Chapter 2: Perception

Human perception is selective, changing in importance based on individual goals. The chapter explores visual and
auditory perception.

Visual Perception:

The brain influences our perception of the external world, varying subjectively with sensory devices. The visual system
comprises the iris, cornea, lens, and retina.

In the process of vision, the iris regulates the entry of light into the eye, contracting and expanding over time, controlled
by the ciliary muscle.

The retina, composed of photoreceptor cells, receives light through the transparent lenses (crystalline and cornea),
converting it into electrical signals (action potentials). These signals are then transmitted via the optic nerve to the brain,
where visual perception occurs.

Two types of photoreceptor cells exist in the retina: cones and rods responsible for color, detail, and overall vision..

 Cones are sensitive to bright light, responsible for color and detail vision
 while rods function in dim light, providing a broader, shape‐oriented view.
 The interaction between light and these photoreceptor cells triggers neural responses, creating synaptic
connections that stimulate sensory neurons.

The visual process involves the retina receiving the optical image, passing through the optic nerve, reaching the visual
cortex for interpretation.

The optic chiasm, where nerve fibers partially cross over, ensures that information from each eye is transmitted to the
appropriate hemisphere of the brain without interference. This intricate process ultimately results in the perception of
visual stimuli.

The information is transferred from the nasal field (temporal half) of each eye to the optic chiasm, where fibers from
the nasal hemiretina cross over to the contralateral side. The crossed fibers continue through the optic tract towards the
thalamus, specifically the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN), responsible for processing visual information. From there,
two bundles of fibers emerge – one projecting to the primary visual cortex (striate cortex) for forming the visual scene,
and another towards the visual association areas, dealing with aspects like shapes, faces, and knowledge.

The visual pathway involves the optic chiasm, the lateral geniculate nucleus, and the visual cortex. The information is
processed in a specialized region of the visual cortex, creating a unified visual perception. This pathway ensures that
each hemisphere of the brain receives visual input from both eyes, contributing to a coherent visual experience.

Auditory Perception:

1. Anatomy includes the outer ear, middle ear (tympanic membrane), and inner ear (cochlea and auditory fluids).

In terms of the auditory system, sound waves enter the external auditory canal and reach the tympanic membrane
(eardrum). The middle ear, comprising the ossicles (tiny bones), amplifies and transmits the vibrations to the inner ear.
The cochlea, filled with perilymph and endolymph, converts these vibrations into electrical signals, initiating the
auditory perception.

2. Sound waves reach the eardrum, causing vibrations transmitted to the cochlea, converting them into chemical
reactions.

The auditory pathway involves the transmission of information from the cochlea to the central auditory system for
sound perception and interpretation.
The auditory system involves the transmission of sound waves through the external auditory canal to the tympanic
membrane, causing vibrations. These vibrations are then transmitted to the ossicles in the middle ear, which amplify
and transmit them to the inner ear.

In the inner ear, the cochleais filled with perilymph and endolymph. Vibrations from the ossicles cause these fluids to
move, stimulating hair cells in the cochlea. These hair cells convert mechanical vibrations into electrical signals, which
are then transmitted to the auditory nerve. The auditory nerve carries these signals to the auditory nuclei and then to
the auditory cortex in the temporal lobe.

The human auditory system can simultaneously process different frequencies of sound, as different frequencies
stimulate different neurons in the auditory system. The brain interprets the information received from these neurons,
allowing us to perceive and understand various sounds.

Three key characteristics of sound are essential for the auditory system:

1. Frequency (‫)ﺗﺭﺩﺩ‬: Provides information about the pitch of the sound, corresponding to the different
frequencies of sound waves.

2. Amplitude (‫)ﺍﻟﺳﻌﺔ‬: Gives information about the intensity or loudness of the sound, related to variations in
pressure in the region.

3. Timbre (‫)ﺍﻟﻁﺑﻳﻌﺔ‬: Represents the unique quality or character of a sound, formed by the combination of
different frequencies.

3. Neurons in the auditory system carry signals to the gray matter, leading to the auditory cortex in the temporal lobe.

Bodily Sensory Perception:

1. Provides awareness of body movement, touch, heat, pain, and spatial orientation.

Sensory perception plays a crucial role in our understanding, appreciation, and awareness of the physical world. The
sensory system informs us about the behaviors of our bodies and their outcomes, encompassing touch, taste, hearing,
vision, and proprioception. Proprioception provides information about the position and movement of body parts, such
as joints.

2. Receptors send signals through the spinal cord, medulla, thalamus, and primary sensory cortex for interpretation.

Receptors for these sensations are distributed throughout the body, with sensory information being relayed to the
spinal cord and then to the brain's somatosensory cortex in a specialized pattern. This system involves three
fundamental types of sensory perception:

 Nociception (‫)ﺣﺱ ﺍﻷﻟﻡ‬: Responsible for sensing pain, it includes responses to mechanical pressure and touch.
Examples include the sensations of touch and pressure.
 Mechanoceptive and Haptic Perception (‫)ﺣﺎﺳﺔ ﺍﻹﺩﺍﺭﻙ ﺍﻟﻣﻳﻛﺎﻧﻭﺳﺑﺗﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻠﻣﺳﻳﺔ‬: Involves the perception of mechanical
stimuli and touch. For example, it allows us to feel textures and pressures in the environment.
 Proprioception (‫ ﺍﻟﻭﻋﻲ ﺍﻟﺟﺳﺩﻱ‬- ‫)ﺣﺎﺳﺔ ﺍﻹﺩﺍﺭﻙ ﺍﻟﻣﺧﺻﺻﺔ‬: Concerned with the awareness of the body's position and
movement in space. It enables us to have a sense of the relative position of body parts and is crucial for motor
control.

The sensory information travels through nerve pathways to the thalamus before being relayed to the somatosensory
cortex, which processes and interprets the sensory input. The integration of information from these sensory pathways
contributes to the formation of our perceptual experiences. The nervous system adjusts to sensory stimuli, exemplified
by neural modulation occurring at the spinal cord and thalamic levels.

3. The brain continuously adapts behaviors based on sensory perceptions, creating a dynamic interplay between the
sensory modalities and cognitive processes.
Understanding the intricacies of sensory perception allows us to comprehend and respond to various stimuli in our
environment. It involves a complex network of nerve pathways, sensory receptors, and cortical processing, leading to a
nuanced and dynamic perception of the surrounding world.

Chapter 3: Hemispheric Coordination in the Brain

The hemispheres of the brain play a crucial and symmetrical role, yet they exhibit differences in function and
appearance under the microscope. The pivotal role of the linguistic hemisphere is evident, as the cerebral hemispheres
are responsible for various functions, with more than 200 million nerve cells on each side.

1. Corpus Callosum:

The corpus callosum, a bridge between the brain hemispheres, facilitates communication and coordination. The corpus
callosum is essential for integrating functions across the brain's hemispheres, especially those involving language.

There are two types of nerve fibers connecting different regions in the brain hemispheres:

1. Homotopic Fibers: These are fibers that connect corresponding regions between the hemispheres, ensuring
symmetry in their connections.

2. Heterotopic Fibers: These fibers connect non‐corresponding regions between the hemispheres, allowing for
communication and coordination between different functional areas.

The role of the corpus callosum is crucial in unifying the functions of the cerebral hemispheres. It acts as a bridge,
facilitating the exchange of information and coordination between homotopic and heterotopic fibers. Language
processing is a significant example of how these fiber types contribute to integrated cognitive functions.

Understanding the organization and connectivity of these fiber types sheds light on the intricate communication
network within the brain, emphasizing the importance of both symmetrical and asymmetrical connections in supporting
various cognitive functions.

2. Specialization in Language Hemisphere:

a. Wernicke's Area: Located in the temporal lobe, specifically in the left hemisphere, Wernicke's area is
dedicated to language comprehension. It plays a crucial role in understanding spoken and written language.
Damage to this area can result in language‐related impairments.

b. Broca's Area: Found in the left frontal lobe, Broca's area is responsible for speech production and language
expression. It coordinates the motor aspects of speech, ensuring the proper articulation of words. Lesions in this
area can lead to difficulty in forming grammatically correct sentences.

These language areas work together to allow us to comprehend and produce language. The auditory information is
received by Wernicke's area, while Broca's area is involved in speech production. The integration of these functions is
essential for effective communication.

The control of language and speech involves the coordination of various brain regions, with a central role played by the
area that receives information in initiating language functions. Imbalances in the frontal or temporal lobes can lead to
disruptions, impacting listening and language processing on the respective side.

The left frontal sternum, which receives information, has a role in initiating language and speech through muscle
control. Any imbalance in the left frontal lobe causes aphasia, and any injury to the temporal lobe causes

On the right side of the brain, it leads to an imbalance in the mechanisms of listening and music.

The mental lexicon, essential for language understanding, is composed of:

 1. Semantic Information (Meanings of Words): Understanding the meanings of words.

2. Pragmatic Information (Word Usage in Sentences): Knowing how words are used in sentences.

3. Syntactic Information (Grammar): Understanding the grammatical structure of sentences.

Phonetic Information (Hearing): Processing the sound of words.

Orthographic Information (Seeing): Recognizing words in written form.

The mental lexicon involves the representation of words, their meanings, and how they are used in the brain. It is not a
fixed entity, as the content can be influenced by context and usage. The mental lexicon differs from a dictionary in its
dynamic organization, adapting with learning and usage patterns.

Understanding the intricate coordination and specialization within the brain hemispheres provides insights into the
complexities of language processing and other cognitive functions. It highlights the remarkable organization and
collaboration between different brain regions for the seamless functioning of the human mind.

Chapter 4: Learning and Memory

Learning is the process of acquiring new knowledge or skills through exposure to continuous information and practices.
It involves the acquisition of new information, and memory is the subsequent manifestation of that learning. Learning
and memory are interrelated, with continuous exposure to information and associated practices leading to improved
performance. Both biological and behavioral aspects contribute to enhancing performance through learning.

The process of memory operates in three main stages:

1. Encoding: Involves processing received information to acquire it and understand it. This stage prepares the
information for storage in memory.

2. Storage: Encompasses the acquisition of information (understanding) and its consolidation in memory
through repeated exposure and rehearsal.

3. Retrieval: Involves recalling and reusing stored information to execute learned behaviors or conscious
awareness.

These stages reflect the continuous cycle of learning, storage, and retrieval that contributes to the overall process of
memory. The collaboration between biological and behavioral factors plays a role in improving performance through the
interplay of learning and memory processes.

1. Biology of Learning: Plasticity of Neurons

Learning and memory involve a phenomenon called "plasticity of neurons". This refers to the ability of nerve cells to
undergo persistent changes during the processes of learning and memory. These modifications continue to occur to
establish adaptations or adjustments in response to repeated stimuli, contributing to the consolidation of information.

Two Notable Phenomena in Learning:

 Habituation (‫ﺍﻟﺗﻌﻭﺩ‬
ّ ‫)ﻅﺎﻫﺭﺓ‬: This phenomenon involves a decrease in the responsiveness of neurons between nerve
cells when exposed to repetitive stimuli. The repeated stimuli lead to a reduction in the number of synapses
between nerve cells.
 Sensitization (‫)ﻅﺎﻫﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺗﺣﺳّﺱ‬: In contrast, sensitization is a phenomenon where the responsiveness of nerve cells
increases. This occurs when there is an increase in the number of synapses between nerve cells. Sensitization
allows for heightened responsiveness to stimuli, enhancing the organism's ability to detect and respond to
potentially significant stimuli.
One of the learning conditions in which the action potential decreases is when the effort of the action potential on the
calcium channels is less than the neurotransmitters released. As a result, the number of synapses decreases.

Another learning condition in which the action potential increases is when the effort of the action potential extends the
duration of the action potential. With increased release of neurotransmitters and the formation of new synapses under
similar conditions.

2. Memory

Short‐Term Memory (STM):

 The frontal lobe (working memory)

 The middle temporal lobe
 The brainstem: the midbrain, pons, and medulla (the reticular formation)

Short‐Term Memory involves acquiring new information and holds it temporarily.

Working Memory:

 Includes the prefrontal cortex, the frontal lobe, and the parietal lobe.
 Auditory loop: involves the sound‐related aspects of memory.
 Visuospatial sketchpad: involves the spatial and visual aspects of memory.
 Executive control system: manages and manipulates information during learning.

Long‐Term Memory (LTM):

 Involves encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

Divided into:

1. Explicit (conscious) memory involves the hippocampus, amygdala, temporal lobe and precuneus

Frontal

2. Ambivalent (non‐conscious) memory located in the basal nuclei (in the cerebellum)

The structure of short‐term memory differs from the structure of long‐term memory. Explicit memory calls for
different areas From eternal memory.

3. Emotional memory: affects the amygdala and related structures. (Emotion is at the forefront for her)

Memory Formation:

 The process of consolidation involves the transfer of information from short‐term to long‐term memory.
 The hippocampus and surrounding structures, such as the amygdala, play key roles in this process.
 Memories are initially formed in the frontal and temporal lobes and later consolidated in the cortex.

Chapter 5: Motor Skills and Behavior

(A) The Nervous System Controls Movement

The organized nervous system hierarchically controls every movement. Performing a simple movement involves the
participation of an extensive area of the nervous system. Motor areas in the frontal lobe plan, control, and regulate the
required movements, with sensory feedback being essential for ensuring the quality of motor skills.
Frontal Lobe:

Movements in the frontal lobe are organized in a sequential manner.

1. Prefrontal Cortex: Plans major movements.

Prefrontal Cortex initiates ideas and decisions, contributing to the execution of behaviors. Damage to this cortex can
lead to behavior that does not adhere to social norms and laws due to the individual's inability to make decisions in line
with specific controls.

2. Premotor Cortex: Regulates the movement sequence.

Premotor Cortex organizes a complex series of movements appropriate for executing a task. Injury to this cortex results
in a loss of coordination between movements to achieve the goal.

3. Primary Motor Cortex: Commands the execution of specific movements.

Primary Motor Cortex is responsible for executing specific movements. If the prefrontal cortex plans specific
movements, the primary motor cortex executes them by coordinating different body parts.

These different regions of the prefrontal cortex work hierarchically, creating a plan, regulating sequences, and executing
specific movements. The frontal lobe does not specify the type of behavior but the desired goal of executing a particular
movement. It sends instructions to the premotor cortex, which, in turn, transmits them to the primary motor cortex.

Role of the Brainstem:

The brainstem is responsible for specific movements related to each species (e.g., grooming, fear, and cleaning
behaviors).

Role of the Spinal Cord:

The spinal cord, an independent channel from the brain, connects the brain to the rest of the body and is responsible for
reflex movements. This function operates autonomously without the involvement of the brain.

(B) Motor System Regulation

Cortical Motor Areas:

Signals semi‐prepared for the intended muscle representation are emitted from the premotor cortex. These signals are
proportional to the representation of the intended muscles. Signals are sent from other cortical areas to the premotor
cortex, and neurons on the appropriate side send descending bundles to execute the planned movements.

Cortico‐Spinal Pathways:

These are motor pathways that connect the cortex to the brainstem and spinal cord. The motor axes of the motor cortex
descend in the brainstem, sending lateral axes to the gray nuclei, forming protuberances in the brainstem in the shape
of pyramidal bundles.

Most of the axes of the pyramidal bundle coming from the left hemisphere cross the midline to reach the right side, and
vice versa. A small portion of the pyramidal bundle remains on the same side to maintain temporal coordination
between the right and left sides.

Internal Neurons (Interneurons) develop in the spinal cord, providing specific information to specific motor neurons. The
axes of motor neurons reach specific muscles.

Role of Ganglia and Cerebellum:

The basal ganglia regulate the accompanying force for each movement, playing a role in initiating and suspending
certain behaviors. Injuries to these ganglia can result in either excessive or insufficient force during movement.
The cerebellum contributes to motor control by enhancing its effectiveness. It helps maintain motor coordination and
adds necessary adjustments when executing a series of movements to ensure sharpness and agility. The cerebellum
compares the intended movement with the actual one, calculates possible corrections, and transfers them to the cortex
for behavioral corrections.

Role of the Primary Somatosensory Cortex:

The primary somatosensory cortex contains homunculus providing information to the secondary somatosensory cortex.
It receives information from visual and abdominal pathways, providing information to the frontal cortex about the type
of movement executed.

Injury to the somatosensory cortex leads to apraxia, the inability to complete a motor sequence to reach a specific goal.
The affected individual is unaware of the performed movement and the subsequent movement required in the current
motor sequence.

How Our Brain Controls Movements:

Our brain is like a control center that tells our body how to move. There are special areas in our brain that help us plan
and do different movements.

1. Cortex and Movements:

‐ The brain has a special area called the "Cortex" that plans our movements. It decides what we want to do, like picking
up a toy or waving.

‐ It sends signals to the rest of the body to make those movements happen.

2. Brain Pathways:

‐ There are pathways in our brain that act like roads, helping messages travel to the right places.

‐ These pathways make sure our muscles know what to do when we want to move.

3. Ganglia and Cerebellum:

‐ Think of "Ganglia" as helpers that make sure our movements are just right, not too strong or too weak.

‐ The "Cerebellum" is like a coach that helps us move smoothly and corrects us if we make a mistake.

4. Feeling and Moving:

‐ We have a special part in our brain that helps us feel and move different parts of our body.

‐ If this part gets hurt, we might have trouble doing things in the right order, like getting dressed or playing a game.

So, our brain is like a super smart boss that tells our body what to do, and all the different parts work together to help us
move and play!

Chapter 6: Sleep and dreams

People do many things in a balanced way, and the term "circadian cycle" is used for those who follow a 24‐hour cycle.
Biological balance is determined by areas in the brain that function like a biological clock, regulating daily activities,
especially sleep and wakefulness.

1. Biological Foundations:

In the brain, there is a specific area called the "suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus" responsible for the
biological clock. Factors in our surroundings, with light being the most important, help regulate and stabilize daily cycles.
Exposure to sunlight in the morning significantly aids in setting the body's biological clock and maintaining daily rhythms.
 Disruptions in the suprachiasmatic nucleus can occur in the following cases:

‐ Night shift workers.

‐ People working different shifts within the same week (morning shift one day, evening shift another).

‐ Timezone differences during travel, known as "jet lag." Adjusting to a new timezone takes time, and initial symptoms
can include fatigue and confusion, especially when traveling east or west.

Understanding our body's natural clock and how it interacts with the environment helps us appreciate the importance of
a balanced daily routine, especially when it comes to sleep and wakefulness.

2. Stages of Sleep

1. Wakefulness Stage:

‐ Beta waves characterize this stage with short duration and high frequencies.

2. Drowsiness Stage (or NREM ‐ Non‐Rapid Eye Movement):

‐ Alpha waves dominate, indicating a state of relaxation with closed eyes. These waves have longer duration but
lower frequencies.

3. Sleep Stage:

‐ Delta waves characterize this stage, representing slow brain activity and a loss of consciousness during sleep.

4. Dream Stage:

‐ During this stage, Rapid Eye Movements (REM) occur, accompanied by finger and toe twitches. In EEG brainwave
recordings, fast beta waves overlay slow delta waves, known as REM sleep or paradoxical sleep.

Sleep is divided into two main types:

‐ Non‐REM Sleep (NREM): Comprising four stages, with deepening sleep correlating with wider and slower brainwaves.

‐ REM Sleep (Rapid Eye Movement): Characterized by eye movement, muscle twitches, and erectile activity in men.
People waking up during REM sleep tend to recall vivid dreams.

During the stage commonly known as REM (Rapid Eye Movement), also referred to as paradoxical sleep, 50% of sleep
time is spent in this stage during the second year of life. However, infants are devoid of this stage during the first few
months, accounting for only 10% of their total sleep time. It's noteworthy that sleepwalking (somnambulism) and night
terrors (terreur nocturne) occur during this stage.

The sleep cycle has a duration of 90 minutes, with the following breakdown:

Stages 1, 2, and 3: 30 minutes

Stage 4: 30 minutes

REM Sleep: 30 minutes

This cycle repeats four to five times during the night. In the first part of the night, the body temperature is at its lowest,
below 15 degrees Celsius, rising in the second part of the night. The body's temperature control mechanisms are
suspended during REM sleep, and the body temperature approaches the room temperature.

During NREM sleep, heart rate decreases, but growth hormone levels rise.
3. Biological theory of sleep

The biological theory of sleep involves the renewal process of the body, with various areas participating:

Brainstem (NREM & REM)

Median Region (NREM)

Parietal Lobe Surroundings (REM)

Nerve bundles transmit signals to the cortex, and the visible activity in the electroencephalogram (EEG) reflects the
dynamics of these processes.

1. Problem‐Solving during Sleep: 1. Visual acuity in infants is 1/50th of adults.

‐ Neural networks activated during information 2. Infants possess panoramic vision, and eye
reception re‐engage during sleep. movements do not overlap.

‐ The brain recalls the problem, works on solutions, 3. The brain prioritizes recurring visual stimuli over
and often discovers them upon waking. transient ones.

3. Manipulating Sleep for Learning: 4. An additional brain system observes accompanying

‐ Solving problems or learning before a brief sleep
period enhances memory consolidation.
4. Sensory Stimulation and Learning:
‐ Associating a problem or skill with a sensory stimulus
before sleep allows the brain to process it
unconsciously.
‐ The impact of the stimulus is realized the next day,
improving skill acquisition or problem‐solving.
5. Infant Brain Development:
‐ Maximum brain receptivity occurs in the first
months.
‐ Infants learn language, limb control, self‐awareness,
and environmental perception.
6. Two Brain Systems:
‐ System for negative emotions and learning from
negative experiences.
‐ System for positive emotions and learning,
reinforcing curiosity and exploration.
details during emotional experiences.
8. Brain Capacities: Between Genetics and
Environment:
1. Genetics shapes human capabilities, while
upbringing provides experiences for talent exploration.
2. Early negative experiences affect neural cell
development.
3. Neural cells need external stimuli for development;
a non‐stimulating brain loses learning drive.
4. Absence of parents and a stimulus‐poor
environment lead to chronic brain inactivity and
learning difficulties.
9. Control of Emotional Reactions:
‐ The prefrontal brain (control center) manages
emotional reactions, allowing rationality and improved
coping in challenging situations.
‐ Learning and emotional control improve as the
frontal brain influences emotions through the
amygdala.

‐ Dopamine release induces satisfaction, impacting 10. Neural Cell Renewal and Memory:
the frontal brain for improved thoughts and behavior.
‐ Neural cell death is replaced by new cells, crucial in
7. Role of Eyes in Information Reception: regions like the hippocampus for short‐term memory