the plate to the dynamic head 𝜌𝑈 2
2
caused by free stream velocity.
𝜏0
𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝐶𝑓𝑥 =
1 2
𝜌𝑈
2
0.664
𝐶𝑓𝑥 =
𝑅𝑒𝑥
The average value of the skin friction coefficient 𝐶𝑓 can
be determined by integrating the local skin friction
coefficient Cfx from x=0 to x=L and then dividing the
integrated result by the plate length.
1.328
𝐶𝑓 =
𝑅𝑒𝐿
Thank you
Lecture 5
Thermal boundary layer:
When a fluid flows past a heated or cooled surface, a
temperature field is set up in the fluid next to the surface. The
zone or thin layer wherein the temperature field exist is called
thermal boundary layer.

Fig. the boundary layer formed during flow of cool fluid over a warm plate
 The thermal boundary thickness δth is defined as the
distance from the surface at which the temperature difference
between the surface and fluid reaches 99 percent of the free
stream value. That is when
𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡
= 0.99
𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡𝛼

Fig. the boundary layer formed during flow of warm fluid over a cool plate
 The relationship between the thermal and hydrodynamic
boundary layer thickness is governed by the non-dimensional
Prandtl number Pr=μcp/k

1
−
𝛿𝑡𝑕 = 𝛿𝑃𝑟 3
(i) 𝛿𝑡𝑕 = 𝛿 𝑊𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑃𝑟 = 1

(ii) 𝛿𝑡𝑕 < 𝛿 𝑊𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑃𝑟 > 1

(iii) 𝛿𝑡𝑕 > 𝛿 𝑊𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑃𝑟 < 1

Fig. hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layer

For different Prandtl number
 Energy equation of thermal boundary layer over a flat plate:
Fig.(a) shows a hot fluid
flowing over a cool flat
plate and the
development of thermal
boundary layer.
Consider an element of
dimensions (dxxdyx1) in
the boundary layer.
Fig.(b) is the enlarged
portion of the control
volumewhere all the
energy quantities
entering and leaving are
shown. Fig. energies entering and leaving the control volume
I. The energy convected in x-direction:
(Econv)x=mass x specific heat x temperature
= 𝜌𝑢𝑑𝑦. 1 𝑐𝑝 𝑡 = 𝜌𝑢𝑑𝑦 𝑐𝑝 𝑡
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑡
𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 𝑥+𝑑𝑥 = 𝜌𝑐𝑝 𝑑𝑦 𝑢 + 𝑑𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑡 2
= 𝜌𝑐𝑝 𝑑𝑦 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑡 𝑑𝑥 + . 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
Neglecting the product of small quantities
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑢
= 𝜌𝑐𝑝 𝑑𝑦 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑡 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
Net energy convected in x-direction
𝑑 𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 𝑥 = 𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 𝑥 − 𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 𝑥+𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑢
= 𝜌𝑢𝑑𝑦 𝑐𝑝 𝑡 − 𝜌𝑐𝑝 𝑑𝑦 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑡 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑢
= −𝜌𝑐𝑝 𝑢 +𝑡 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
II. Energy convected in y-direction:
𝑑 𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 𝑦 = 𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 𝑦 − 𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 𝑦+𝑑𝑦

𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑢
= −𝜌𝑐𝑝 𝑣 +𝑡 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦

III. Energy conducted in y-direction:

𝑑 𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑦 − 𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑦+𝑑𝑦

𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕 2 𝑡
= −𝑘𝑑𝑥. 1. − −𝑘𝑑𝑥 + 2 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕2𝑡
= 𝑘 2 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑦
IV. Viscous heat generation:
Viscous heat generation=viscous force x distance
travelled by viscous force per sec
= (shear stress x area) x distance travelled by viscous
force per sec
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
=𝜇 (𝑑𝑥. 1) 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 2
=𝜇 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑦

At steady state condition the algebraic sum of the heat

due to convection, conduction and viscous effect equals
zero. Thus
 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑢
−𝜌𝑐𝑝 𝑢 +𝑡 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 − 𝜌𝑐𝑝 𝑣 +𝑡 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
∂2 t ∂u 2
+ k 2 dxdy + μ dxdy = 0
∂y ∂y
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕2 𝑡
=> −𝜌𝑐𝑝 𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑡 + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 + 𝑘 2 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 2
+𝜇 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝜕𝑦
From continuity equation for 2-D flow:
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
+ =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
 2
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝑘 𝜕2 𝑡 𝜇 𝜕𝑢
𝑢 +𝑣 = . 2+
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜌𝑐𝑝 𝜕𝑦 𝜌𝑐𝑝 𝜕𝑦
This is the required differential energy equation for flow over
flat plate.
If viscous heat generation is neglected then the above
equation becomes
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝑘 𝜕2 𝑡 𝜕2 𝑡
𝑢 +𝑣 = . 2=𝛼 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜌𝑐𝑝 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝑘
Where 𝛼 =
𝜌 𝑐𝑝
Thank you
Lecture 6
Pohhausan solution for the energy equation:
By using the following variable energy equation can be recast
into an ordinary differential equation.
1. Stretching factor
𝑈
𝜂=𝑦
𝜈𝑥
2. Stream function
𝛹 = 𝜈𝑥𝑈𝑓 𝑛
3. Dimensionless temperature
𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡
𝜃=
𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡𝛼
The velocity components u and v are:
𝑑𝑓
𝑢=𝑈
𝑑𝜂

𝑦 𝑑𝑓 1 𝑈𝜈
𝑣= 𝑈 − 𝑓 𝑛
2𝑥 𝑑𝜂 2 𝑥

Further
𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡
𝜃=
𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡𝛼
𝑡 = 𝑡𝑠 + 𝑡𝛼 − 𝑡𝑠 𝜃
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜂
= 𝑡𝛼 − 𝑡𝑠 = 𝑡𝛼 − 𝑡𝑠 .
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝜂 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑡 𝑦 𝑈 𝑑𝜃
= 𝑡𝛼 − 𝑡𝑠 − 3/2
𝜕𝑥 2𝑥 𝜈 𝑑𝜂

𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜂
= 𝑡𝛼 − 𝑡𝑠 = 𝑡𝛼 − 𝑡𝑠
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝜂 𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑡 𝑈 𝑑𝜃
= 𝑡𝛼 − 𝑡𝑠
𝜕𝑦 𝜈𝑥 𝑑𝜂

𝜕2 𝑡 𝜕 𝑈 𝑑𝜃
2
= 𝑡𝛼 − 𝑡𝑠
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜈𝑥 𝑑𝜂

𝑈 𝑑 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜂
= 𝑡𝛼 − 𝑡𝑠
𝜈𝑥 𝑑𝜂 𝑑𝜂 𝑑𝑦
 2 2
𝜕 𝑡 = 𝑡 −𝑡 𝑈 𝑑 𝜃 𝑈
𝛼 𝑠 𝜈𝑥
𝜕𝑦 2 𝑑𝜂2 𝜈𝑥
2 2
𝜕 𝑡 = 𝑡 − 𝑡 𝑈𝑑 𝜃
2 𝛼 𝑠
𝜕𝑦 𝜈𝑥𝑑𝜂2
Inserting the above values in energy equation
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕2 𝑡
𝑢 +𝑣 =𝛼 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦

𝑑𝑓 𝑦 𝑈 𝑑𝜃 𝑦 𝑑𝑓 1 𝑈𝜈
𝑈 𝑡𝛼 − 𝑡𝑠 − 3 + 𝑈 − 𝑓 𝑛
𝑑𝜂 𝜈 𝑑𝜂 2𝑥 𝑑𝜂 2 𝑥
2𝑥 2

𝑈 𝑑𝜃 𝑈𝑑 2 𝜃
𝑡𝛼 − 𝑡𝑠 = 𝛼 𝑡𝛼 − 𝑡𝑠
𝜈𝑥 𝑑𝜂 𝜈𝑥𝑑𝜂 2
After simplification and arrangement of the above equation
𝑑2 𝜃 1 𝜈 𝑑𝜃
2
+ 𝑓 𝑛 =0
𝑑𝜂 2𝛼 𝑑𝜂
𝑑2 𝜃 1 𝑑𝜃
2
+ 𝑃𝑟𝑓 𝑛 =0
𝑑𝜂 2 𝑑𝜂
The boundary conditions to be satisfied are:
At t=ts y=0
At t=tα y=α
At =0 θ 𝜂)=0
At 𝜂=α θ 𝜂)=1
The solution obtained by Pohlhaussen for energy equation is
given by:
𝜂
𝜂
𝑑𝜃 𝑃𝑟
𝜃 𝜂 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 − 𝑓 𝜂 𝑑𝜂 𝑑𝜂
𝑑𝜂 𝜂=0 0
2 0

𝑑𝜃
The factor represents the dimensionless slope of the
𝑑𝜂 𝜂 =0

temperature profile at the surface where 𝜂=0

Its value can be obtained by applying the boundary condition
at 𝜂=α, θ 𝜂)=1. Thus
𝛼
𝛼
𝑑𝜃 𝑃𝑟
1= 𝑒𝑥𝑝 − 𝑓 𝜂 𝑑𝜂 𝑑𝜂
𝑑𝜂 𝜂=0
2 0
0
The dimensionless slope is a
function of Prandtl number and
the calculation made by Prandtl
showed that
𝑑𝜃
= 0.332𝑃𝑟1/3
𝑑𝜂 𝜂=0

For 0.6<Pr15
The dimensionless temperature
distribution for various values of
Prandtl number has been
plotted shown in the fig
The curve Pr=0.7 is typical for Fig. temp. distribution in the laminar layer on
air and several other gases. a heated flat plate
The following results are of practical interest:
Thickness of thermal boundary layer, δth:
The thickness of thermal boundary layer is taken to be the
distance from the plate surface for which
𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡
= 0.99
𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡𝛼
For this value of non-dimensional temperature parameter,
there are several curves with different values of Prandtl
number.
Case I. when Pr=1

𝑈
𝜂= 𝑦 = 5.0 𝑎𝑡 𝜃 = 0.99
𝜈𝑥
Since y=δth at the outer edge of the thermal boundary layer,
therefore

𝑈
𝛿𝑡𝑕 = 5.0
𝜈𝑥
𝛿𝑡𝑕 5.0 5.0 𝛿
= = =
𝑥 𝑥𝑈 /𝜈 𝑅𝑒𝑥 𝑥
This equation shows that for 𝑃𝑟 = 1, 𝛿𝑡𝑕 = 𝛿
Case II. When Pr<1

𝑈
𝜂= 𝑦 > 5.0 𝑎𝑡 𝜃 = 0.99
𝜈𝑥
 𝛿𝑡𝑕 5.0 5.0 𝛿
> > >
𝑥 𝑥𝑈 𝑅𝑒𝑥 𝑥
𝜈
𝑇𝑕𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑕𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑟 < 1, 𝛿𝑡𝑕 > 𝛿
Case III. When Pr>1

𝑈
𝜂= 𝑦 < 5.0 𝑎𝑡 𝜃 = 0.99
𝜈𝑥

𝛿𝑡𝑕 5.0 5.0 𝛿

< < <
𝑥 𝑥𝑈 𝑅𝑒𝑥 𝑥
𝜈
𝑇𝑕𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑕𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑟 > 1, 𝛿𝑡𝑕 < 𝛿
The local and average heat transfer coefficients:
At the plate surface since there is no fluid motion heat
transfer occur only through conduction. The heat flux at the
surface may be written as
𝑄 𝜕𝑡
= 𝑕𝑥 𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡𝛼 = −𝑘 … … . . (𝑖)
𝐴 𝜕𝑦 𝑦=0

𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡
𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜃=
𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡𝛼
𝑡 = 𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡𝛼 𝜃
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝜃
= − 𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡𝛼
𝜕𝑦 𝑦 =0
𝜕𝑦
 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜂
= − 𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡𝛼
𝜕𝑦 𝑦=0 𝜕𝜂 𝜕𝑦

1/3
𝑈
= − 𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡𝛼 0.332 𝑃𝑟
𝜈𝑥

0.332 𝑈𝑥 1/3
=− 𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡𝛼 𝑃𝑟
𝑥 𝜈
0.332 1/2 1/3
=− 𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡𝛼 𝑅𝑒𝑥 𝑃𝑟
𝑥
𝜕𝑡
Substituting for in equation (i)
𝜕𝑦 𝑦=0
 𝑄 = 𝑕 𝑡 − 𝑡 = 0.332 𝑘 t − t Re 12 Pr 13
𝑥 𝑠 𝛼 𝑥 s α x
𝐴
𝑘 1/2
1
𝑕𝑥 = 0.332 𝑅𝑒𝑥 𝑃𝑟 3
𝑥
𝑕𝑥 𝑥 1/2
1
𝑁𝑢𝑥 = = 0.332 𝑅𝑒𝑥 𝑃𝑟 3
𝑘
Where hx= Local convective heat transfer coefficient
Nux= Local value of Nusselt number.
Average heat transfer coefficient:
𝐿 𝐿
1 1 𝑘 1/2
1
𝑕= 𝑕𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 0.332 𝑅𝑒𝑥 𝑃𝑟 3
𝐿 𝐿 𝑥
0 0
 𝐿
1 1/3
𝑈 −1/2
= 0.332 𝑘 𝑃𝑟 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 𝜈
0
𝑘 1/2 1/3
𝑕 = 0.664 𝑅𝑒𝐿 𝑃𝑟
𝐿
𝑕𝐿 1/2 1/3
𝑁𝑢 = = 0.664 𝑅𝑒𝐿 𝑃𝑟
𝑘
𝑕 = 2𝑕𝑥
Thank you