University of Tripoli

Faculty of Engineering
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering

ME312
INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MECHANICS I

INSTRUCTOR: E- Malik Farag Gema Elmzughi

Email malekelmzughi@gmail.com M.Elmzughi@uot.edu.ly

SPRING 2019
 Chapter 1
Introductory Concepts & Definitions
 INTRODUCTION
Mechanics is the oldest physical science that deals with both stationary and moving bodies under
the influence of forces. The branch of mechanics that deals with bodies at rest is called statics,
while the branch that deals with bodies in motion is called dynamics. The subcategory fluid
mechanics is defined as the science that deals with the behavior of fluids at rest (fluid statics) or
in motion (fluid dynamics), and the interaction of fluids with solids or other fluids at the
boundaries. Fluid mechanics is also referred to as fluid dynamics by considering fluids at rest as
a special case of motion with zero velocity
History

Definition of a Fluid
A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously under the application of a shear (tangential) stress
no matter how small the shear stress may be. Because the fluid motion continues under the
application of a shear stress, we can also define a fluid as any substance that cannot sustain a shear
stress when at rest.
) ‫ هي المادة التي تتشوه باستمرار تحت تأثير اجهاد القص بغض النظر عن مقدار قوة اجهاد القص (صغيرة او ال‬:‫المائع‬
Basic Equations
Analysis of any problem in fluid mechanics necessarily includes statement of the basic laws
governing the fluid motion. The basic laws, which are applicable to any fluid, are:
1. The conservation of mass
2. Newton’s second law of motion
3. The principle of angular momentum
4. The first law of thermodynamics
5. The second law of thermodynamics
Methods of Analysis and Description
The first step in solving a problem is to define the system that you are attempting to analyze. In
basic mechanics, we made extensive use of the free-body diagram
1. System and Control Volume
2. Differential versus Integral Approach
Lagrangian descriptions: Lagrangian approach to analyze a fluid flow by assuming the fluid to
be composed of a very large number of particles whose motion must be described. However,
keeping track of the motion of each fluid particle
‫ يشمل وصف القرانج علي تتبع حركة المائع (جزيئات المائع) خطوة بخطوة وهذا التتبع ليس سهال وبذالك‬: ‫وصف القرانج‬
‫هواحدي االسباب التي تجعلنا نحول من النظام الي الحجم التحكمي‬
Eulerian descriptions: Eulerian, method of description, which focuses attention on the properties
of a flow at a given point in space as a function of time. In the Eulerian method of description, the
properties of a flow field are described as functions of space coordinates and time.
‫ يصف اويلر حركة المائع(جزييئات المائع) عند لحظة زمنية (يركز عند نقطة معيتة معرفة كفضاء(احداثي‬: ‫وصف اويلر‬
‫كارتيزي)وزمن‬
Dimensions and Units
It is necessary to distinguish clearly between the terms “Units” and “Dimensions”. The word
“dimension” is used to describe basic concepts like mass, length, time, temperature and force.
“Large mass, long distance, high temperature” does not mean much in terms of visualizing the
quantity, Units are the means of expressing the value of the dimension quantitatively or
numerically.
a. Mass [M], length [L], time [t], temperature [T]
b. Force [F], length [L], time [t], temperature [T]
c. Force [F], mass [M], length [L], time [t], temperature [T]

Mathematical Modeling, Numerical Methods, and Problem Solving

 Chapter 2
Fundamental Concepts
 Description and Classification of Fluid Motions

 Definition
Fluid: A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously under the application of a shear (tangential)
stress no matter how small the shear stress may be.
) ‫ هي المادة التي تتشوه باستمرار تحت تأثير اجهاد القص بغض النظر عن مقدار قوة اجهاد القص (صغيرة او ال‬:‫المائع‬
No-slip condition: that a fluid in contact with a solid surface does not slip—it has the same
velocity as that surface because of the no-slip condition, an experimental fact.
‫ المائع المالمس للجدار (الجسم الصلب) يكتسب سرعته (الجدار علي سبيل المثال) سواء اكان الجسم ساكنا‬: ‫شرط عدم االنزالق‬
‫او متحركا‬
Density ρ (mass density): The mass per unit volume is defined
as density. The unit used is kg/m3. The measurement is simple
in the case of solids and liquids.
‫ هي كتلة وحدة الحجوم من المادة وقياسها لالجسام الصلبة والسائلة سهل‬: ‫الكثافة‬
‫مقارنة بالغازات‬
Specific volume :𝒗 is the volume per unit mass and is therefore
the reciprocal of the density—that is, m3/kg
‫ هو مقلوب الكثافة حيث كمفهوم يختلف عن الكثاقة علي سبيل المثال‬: ‫الحجم النوعي‬
‫(الحجم النوعي للغازات اكبر منه في السوائل واالجسام الصلبة‬
Weight Density or Specific Weight: The force due to gravity on
the mass in unit volume is defined as Weight Density or Specific
Weight. The unit used is N/m3. The symbol used is γ
‫ يعرف الوزن النوعي بأنه وزن وحدة الحجم او وزن المتر المكعب‬: ‫الوزن النوعي‬
‫من المادة‬
specific gravity: Specific Gravity or Relative Density: The ratio of the density of the fluid to the
density of water—usually 1000 kg/m3 at a standard condition—is defined as Specific Gravity or
Relative Density δ of fluids. This is a ratio and hence no dimension or unit is involved. specific
weight
‫ درجات‬4( ‫ تسمي ايضا الكثافة النسبية وهي النسبة بين كثافة المائع الي كثافة الماء عند الضروف القياسية‬: ‫الثقل النوعي‬
)‫مئوية‬

Velocity Field
One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows
A flow is classified as one-, two-, or
three-dimensional depending on the
number of space coordinates required
to specify the velocity field.3 -
indicates that the velocity field may be
a function of three space coordinates
and time. Such a flow field is termed
three-dimensional (it is also unsteady)
because the velocity at any point in
the flow field depends on the three
coordinates required to locate the
point in space.
 Streamlines , Streaklines, streamtube, Timelines , and Pathlines

Timelines flow :is a set of adjacent

fluid particles that were marked at the
same (earlier) instant in time.
‫ هي مجموعة من جسيمات‬: ‫خطوط الزمن‬
‫السوائل المجاورة التي تم وضع عالمة عليها في‬
.‫نفس الوقت (األقدم) في الوقت المناسب‬
streamlines flow :is a curve that is
everywhere tangent to the
instantaneous local velocity vector
‫ هوالمسار الذي يصنعه المائع‬: ‫خطوط االنسياب‬
‫عند سريانه ويكون متجه السرعة مماس له عند اي‬
‫نقطة‬
pathlines flow: is the actual path
traveled by an individual fluid particle
over some time period.
.‫ هو المسار الفعلي الذي ينتقل عن طريقه جسيم المائع(يسلكه المائع) خالل فترة زمنية معينة‬: ‫خطوط المسار‬
streaklines flow :is the locus of fluid particles that have passed sequentially through a prescribed
point in the flow.
.‫ هو موضع جزيئات المائع التي مرت بالتسلسل من خالل نقطة محددة في التدفق‬: ‫خطوط االظهار‬
 Stress Field
In our study of fluid mechanics, we will need to understand what kinds of forces act on fluid
particles. Each fluid particle can experience: surface forces (pressure, friction) that are generated
by contact with other particles or a solid surface; and body forces (such as gravity and
electromagnetic) that are experienced throughout the particle.

Forces
surface Forces: Surface forces (pressure, friction) on a fluid particle lead to stresses. The concept
of stress is useful for describing how forces acting on the boundaries of a medium (fluid or solid)
are transmitted throughout the medium. You have probably seen stresses discussed in solid
mechanics.
‫واالحتكاك ) حيث قوي الضغط تكون عمودية علي السطح واتجاه تأثيره الي‬- ‫ تثمتل القوي السطحية (الضغط‬: ‫القوي السطحية‬
‫الداخل بينما قوي االحتاك تنشأ عند حركة المائع في مسار ما علي جسم والتي تتسب في قوي القص وتكون مماسية لسطح المائع‬
body Forces :body forces (such as gravity and electromagnetic) that are experienced throughout
the particle. The gravitational body force acting on an element of fluid
‫ تنتج هذه القوي بفعل تأثير الجاذبية واتجاهها الي اسفل ويعتمد علي احداثيلت المسألة والمحاور المصاحبة لها‬: ‫قوي الوزن‬
 Stresses
shear stresses: Surface forces on a fluid particle lead to stresses. The concept of stress is useful
for describing how forces acting on the boundaries of a medium (fluid or solid) are transmitted
throughout the medium.
‫ ينشأ اجهاد القص نتيجة االحتكاك الناتج عند حركة المائع علي سطح ما ويكون اجهاد القص مماس للسطح‬: ‫اجهاد القص‬
 Viscosity
Where do stresses come from? For a solid,
stresses develop when the material is elastically
deformed or strained; for a fluid, shear stresses
arise due to viscous flow (we will discuss a
fluid’s normal stresses shortly). Hence we say
solids are elastic, and fluids are viscous (and it’s
interesting to note that many biological tissues
are viscoelastic, meaning they combine features
of a solid and a fluid).
When temperature increases the distance
between molecules increases and the cohesive
force decreases. So, viscosity of liquids
decreases when temperature increases. In the
case of gases, the contribution to viscosity is
more due to momentum transfer. As temperature
increases, more molecules cross over with higher
momentum differences. Hence, in the case of
gases, viscosity increases with temperature.

Viscosity kinematic :absolute viscosity, dynamic

viscosity, or simply the viscosity of the fluid. In
accordance with plots of versus should be linear
with the slope equal to the viscosity as illustrated.
The actual value of the viscosity depends on the
particular fluid, and for a particular fluid the
viscosity is also highly dependent on temperature as
illustrated
‫اللزوجة الديناميكية هي خاصية طبيعية تمكن المادة من تبادل‬
‫كمية الحركة ويمكن اعتبارها مدي مقاومة المائع لقوي القص‬
)‫(خاصية تتحكم بسرعة انسياب المائع‬

Viscosity dynamic :gives the rate of momentum

flux or momentum diffusivity. With increase in
temperature kinematic viscosity decreases in the
case of liquids and increases in the case of gases.
‫ هي النسبة بين اللزوجة الديناميكية والكثاثة وعند وصفنا لمعدل التغير في كمية الحركة‬:)‫اللزوجة الكاينماتيكية(المطلقة‬
‫والطبقة الحدية الهيدروليكية فهي تعبر عن سمك الطبقة الحدية الهيدروليكية‬
surface tension: The pulling force that causes this tension acts parallel to the surface and is due
to the attractive forces between the molecules of the liquid. The magnitude of this force per unit
length is called surface tension boundary layers
Therefore, surface tension also can be defined
as the work done per unit increase in the surface
area of the liquid. The surface tension of a
liquid, in general, decreases with temperature
and becomes zero at the critical point (and thus
there is no distinct liquid–vapor interface at
temperatures above the critical point). The
effect of pressure on
surface tension is usually negligible.
‫ يتكون لكل سائل يوضع في وعاء سطح يفصله عن المائع وتتولد قوي الشد موزعة علي هذا السطح سببها‬: ‫التوتر السطحي‬
‫عدم التوازن بين قوي التجادب يبن جزيئات السائل المتشابهة اسفل السطح وبين قوي االلتصاق بين جزيئات المائعين غير‬
‫المتشابهة ويقاس التوتر السطحي علي انه شدة تحميل الخط المماس للسطح‬

Types of flow
Viscous: Viscosity is caused by cohesive forces between the molecules in liquids and by molecular
collisions in gases. There is no fluid with zero viscosity, and thus all fluid flows involve viscous
effects to some degree. Flows in which the frictional effects are significant are called viscous
flows.
‫ هو ذالك النوع من االنسياب الذي يكون فية تأثير لالجهاد القص وكاصطالح اعم تدرج السرعه له قيم وينحصر‬: ‫التدفق اللزج‬
‫هذا النوع من االنسياب داخل الطبق الحدية‬
Inviscid: flows of practical interest, there are regions (typically regions not close to solid surfaces)
where viscous forces are negligibly small compared to inertial or pressure forces. Neglecting the
viscous terms in such inviscid flow regions greatly simplifies the analysis without much loss in
accuracy.
‫ هو ذالك النوع من االنسياب الذي يكون فية تأثير اجهاد القص مهمل وكاصطالح اعم تدرج السرعه صفر‬: ‫التدفق الغير لزج‬
‫ويكون هذا النوع من االنسياب خارج الطبق الحدية واليمكن القول في هذا النوع من االنسياب مقدار اللزوجة صفر‬
Laminar :The highly ordered fluid motion characterized by smooth layers of fluid is called
laminar. The word laminar comes from the movement of adjacent fluid ‫ة‬particles together in
“laminates.” The flow of high-viscosity fluids such as oils at low velocities is typically laminar.
‫ هوذالك النوع من االنسياب التي تتحرك فيه جسيمات المائع علي طول مسارات ناعمة في طبقات رقيقة كل‬: ‫التدفق الطبقي‬
‫طبقة تتميز بسرعتها عن االخري فتنزلق كل طبقة فوق المجاورة لها بلطف‬
Turbulent :The highly disordered fluid motion that typically occurs at high velocities and is
characterized by velocity fluctuations is called turbulent - The flow of low-viscosity fluids such as
air at high velocities is typically turbulent.
‫ هو ذالك النوع من االنسياب التي تتحرك فيه جزيئات المائع بحركة عشوائية في مسارات غير منتظمة فهي‬: ‫التدفق المضطرب‬
‫حركة عشوائية ثالثية االبعاد لجسيمات المائع المدفوعة في اتجاه الحركة‬
Incompressible :a flow is said to be incompressible if the density remains nearly constant
throughout. Therefore, the volume of every portion of fluid remains unchanged over the course of
its motion when the flow (or the fluid) is incompressible.
‫التدفق الغير قابل لالنضغاط‪ :‬هو ذالك النوع من االنسياب الذي تبقي فيه كثافة كل جسيم من المائع نسبيا ثابته بينما يتحرك في‬
‫مجال التدفق‬
‫‪Compressible: a flow is said to be compressible if the density changed throughout.‬‬
‫التدفق القابل لالنضغاط ‪ :‬هو ذالك النوع من االنسياب الذي تتغيرفيه كثافة كل جسيم من المائع عندما يتحرك في مجال التدفق‬
‫اي ان تغير الكثافة في هذاالنسياب له قيمة اليمكن اهمالها‬
‫‪Internal :The flow in a pipe or duct is internal flow if the fluid is completely bounded by solid‬‬
‫‪surfaces. Water flow in a pipe,‬‬
‫التدفق الداخلي ‪ :‬هو ذالك النوع من االنسياب الذي يكون في المائع او التدفق محاطا بالكامل باسطح جامدة تدعي داخلية تحوي‬
‫المائع كانابيب النقل والتوزيع وانسياب زيت االنفط والغاز زانسياب هواء التدفئة والتكييف في قنوات التوزيع في المباني‬
‫‪External :The flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface such as a plate, a wire, or a pipe is‬‬
‫‪external flow.‬‬
‫التدفق الخارجي ‪ :‬هو ذالك النوع من االنسياب الذي اليكون محاط باسطح جامدة تحويه اي يحدث حول االجسام المغمورة في‬
‫مائع غير محاط مثل االنسياب علي االسطح المستوية‬

‫‪Types of fluids‬‬
‫‪Newtonian: In Newtonian fluids a linear relationship exists between the magnitude of the applied‬‬
‫‪shear stress and the resulting rate of deformation. The viscosity at any given temperature and‬‬
‫‪pressure is constant for a Newtonian fluid and is independent of the rate of deformation.‬‬
‫المائع النيوتوني‪ :‬هي ذالك النوع الموائع الذي يخضع لقانون نيوتن للزوجة والذي فيه العالقة بين تدرج السرعة واجهاد القص‬
‫عالقة طردية وامثله علي ذالك الهواء الماء الزيت‬
‫‪Non-Newtonian: Non Newtonian fluids can be further classified as simple non Newtonian, ideal‬‬
‫‪plastic and shear thinning, shear thickening and real plastic fluids. In non Newtonian fluids the‬‬
‫‪viscosity will vary with variation in the rate of deformation. Linear relationship between shear‬‬
‫‪stress and rate of deformation (du/dy) does not exist.‬‬
‫المائع الغير نيوتوني ‪ :‬هي ذالك النوع الموائع الذي اليخضع لقانون نيوتن للزوجة والذي فيه العالقة بين تدرج السرعة واجهاد‬
‫القص عالقة غيرطردية وامثله علي ذالك موائع ذات ثخانة قص وقص رقائقي ‪-‬الماء والرمل (رمال متحركة) ونشا وخليط الماء‬
‫وبعض الموائع تندرج تحت صنف البوليمر‬

‫‪shear thinning fluids the apparent viscosity decreases with increasing shear rate—the harder the‬‬
‫‪fluid is sheared, the less viscous it becomes. Many colloidal suspensions and polymer solutions‬‬
‫‪are shear thinning. For example, latex paint does not drip from the brush because the shear rate is‬‬
‫‪small and the apparent viscosity is large. However, it flows smoothly onto the wall because the‬‬
‫‪thin layer of paint between the wall and the brush causes a large shear rate and a small apparent‬‬
‫)‪viscosity. Fluids in which the apparent viscosity decreases with increasing deformation rate (n<1‬‬
‫;‪are called pseudoplastic (or shear thinning) fluids. Most non-Newtonian fluids fall into this group‬‬
‫‪examples include polymer solutions, colloidal suspensions, and paper pulp in water.‬‬

‫ترقق القص(القص الرقائقي) ‪ :‬تقل اللزوجة الظاهرية (المعبر عنها تبادل كمية الحركة للمائع) مع زيادة معدل القص (مقدار‬
‫التشوه) كلما كان مقدار التشوه الناتج بفعل القص كبيرة (اكثر تشوه) كلما قلت لزوجته(يعطي مقدار كبير الجهاد اقص مقارنه‬
‫بنظيره المائع ذو القص السميك لو قورنه عند نفس تدرج السرعة) ‪ .‬العديد من االمثلة كمواد البوليمر‪ .‬على سبيل المثال ‪ ،‬ال‬
‫يتدلى طالء الالتكس من الفرشاة ألن معدل القص صغير وتكون اللزوجة الظاهرية كبيرة‪ .‬ومع ذلك ‪ ،‬فإنه يتدفق بسالسة على‬
‫الجدار ألن طبقة الطالء الرقيقة بين الجدار والفرشاة تسبب معدل قص كبير ولزوجة صغيرة ظاهرية‪ .‬والسوائل التي تقل فيها‬
‫اللزوجة الظاهرية مع زيادة معدل التشوه (‪ )n <1‬تسمى سوائل ذات قص ثخين ‪.‬‬
shear thickening fluids the apparent viscosity increases with increasing shear rate—the harder the
fluid is sheared, the more viscous it becomes. Common examples of this type of fluid include
water–corn starch mixture and water–sand mixture “quicksand”. Thus, the difficulty removing an
object from quicksand increases dramatically as the speed of removal increases. If the apparent
viscosity increases with increasing deformation rate (n>1) the fluid is termed dilatant (or shear
thickening). Suspensions of starch and of sand are examples of dilatant fluids.

‫ تزداد اللزوجة الظاهرية (المعبر عنها تبادل كمية الحركة للمائع) مع مع زيادة معدل القص‬: )‫سماكة القص(ثخاتة القص‬
‫ وتشمل األمثلة الشائعة لهذا‬.‫ كلما كان مقدار التشوه الناتج بفعل القص كبيرة (اكثر تشوه) كلما زادت لزوجته‬- )‫(مقدار التشوه‬
‫ فإن صعوبة إزالة جسم ما من الرمال‬، ‫ وبالتالي‬."‫ رمال "رمال متحركة‬- ‫النوع من السوائل خليط ماء ونشاء وخليط مياه‬
‫( يسمى السائل‬n> 1) ‫ إذا زادت اللزوجة الظاهرية مع زيادة معدل التشوه‬.‫المتحركة يزيد بشكل كبير مع زيادة سرعة إزالتة‬
.)‫(مائع ذو سماكة قص‬
Reynolds number: is defined the ratio between inertia force to viscous force.
‫ هو النسبة بين قوي القصور الذاتي المتولدة من حركة المائع الي قوي اللزوجة فيه‬: ‫رقم رينولد‬
Mach number. :is defined the ratio between flow speed to speed of sound.
‫ هو النسبة بين سرعة االنسياب الي سرعة الصوت في نفس الوسط وتحت نفس الضروف‬: ‫رقم ماخ‬
Review and concept

No-slip condition: that a fluid in contact with a solid surface does not slip—it has the same
velocity as that surface because of the no-slip condition, an experimental fact.
‫شرط عدم االنزالق ‪ :‬المائع المالمس للجدار (الجسم الصلب) يكتسب سرعته (الجدار علي سبيل المثال) سواء اكان الجسم ساكنا‬
‫او متحركا‬
EXAMPELS: A =50-cm * 30-cm * 20-cm block weighing
150 N is to be moved at a constant velocity of 0.8 m/s on an
inclined surface with a friction coefficient of 0.27. (a)
Determine the force F that needs to be applied in the
horizontal direction. (b) If a 0.4-mm-thick oil film with a
dynamic viscosity of 0.012 Pa.s is applied between the
block and inclined surface, determine the percent
reduction in the required force.
EXAMPEL: Consider two identical small glass balls dropped into two identical containers,
one filled with water and the other with oil. Which ball will reach the bottom of the container
first? Why?

Analysis When two identical small glass balls are dropped into two identical containers, one filled
with water and the other with oil, the ball dropped in water will reach the bottom of the
container first because of the much lower viscosity of water relative to oil.

Discussion Oil is very viscous, with typical values of viscosity approximately 800 times greater
than that of water at room temperature.
EXAMPEL: Consider the flow of a fluid with viscosity m
through a circular pipe. The velocity profile in the pipe is
given as u(r) = umax(1 - r n/Rn), where umax is the maximum
flow velocity, which occurs at the centerline; r is the radial
distance from the centerline; and u(r) is the flow velocity at
any position r. Develop a relation for the drag force exerted
on the pipe wall by the fluid in the flow direction per unit
length of the pipe.

EXAMPEL: A thin 20-cm *20-cm flat plate is pulled at 1 m/s

horizontally through a 3.6-mm-thick oil layer sandwiched between
two plates, one stationary and the other moving at a constant velocity
of 0.3 m/s, as shown in Fig. The dynamic viscosity of oil is 0.027 Pa
.s. Assuming the velocity in each oil layer to vary linearly, (a) plot
the velocity profile and find the location where the oil velocity is zero
and (b) determine the force that needs to be applied on the plate to
maintain this motion.
EXAMPEL:In regions far from the entrance, fluid flow through
a circular pipe is one-dimensional, and the velocity profile for
laminar flow is given by u(r) = umax(1 - r 2/R2), where R is the
radius of the pipe, r is the radial distance from the center of the
pipe, and umax is the maximum flow velocity, which occurs at the
center. Obtain (a) a relation for the drag force applied by the fluid
on a section of the pipe of length L and (b) the value of the drag
force for water flow at 20°C with R = 0.08 m = 15 m, umax = 3
m/s, and μ = 0.0010 kg/m . s.

EXAMPEL:What is surface tension? What is it caused by? Why is the surface tension also
called surface energy?
Analysis The magnitude of the pulling force at the surface of a liquid per unit length is called
surface tension σs. It is caused by the attractive forces between the molecules. The surface tension
is also surface energy (per unit area) since it represents the stretching work that needs to be done
to increase the surface area of the liquid by a unit amount.
Discussion Surface tension is the cause of some very interesting phenomena such as capillary rise
and insects that can walk on water.
EXAMPEL:A block of weight W slides down an
inclined plane while lubricated by a thin film of oil, as
in Fig. P1.45. The film contact area is A and its
thickness is h. Assuming a linear velocity distribution
in the film, derive an expression for the “terminal”
(zero-acceleration) velocity V of the block.
  Conceptual Questions
1- The correct statement for the definition of density is:
a) Density is the mass per unit volume. b) Density is the volume per unit mass.
c) Density is the weight per unit volume. d) Density is the weight divided by gravity.
e) Density is the mass divided by the weight.
2- The no-slip condition is:
a) An experimental observation that the velocity of a fluid in contact with a solid surface is equal
to the velocity of the surface. b) Valid only for liquids. c) Useful only for very low density
gases. d) Indicates that two solids in contact will not slip if the joining force is large

𝒅𝒖
3- In fluids, the shearing strain rate 𝒅𝒚for a Newtonian fluid has dimensions of:
a) L/t2. c) L2/t. b) 1/t. d) L2/t2.
4- The laminar velocity profile for a Newtonian fluid is shown below.

Which figure best describes the variation of shear stress with distance from the plate?
EXAMPEL:Fluids of viscosities μ1=0.15 N. s/m2, μ2=0.5
N. s/m2, and μ3=0.2 N. s/m2 are contained between two
plates (each plate is 1 m2 in area). The thicknesses are
h1=0.5 mm, h2=0.25 mm, and h3=0.2 mm, respectively.
Find the steady speed V of the upper plate and the
velocities at the two interfaces due to a force F=100 N.
Plot the velocity distribution.

𝐹 =𝜏×𝐴
𝐹 100
𝜏 = 𝐴 = 1 = 100 𝑁⁄𝑚2
𝑑𝑢
For each fluid 𝜏 = 𝜇 𝑑𝑦
𝜏ℎ1 100×0.5×10−3
𝑉12 = = = 0.33𝑚/𝑠
𝜇1 0.15

𝜏ℎ2 100×0.5×10−3
𝑉23 = 𝜇2
+ 𝑉12= 0.15
+ 0.33=0.383𝑚/𝑠
 𝜏ℎ3 100×0.5×10−3
𝑉= + 𝑉23 = + 0.383=0.483𝑚/𝑠
𝜇3 0.15
 Problems

1- Two flat plates are oriented parallel above a fixed lower plate as shown in Fig.. The top
plate, located a distance b above the fixed plate, is pulled along with speed V. The other thin
plate is located a distance cb, where 0 < c < 1, above the fixed plate. This plate moves with
speed V1, which is determined by the viscous shear forces imposed on it by the fluids on its
top and bottom. The fluid on the top is twice as viscous as that on the bottom. Plot the ratio
V1/V as a function of c for 0 < c < 1.

2- A 10-kg block slides down a smooth inclined surface as shown in Fig. Determine the
terminal velocity of the block if the 0.1-mm gap between the block and the surface contains
SAE 30 oil at 60 °F. Assume the velocity distribution in the gap is linear, and the area of the
block in contact with the oil is 0.1 m2.

3- A layer of water flows down an inclined fixed surface with the velocity profile shown in
Fig.. Determine the magnitude and direction of the shearing stress that the water exerts on
the fixed surface for U = 2 m/s and h = 0.1 m.
4- A thin layer of glycerin flows down an inclined, wide plate with the velocity distribution
shown in Fig. For h = 0.3 in. and α= 200, determine the surface velocity, U. Note that for
equilibrium, the component of weight acting parallel to the plate surface must be balanced
by the shearing force developed along the plate surface. In your analysis assume a unit plate
width.

5- For the velocity fields given below, determine: a. whether the flow field is one-, two-, or
three-dimensional, and why. b. whether the flow is steady or unsteady, and why. (The
quantities a and b are constants.)

6- For the velocity fields given below, determine: a. whether the flow field is one-, two-, or
three-dimensional, and why. b. whether the flow is steady or unsteady, and why. (The
quantities a and b are constants.)
7-The velocity for a steady, incompressible flow in the xy plane is given by
where A=2 m2/s, and the coordinates are measured in meters. Obtain
an equation for the streamline that passes through the point (x, y)= (1, 3). Calculate the time
required for a fluid particle to move from x51 m to x52 m in this flow field.
8-A flow field is given by

where q=3 104 m2/s. Plot the velocity magnitude along the x axis, along the y axis, and along the
line y=x, and discuss the velocity direction with respect to these three axes. For each plot use a
range x or y =21 km to 1 km, excluding x or y<100 m. Find the equation for the streamlines and
sketch several of them. What does this flow field model?
9-A flow field is given by

Where K=105m2/s, and the x and y coordinates are parallel to the local latitude and longitude. Plot
the velocity magnitude along the x axis, along the y axis, and along the line y = x, and discuss the
velocity direction with respect to these three axes. For each plot use a range x or y= - 1 km,
excluding |x| or |y|<100 m. Find the equation for the streamlines and sketch several of them. What
does this flow field model?

10- The velocity distribution for laminar flow between parallel plates is given by

where h is the distance separating the plates and the origin is placed midway between the
plates. Consider a flow of water at 15C, with umax= 0.10 m/s and h= 0.1 mm. Calculate the
shear stress on the upper plate and give its direction. Sketch the variation of shear stress
across the channel.

11- The velocity distribution for laminar flow between parallel plates is given by

where h is the distance separating the plates and the origin is placed midway between the
plates. Consider a flow of water at 15C with maximum speed of 0.05 m/s and h=0.1 mm.
Calculate the force on a 1 m2 section of the lower plate and give its direction.
 Chapter 3
Fluid Statics
Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area. We speak of pressure only
when we deal with a gas or a liquid. The counterpart of pressure in solids is normal stress. Since
pressure is defined as force per unit area, it has the unit of newton’s per square meter (N/m2),
which is called a Pascal (Pa).
The Basic Equation of Fluid Statics

 Body Force
From our previous discussion, recall that two general types of forces may be applied to a fluid:
body forces and surface forces. The only body force that must be considered in most engineering
problems is due to gravity. In some situations, body forces caused by electric or magnetic fields
might be present
 Surface Force
In a static fluid there are no shear stresses, so the only surface force is the pressure force. Pressure
is a scalar field, p=p(x, y, z); in general we expect the pressure to vary with position within the
fluid
Newton’s Second Law
Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures

 Absolute pressure
The pressure is referenced to zero absolute pressure and has units of psia. Absolute pressure can
only have a positive value.
 Gauge pressure
The pressure is referenced to atmospheric pressure and by convention is measured in the positive
direction, i.e. 7 psig.
 Vacuum pressure
The pressure is referenced to atmospheric pressure and by convention is measured in the negative
direction, i.e. -50 mm Hg.
Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid

Measurement of Pressure
Examples Pressure gage
B is to measure the
pressure at point A in a
water flow. If the pressure
at B is 87 kPa, estimate
the pressure at A, in kPa.
Assume all fluids are at
20°C.
𝑷𝑨 − 𝑷𝑩 = −𝝆𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒈𝒉𝟏 −𝝆𝑴𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒕 𝒈𝒉𝟐 +𝝆𝑴𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒕 𝒈𝒉𝟑 +𝝆𝑶𝒊𝒍𝟑𝟎 𝒈𝒉𝟒

𝑷𝑨 − 𝑷𝑩 −𝝆𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒈𝒉𝟏 −𝝆𝑴𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒕 𝒈𝒉𝟐 +𝝆𝑴𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒕 𝒈𝒉𝟑 +𝝆𝑶𝒊𝒍𝟑𝟎 𝒈𝒉𝟒

𝑷𝑨 = 𝟗𝟔. 𝟒𝒌𝒑𝒂

Example (2) The gage pressure of the air

in the tank shown in Fig. is measured to be
65 kPa. Determine the differential height h
of the mercury column.
Example: Consider a double-fluid manometer
attached to an air pipe shown in Fig. If the specific
gravity of one fluid is 13.55, determine the specific
gravity of the other fluid for the indicated absolute
pressure of air. Take the atmospheric pressure to be
100 kPa.
 Example:The water in a tank is pressurized by air, and the
pressure is measured by a multifluid manometer as shown in Fig.
Determine the gage pressure of air in the tank if h1 = 0.2 m, h2
= 0.3 m, and h3 = 0.46 m. Take the densities of water, oil, and
mercury to be 1000 kg/m3, 850 kg/m3, and 13,600 kg/m3,
respectively.

Example: Freshwater and seawater flowing in

parallel horizontal pipelines are connected to each
other by a double U-tube manometer, as shown in
Fig. Determine the pressure difference between
the two pipelines. Take the density of seawater at
that location to be 𝜌= 1035 kg/m3. Can the air
column be ignored in the analysis?
Example: Consider the system shown in Fig. If a change of
0.7 kPa in the pressure of air causes the brine-mercury
interface in the right column to drop by 5 mm in the brine level
in the right column while the pressure in the brine pipe remains
constant, determine the ratio of A2/A1.
Example: The pressure difference between an oil pipe and water
pipe is measured by a double-fluid manometer, as shown in Fig. For
the given fluid heights and specific gravities, calculate the pressure
difference ∆P " PB -PA.

Example: Two water tanks are connected to each other

through a mercury manometer with inclined tubes, as
shown in Fig. If the pressure difference between the two
tanks is 20 kPa, calculate 𝑎 and 𝜃.
Problem: Water flows upward in a pipe slanted at 30°, as in Fig. The
mercury manometer reads h = 12 cm. Both fluids are at 20°C. What is the
pressure difference p1 - p2 in the pipe?

Problem:A reservoir manometer has vertical tubes of

diameter D=18 mm and d56 mm. The manometer
liquid is Meriam red oil. Develop an algebraic
expression for liquid deflection L in the small tube
when gage pressure Δp is applied to the reservoir.
Evaluate the liquid deflection when the applied
pressure is equivalent to 25 mm of water (gage).

HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON SUBMERGED PLANE SURFACES

When a surface is submerged in a
fluid, forces develop on the
surface due to the fluid. The
determination of these forces is
important in the design of storage
tanks, ships, dams, and other
hydraulic structures. For fluids at
rest we know that the force must
be perpendicular to the surface
since there are no shearing
stresses present.
  HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON SUBMERGED PLANE SURFACES
 Specifying the magnitude of the force.
 Specifying the direction of the force.
 Specifying the line of action of the force.
 To determine completely the resultant force acting on a submerged force.
Force on submerged surfaces:
𝑃 = 𝛾ℎ = 𝛾𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)
𝑑𝐹 = 𝑃𝑑𝐴 = 𝛾𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃). 𝑑𝐴
∫ 𝑑𝐹 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝐴 = ∫ 𝛾𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃). 𝑑𝐴

𝐹𝑅 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝛾 ∫ 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃). 𝑑𝐴

𝐹𝑅 = 𝛾𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃) ∫ 𝑦. 𝑑𝐴
Recall that ∫ 𝑦. 𝑑𝐴, called first moment of area
To x- axis
1
And 𝑦𝑐 = 𝐴 ∫ 𝑦. 𝑑𝐴
𝑦𝑐 𝐴 = ∫ 𝑦. 𝑑𝐴,
𝐹𝑅 = 𝛾𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)𝑦𝑐 𝐴= 𝛾ℎ𝑐 𝐴 , act normal on the
surface.
 Where does the force act?
If vertical surface , then y=h ,and 𝜃 =900
If horizontal surface , then 𝐹𝑅 = 𝑃𝐴 ,and 𝜃 =00
Sum moment about point O
𝑦𝑅 𝐹𝑅 = ∫ 𝑦. 𝑃. 𝑑𝐴=∫ 𝑦𝛾𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃). 𝑑𝐴 ∫ 𝛾𝑦 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃). 𝑑𝐴, but Recall that 𝐼𝑋 = ∫ 𝑦 2 . 𝑑𝐴, called
second moment of Inertia.
But also 𝐼𝑋 = 𝐼𝑋𝑋 + 𝐴𝑦𝑐2
𝑦𝑅 𝐹𝑅 = 𝛾𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)(𝐼𝑋𝑋 + 𝐴𝑦𝑐2 ),and remember , 𝐹𝑅 = 𝛾𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)𝑦𝑐 𝐴
𝑰
𝒚𝑹 = 𝒚𝒄 + 𝒚𝑿𝑿𝑨
𝒄

 Geometric Properties of Common Shapes

EXAMPEL: H-high –W-wide rectangular plate blocks, as
shown in Fig. The plate is hinged about a horizontal axis
along its upper edge through a point A and is restrained
from opening by a fixed ridge at point B. Determine the
force exerted on the plate by the ridge.

∫ 𝑑𝐹 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝐴 = ∫ 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑤𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝛾𝑤ℎ𝑑𝑦 = 𝜌𝑔𝑤 ∫ ℎ𝑑𝑦

𝐻
𝑭𝑹 = 𝜌𝑔𝑤 ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝑦
0
𝝆𝒈𝒘𝑯𝟐
𝑭𝑹 =
𝟐
𝑦𝑅 𝑭𝑹 = ∫ 𝑦𝑃𝑑𝐴 = ∫ 𝑦𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑤𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑦𝛾𝑤ℎ𝑑𝑦 = 𝜌𝑔𝑤 ∫ 𝑦ℎ𝑑𝑦

𝑦𝑅 𝑭𝑹 = 𝜌𝑔𝑤 ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
1
𝑦𝑅 = 𝜌𝑔𝑤 ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
𝑭𝑹
𝜌𝑔𝑤
𝑦𝑅 = ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
𝑭𝑹
𝝆𝒈𝒘𝑯𝟑 𝝆𝒈𝒘𝑯𝟑 𝟐𝑯
𝑦𝑅 = = 𝟐
=
𝟑𝑭 𝝆𝒈𝒘𝑯 𝟑
𝟑 𝟐
𝐹 = 𝑃𝑐 𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑐 𝑤𝐻
𝐼𝑥𝑥
𝑦𝑅 = + 𝑦𝑐
𝑦𝑐 𝐴
𝑏ℎ3 𝜌𝑔𝑤𝐻 2 2𝐻
𝐼𝑥𝑥 = ,𝑭𝑹 = ,𝑦𝑅 =
12 2 3
EXAMPEL: determine the resultant force that
acts on the port and its point of application.
𝜸𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝟗𝟖𝟏𝟎𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟐 𝒔𝟐 , 𝒉𝟏 = 𝟏𝒎, 𝒉𝟐
= 𝟑𝒎,

∫ 𝑑 𝑭𝑹 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝐴 = ∫ 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑤𝑑𝑦
𝑭𝑹 = ∫ 𝛾𝑤ℎ𝑑𝑦 , h= ℎ1 + 𝑦
𝑦2
𝑭𝑹 = 𝛾𝑤 ∫(ℎ1 + 𝑦)𝑑𝑦= 𝛾𝑤[ℎ1 𝑦 + ], where the integral from 0 to L, [0 to 3] ,which mean the
2
length of gate,
(𝟑)𝟐 (𝟑)𝟐
𝑭𝑹 = 𝛄𝐰[(𝟑)(𝟏) + 𝟐 ]=9810*1*[(𝟑)(𝟏) + ]=73.5KN.
𝟐
Or 𝑭𝑹 = 𝜸𝒉𝒄 𝑨 =9810*(1+1.5)*3*1=73.5KN.
𝟏∗𝟑𝟑
𝐈 𝐱𝐱 ( )
𝟏𝟐
𝐲𝐑 = 𝐲 𝐀 + 𝐲𝐜 =(𝟐.𝟓)∗(𝟑∗𝟏)+2.5=2.8 m.
𝐜
Or
𝑦𝑅 𝑭𝑹 = ∫(ℎ1 + 𝑦)𝑃𝑑𝐴 = ∫(ℎ1 + 𝑦)𝜌𝑔(ℎ1 + 𝑦)𝑤𝑑𝑦
𝑦𝑅 𝑭𝑹 = ∫(ℎ1 + 𝑦)𝛾(ℎ1 + 𝑦)𝑤𝑑𝑦=𝛾𝑤 ∫(ℎ1 + 𝑦)(ℎ1 + 𝑦)𝑑𝑦
𝑦𝑅 𝑭𝑹 = 𝛾𝑤 ∫(ℎ12 + ℎ1 𝑦 + ℎ1 𝑦 + 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑦 = 𝛾𝑤 ∫(ℎ12 + 2ℎ1 𝑦 + 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑦
𝑦3
𝑦𝑅 𝑭𝑹 = 𝛾𝑤[ℎ12 𝑦 + ℎ12 𝑦 2 + 3 ], where the integral from 0 to L, [0 to 3], which mean the length
of gate,
𝑦𝑅 𝑭𝑹 = 206.01𝑘𝑁. 𝑚
𝟐𝟎𝟔. 𝟎𝟏 𝟐𝟎𝟔. 𝟎𝟏
𝒚𝑹 = = = 𝟐. 𝟖𝒎
𝑭 𝟕𝟑. 𝟓
EXAMPEL: determine the resultant force that acts on
the port and its point of application.
𝜸𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝟗𝟖𝟏𝟎𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟐 𝒔𝟐 , 𝒉𝟏 = 𝟏𝒎, 𝒉𝟐 = 𝟑𝒎, 𝒚𝑹 =?
, the weight of ate =90KN,𝜽 = 𝟒𝟓°,
Width=1m,
√2 ℎ2 3
𝑆𝑖𝑛(45) = , sin(45)= , L= = 3√2𝑚,
2 𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛(45)
A=L*W=3√2𝑚2 ,
∫ 𝑑 𝑭𝑹 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝐴 = ∫ 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑤𝑑𝑦, 𝐹 = ∫ 𝛾𝑤ℎ𝑑𝑦 , h= ℎ1 + 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)
2
3√2 𝑦 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃) 𝑦3√2 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)
𝑭𝑹 = 𝛾𝑤 ∫0 (ℎ1 + 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)) 𝑑𝑦= 𝛾𝑤[ℎ1 𝑦 + ]= 𝛾𝑤[(1)3√2 + ]
2 2
𝟐
𝒚𝟑√𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟒𝟓)
𝑭𝑹 = 𝟗𝟖𝟏𝟎[(𝟏)𝟑√𝟐 + ]=104.1KN.
𝟐
ℎ2
Or 𝐹𝑅 = 𝛾𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)𝑦𝑐 𝐴= 𝛾ℎ𝑐 𝐴, ℎ𝑐 = ℎ1 + = 2.5m
2
ℎ2
𝐹𝑅 = 𝛾ℎ𝑐 𝐴 = 𝛾[ℎ1 + ]𝐴=9810*1*2.5*3√2
2
𝑭𝑹 =104.1KN.
ℎ
𝐈 𝐱𝐱 ℎ1 + 2 𝟓√𝟐 1(3√2)3
2
𝐲𝐑 = 𝐲 𝐀 + 𝐲𝐜 , sin(𝜃)= , 𝐲𝐜 = = 𝟑. 𝟒𝟓𝒎, 𝐼𝑥𝑥 = ,
𝐜 𝐲𝐜 𝟐 12
𝐲𝐑 = 𝟑. 𝟗𝟔𝒎.
𝑦𝑅 𝐹𝑅 = ∫(ℎ1 + 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃))𝛾(ℎ1 + 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃))𝑤𝑑𝑦=𝛾𝑤 ∫(ℎ1 + 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃))(ℎ1 + 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃))𝑑𝑦
𝑦𝑅 𝐹𝑅 = 𝛾𝑤 ∫(ℎ12 + ℎ1 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃) + ℎ1 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃) + 𝑦 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜃))𝑑𝑦
𝑦 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜃)
𝑦𝑅 𝐹𝑅 = 𝛾𝑤[ℎ12 𝑦
+ ℎ12 𝑦 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)
+ ]
3
(3√2)3 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (45)
𝑦𝑅 𝐹𝑅 = 9810 ∗ 1[3√2 + (3√2)2 𝑠𝑖𝑛(45) + ]
3
(𝟑√𝟐)𝟑 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 (𝟒𝟓)
𝟗𝟖𝟏𝟎∗𝟏[𝟑√𝟐+(𝟑√𝟐)𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟒𝟓)+ ]
𝟑
𝒚𝑹 = 𝟐 = 𝟑. 𝟗𝟔𝒎., Total length =𝟒√𝟐m
𝒚𝟑√𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟒𝟓)
𝜸𝒘[(𝟏)𝟑√𝟐+ ]
𝟐
sum the moment at point O

𝑭𝑹 (𝟒√𝟐 − 𝟑. 𝟗𝟔)=167.64KN.m
WG (1.5) =135KN.m
𝑭𝑹 (𝟒√𝟐 − 𝟑. 𝟗𝟔)> WG (1.5)

Not stable

EXAMPEL: A plane gate of uniform thickness holds

back a depth of water as shown. Find the minimum
weight needed to keep the gate closed.

∫ 𝑑𝐹 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝐴 = ∫ 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑤𝑑𝑦, 𝐹 = ∫ 𝛾𝑤ℎ𝑑𝑦 ,

h= 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃),
3 𝑦 2 sin(𝜃)
𝑭𝑹 = 𝛾𝑤 ∫0 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃) 𝑑𝑦= 𝛾𝑤 2
32 sin(30)
𝑭𝑹 = 9810 ∗ 2 =44.14KN.
2
3sin(𝜃) 3sin(30)
Or 𝐹𝑅 = 𝛾ℎ𝑐 𝐴 = 𝛾[ ]𝐴=9810*2*[ ]*3*2= 44.14KN.
2 2
𝐿
𝐈 3sin(𝜃) 2(3)3
𝐲𝐑 = 𝐲𝐱𝐱𝐀 + 𝐲𝐜 , sin(𝜃)= 2
, 𝐲𝐜 = , 𝐼𝑥𝑥 =
𝐜 𝐲𝐜 𝟐 12
𝐲𝐑 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟓𝒎.
sum the moment at the hinge
𝑳𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽)
𝑦𝑅 𝐹𝑅 = WG ( 𝟐 )
𝑳𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽) 3 𝑦 3 sin(𝜃)
WG ( 𝟐 )= 𝑦𝑅 𝐹𝑅 = 𝛾𝑤 ∫0 𝑦 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃) 𝑑𝑦= 𝛾𝑤 3
the minimum weight needed to keep the gate closed
𝟐 𝟐
WG=𝟑 𝜸. 𝒘. 𝒕𝒂𝒏(𝜽). 𝑳𝟑 = 𝟑 𝟗𝟖𝟏𝟎 ∗ 𝟐 ∗ 𝒕𝒂𝒏(𝟑𝟎) ∗ 𝟑𝟑 =203.89KN.
Example: A 4-m-high, 5-m-wide rectangular plate blocks the end of
a 4-m-deep freshwater channel, as shown in Fig. The plate is hinged
about a horizontal axis along its upper edge through a point A and is
restrained from opening by a fixed ridge at point B. Determine the
force exerted on the plate by the ridge.
 𝟒 𝒚𝟐 𝟒𝟐
𝑭𝑹 = 𝜸𝒘 ∫𝟎 𝒚 𝒅𝒚= 𝜸𝒘 𝟐 = 9810*5* 𝟐 = 392.4KN.
𝐼 𝐿 5(4)3
𝑦𝑅 = 𝑦𝑥𝑥𝐴 + 𝑦𝑐 , 𝑦𝑐 = 2, 𝑦𝑐 = 2, 𝐼𝑥𝑥 = ,
𝑐 12
𝟓(𝟒)𝟑
𝑰𝒙𝒙 𝟏𝟐
𝒚𝑹 = 𝒚𝒄 + 𝒚 =𝟐+ =2.6667m.
𝒄𝑨 𝟐∗𝟒∗𝟓
𝑦3 𝐿3
2 𝑦3 𝛾𝑤
3
𝛾𝑤
3 2𝐿
𝑦𝑅 𝐹𝑅 = 𝛾𝑤 ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑦= 𝛾𝑤 , 𝑦𝑅 = 𝑦2
= 𝐿2
=
3 𝛾𝑤 𝛾𝑤 3
2 2
𝑦𝑅 =2.6667m.
sum the moment at point A
𝐹𝑅 (1 + 𝑦𝑅 ) = 𝐹𝑅𝐺 (5)
𝑭𝑹 (𝟏 + 𝒚𝑹 )
𝑭𝑹𝑮 = = 𝟐𝟖𝟖𝑲𝑵.
𝟓
EXAMPLE: The gate shown is hinged at H. The gate is
3 m wide normal to the plane of the diagram. Calculate
the force required at A to hold the gate closed.

∫ 𝑑𝐹𝑅 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝐴 = ∫ 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑤𝑑𝑦, 𝐹 = ∫ 𝛾𝑤ℎ𝑑𝑦 ,

h= 𝑦𝐷 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃),
3 𝑦 2 sin(𝜃)
𝐹𝑅 = 𝛾𝑤 ∫0 (𝐷 + 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)) 𝑑𝑦= 𝛾𝑤[𝐷𝑦 + ]
2
𝟑𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟑𝟎)
𝐅𝐑 = 𝟗𝟖𝟏𝟎 ∗ 𝟑 ∗ [𝟏. 𝟓 ∗ 𝟑 + ]= 198.6KN.
𝟐
𝐼 1.5 3(3)3
𝑦𝑅 = 𝑦𝑥𝑥𝐴 + 𝑦𝑐 , 𝑦𝑐 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(30) + 1.5 = 4.5𝑚, 𝐼𝑥𝑥 = ,
𝑐 12
𝟑(𝟑)𝟑
𝑰
𝒚𝑹 = 𝒚𝒄 + 𝒚𝒙𝒙𝑨 = 𝟒. 𝟓 + 𝟏𝟐
=4.6667m.
𝒄 𝟒.𝟓∗𝟑∗𝟑
sum the moment at point H
𝐷
𝐹𝑅 (𝑦𝑅 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃))=FL
𝑫 𝟏.𝟓
𝑭𝑹 (𝒚𝑹 − ) 𝟏𝟗𝟖𝟔𝟔𝟕(𝟒.𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟕− )
𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽) 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟑𝟎)
F= = =110.3KN.
𝑳 𝟑

EXAMPLE: The gate shown is 3

m wide and for analysis can be
considered massless. For what
depth of water will this
rectangular gate be in
equilibrium as shown?

∫ dFR = ∫ PdA =
∫ ρghwdy, F = ∫ γwhdy ,
h= ysin(θ),
l l2 sin(θ) d 𝒅𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽) 𝜸𝒘𝒅𝟐
FR = γw ∫0 ysin(θ) dy= γw , l = sin(θ) , 𝑭𝑹 = 𝜸𝒘 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽)∗𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽)𝟐= 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽)
2
𝒘𝒍𝟑
𝑰 𝒍 ( ) 𝒍 𝒍 𝟐𝒍 𝟐𝒅
𝒚𝑹 = 𝒚𝒄 + 𝒚𝒙𝒙𝑨 = 𝟐 + 𝒍
𝟏𝟐
=𝟐+𝟔= = 𝟑𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽)
𝒄 ∗𝒘∗𝒍 𝟑
𝟐
 d3 sin(θ) γwd3
yR FR = γw ∫ y 2 sin(θ)dy= γw 3 sin(θ)∗sin(θ)= 3 sin(θ)
γwd3
3 sin(θ) 2d
yR = γwd2
=3sin(θ)
2 sin(θ)
sum the moment at the hinge
FR (L − yR ) = T(L),L=5m,
γwd2 2d
(L − ) = mg(L)
2 sin(θ) 3sin(θ)
𝒎𝑳𝒈𝒘𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 (𝜽) 𝒎𝑳𝒈𝒘𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 (𝜽) 𝟏
𝒅𝟑 = ,d=[ ]𝟑 =2.66m.
𝜸𝒘 𝜸𝒘
EXAMPLE: Semicircular plane gate AB is hinged along B
and held by horizontal force FA applied at A. The liquid to
the left of the gate is water @ 20℃. Calculate the force FA
required for equilibrium.

sum the moment at point B

1
𝐹𝐴 𝑅=𝐹𝑅 y, 𝐹𝐴 = 𝑅 ∫ 𝑦𝑃𝑑𝐴
𝑹 𝝅 𝝅𝒓𝟐
𝒅𝑨 = 𝒓𝒅𝒓𝒅𝜽, 𝒅𝑨 = ∫𝟎 ∫𝟎 𝒓𝒅𝒓𝒅𝜽= 𝟐
𝒚 = 𝒓𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽), h=H-y,
1 1
𝐹𝐴 = 𝑅 ∫ 𝑦𝑃𝑑𝐴, 𝐹𝐴 = 𝑅 ∫ 𝑦𝛾ℎ𝑑𝐴
1 1
𝐹𝐴 = ∫ 𝑦𝛾(𝐻 − 𝑦)𝑑𝐴 = ∫ 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)𝛾(𝐻 − 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃))𝑑𝐴
𝑅 𝑅
1 𝑅 𝜋
𝐹𝐴 = ∫ ∫ [𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)𝛾(𝐻 − 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃))]𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃
𝑅 0 0
𝛾 𝑅 𝜋
𝐹𝐴 = ∫ ∫ [[𝐻𝑟 2 − 𝑟 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)]𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)]𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃
𝑅 0 0
𝛾 𝜋 𝐻𝑟 3 𝑟 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃) 𝛾 𝜋 𝐻𝑅 3 𝑅 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)
𝐹𝐴 = 𝑅 ∫0 [ − ]⃒𝑅0 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)𝑑𝜃, 𝐹𝐴 = 𝑅 ∫0 [ − ]𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)𝑑𝜃
3 4 3 4
𝛾 𝜋 𝐻𝑅 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃) 𝑅 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜃) 𝟏
𝐹𝐴 = ∫
𝑅 0
[ 3
− 4
]𝑑𝜃, 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 (𝜽) = 𝟐 (𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝟐𝜽)),
𝜋 3 4
𝛾 𝐻𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃) 𝑅 1
𝐹𝐴 = ∫ [[ − [ (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜃))]]𝑑𝜃
𝑅 0 3 4 2
𝛾 −𝐻𝑅 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃) 𝜋 𝑅 4 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜃)
𝐹𝐴 = [( ) ⃒0 − ( [( − )]) ⃒𝜋0 ]
𝑅 3 4 2 4
𝜸 𝟐𝑯𝑹𝟑 𝝅𝑹𝟒 𝟐𝑯𝑹𝟐
𝑭𝑨 = 𝑹 [( )−( )]= 𝜸[( )−
𝟑 𝟖 𝟑
𝝅𝑹𝟑 𝟐∗𝟐∗𝟑𝟐 𝝅𝟑𝟑
( 𝟖 )]= 𝟗𝟗𝟗 ∗ 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏[( 𝟑 ) − ( 𝟖 )]=366KN.
EXAMPLE: A triangular access port must be
provided in the side of a form containing liquid
concrete. Using the coordinates and dimensions
shown, determine the resultant force that acts on the
port and its point of application.
𝒘 𝒚
=𝒂
𝒃
𝑏𝑦 𝑏𝑦
∫ 𝑑𝐹𝑅 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝐴 = ∫ 𝜌𝑔𝑦 𝑎 𝑎
𝑑𝑦=∫ 𝜸𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝛾𝑏 𝑎 2 𝛾𝑏 𝑦 3 𝑎 𝛾𝑏 𝑎3 𝑎2
𝐹𝑅 = ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑦= [ ]⃒ 0 = [ ]= 𝛾𝑏[ ]
𝑎 0 𝑎 3 𝑎 3 3
𝒂𝟐
𝑭𝑹 = 𝑺. 𝑮 ∗ 𝝆𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 ∗ 𝒈 𝒃[ 𝟑 ]=376N.
sum the moment at the hinge
𝑏𝑦 𝑏𝑦
𝑦𝑅 𝐹𝑅 = ∫ 𝑦𝑃𝑑𝐴 = ∫ 𝑦𝜌𝑔𝑦 𝑎 𝑑𝑦=∫ 𝒚𝜸𝑦 𝑎 𝑑𝑦
𝛾𝑏 𝑎 𝛾𝑏 𝑦 4 𝛾𝑏 𝑎4 𝑎3
𝑦𝑅 𝐹𝑅 = 𝑎
∫0 𝑦 3 𝑑𝑦= 𝑎 [ 4 ]⃒𝑎0 = 𝑎 [ 4 ]= 𝛾𝑏[ 4 ]
𝒂𝟑
𝜸𝒃[ ] 𝟑𝒂
𝟒
𝒚𝑹 = 𝒂𝟐
= = 0.3m.
𝜸𝒃[ ] 𝟒
𝟑
𝐹 = 𝑃𝑐 𝐴 = 𝑺. 𝑮 ∗ 𝝆𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 ∗ 𝒈 ∗ ℎ𝑐 ∗ 𝐴=𝑺. 𝑮 ∗ 𝝆𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 ∗ 𝒈 ∗ 𝑦𝑐 ∗ (0.5 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏)
𝟐𝐚 𝐒.𝐆∗𝛒𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 ∗𝐠∗𝐛∗𝐚𝟐 𝟐.𝟒∗𝟗𝟗𝟗∗𝟗.𝟖𝟏∗𝟎.𝟑∗𝟎.𝟒𝟐
𝐅=𝐒. 𝐆 ∗ 𝛒𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 ∗ 𝐠 ∗ ( 𝟑 ) ∗ (𝟎. 𝟓 ∗ 𝐚 ∗ 𝐛)= = =376N.
𝟑 𝟑
𝐼𝑥𝑥
𝑦𝑅 = + 𝑦𝑐
𝑦𝑐 𝐴
𝑏𝑎2 2𝑎
𝐼𝑥𝑥 = , 𝑦𝑐 = ,A= 0.5 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏,
36 3
𝒃𝒂𝟐
𝟐𝒂 𝟑𝟔 𝟑𝒂
𝒚𝑹 = + 𝟐𝒂 = = 0.3m.
𝟑 ( )∗(𝟎.𝟓∗𝒂∗𝒃) 𝟒
𝟑
 Conceptual Questions
1- What is the difference between gage pressure and absolute pressure?
2- Explain why some people experience nose bleeding and some others experience shortness of
breath at high elevations.
3- Someone claims that the absolute pressure in a liquid of constant density doubles when the
depth is doubled. Do you agree? Explain.
4- Two tubes connected to two water reservoirs are as shown below. The tube on the left is
straight, and that on the right is a cone with the top area four times that of the base. The bottom
area of the cone equals that of the straight tube. The height of the water is the same for both
cases.

The relation between the pressures p1 and p2 at the base of the tubes is:
a) p2 = 4 p1. b) p2 =0.5p1. c) p2 = p1. d) p2 =2 p1. e) p2 =1/3 p2.
5- For a fluid element at rest, the forces acting on the element are:
a) gravity, shear, and normal forces. b) gravity and normal forces.
c) gravity and shear forces. d) normal and shear forces.
6- A tank is filled with a liquid, and the surface is exposed to the atmosphere. Which of the
following accurately represents the absolute pressure distribution on the right-hand side of the
tank?

7- A system filled with a liquid is shown below. On the left there is a piston in a tube of cross-
sectional area A1 with a force F1 applied to it, and on the right, there is a piston in a tube of
cross-sectional area A2 that is twice that of A1 and a force F2. The pistons are weightless. The
two liquid levels are the same.

The relation between the force F2 and F1 is

a) F2 = 4 F1. b) F2 =1/2F1. c) F2 = F1. d) F2 =2 F1. e) F2 =1/4 F2.

 HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON SUBMERGED CURVED

SURFACES:
For curved
surfaces, we will
once again derive
expressions for
the resultant
force by
integrating the
pressure
distribution over
the surface.
However, unlike
for the plane
surface, we have
a more
complicated
problem—the
pressure force is
normal to the surface at each point, but now the infinitesimal area elements point in varying
directions because of the surface curvature.
 The horizontal component of force on a curved surface equals the force on
the plane area formed by the projection of the curved surface onto a vertical
plane normal to the component
 The vertical component of pressure force on a curved surface equals in
magnitude and direction the weight of the entire column of fluid, both
liquid and atmosphere, above the curved surface.
  Centre of Mass (Centroid) for simple shape:

 Centroid for Curved Areas

Taking the simple case first, we aim to find the centroid for the area defined by a function f(x),
and the vertical lines x = a and x = b as indicated in the following figure.

Alternate method: Depending on the function, it may be easier to use the following alternative
formula for the y-coordinate, which is derived from considering moments in the x-direction (Note
the "dx" in the integral, and the upper and lower limits are along the x-axis for this alternate
method).
  Centroids for Areas Bounded by 2 Curves

We can also keep everything in terms of x by extending the "Alternate Method" given above:

EXAMPLE: Find the centroid of the area bounded by y = x3, x = 2 and the x-axis.
EXAMPLE: Calculate the force P necessary to hold the 4-m-wide gate in the position shown in
Fig. Neglect the weight of the gate.

𝑹 𝒚𝟐 𝟐𝟐
𝑭𝑯 = 𝑭𝟏 = 𝜸𝒘 ∫𝟎 𝒚 𝒅𝒚= 𝜸𝒘 𝟐 = 9810*4* 𝟐 = 78.480KN.
𝐼 𝑅 4(2)3
𝑦𝑅 = 𝑦𝑥𝑥𝐴 + 𝑦𝑐 , 𝑦𝑐 = 2 , 𝑦𝑐 = 1, 𝐼𝑥𝑥 = ,
𝑐 12
4(2)3
𝐼 4
𝑦𝑅 = 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑦𝑥𝑥𝐴 = 1 + 12
=3m.
𝑐 1∗4∗2
𝟒 𝟐
𝒅𝟏 = R-𝒚𝑹 = 2 - 𝟑= 𝟑=0.6667m
𝑹
𝑭𝑽 = 𝑭𝟐 = 𝜸𝒘 ∫𝟎 𝒉 𝒅𝒙= 9810*2*4*2= 15.6960KN. 𝒅𝟐 = 𝟏𝒎.
 𝝅𝑹𝟐 𝟒𝑹
(𝟐×𝟐)×𝟏−( )×( )
𝟒 𝟑𝝅
𝒅𝒘 = 𝝅𝑹𝟐
=1.553m.
(𝟒− )
𝟒
𝝅𝑹𝟐
𝑭𝒘 = 𝒎𝒈 = 𝜸∀= 𝟗𝟖𝟏𝟎 × 𝟒 × (𝟒 − 𝟒 )=33.70KN.
sum the moment at the hinge
𝑷(𝟐. 𝟓) + 𝑭𝒘 ∗ 𝒅𝒘 − 𝑭𝑯 ∗ 𝒅𝟏 − 𝑭𝑽 ∗ 𝒅𝟐
𝑭 ∗𝒅 +𝑭 ∗𝒅 −𝑭 ∗𝒅
𝑷 = 𝑯 𝟏 𝑽𝟐.𝟓 𝟐 𝒘 𝒘 =62.8KN.
EXAMPLE: Find the force P needed to hold the gate in the position shown in Fig if P acts m3 m
from the y-axis. The parabolic gate is 150 cm wide.

𝟐 𝒚𝟐 𝟐𝟐
𝑭𝑯 = 𝑭𝟏 = 𝜸𝒘 ∫𝟎 𝒚 𝒅𝒚= 𝜸𝒘 𝟐 = 9810*1.5* 𝟐 = 29.43KN.
𝐼 𝑅 4(2)3
𝑦𝑅 = 𝑦𝑥𝑥𝐴 + 𝑦𝑐 , 𝑦𝑐 = 2 , 𝑦𝑐 = 1, 𝐼𝑥𝑥 = ,
𝑐 12
1.5(2)3
𝐼𝑥𝑥 12 4
𝑦𝑅 = 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑦 =1+ =3m.
𝑐𝐴 1∗1.5∗2
𝟒 𝟐
𝒅𝟏 = R-𝒚𝑹 = 2 - 𝟑= 𝟑=0.6667m.

𝑭𝒘 = 𝒎𝒈 = 𝜸 ∫ 𝒅∀, ∫ 𝒅∀ = 𝒘 ∫ 𝒅𝑨, ∫ 𝒅𝑨 = ∫[𝒇(𝒙𝟏 ) − 𝒇(𝒙𝟐 )]𝒅𝒙 = ∫[𝟐 − √𝟐𝒙]𝒅𝒙

 3 3
( ) ( )
√2𝑥 2 √22 2 8 4
𝑑𝐴 = 2𝑥⃒20 − 3 ⃒20 = 2(2) − 3 =4-3=3m2
2 2
𝟒𝜸 𝒘 𝟒 × 𝟗𝟖𝟏𝟎 × 𝟏. 𝟓
𝑭𝒘 = 𝒎𝒈 = 𝜸 ∫ 𝒅∀ = 𝜸 𝒘 ∫ 𝒅𝑨 = 𝜸 𝒘 ∫[𝒇(𝒙𝟏 ) − 𝒇(𝒙𝟐 )]𝒅𝒙 = =
𝟑 𝟑
𝑭𝒘 = 𝟏𝟗𝟔𝟐𝟎𝑵.
1 4
𝑑𝑤 = 𝑥̅ = 𝐴 ∫ 𝑥 [𝒇(𝒙𝟏 ) − 𝒇(𝒙𝟐 )]𝒅𝒙 , ∫ 𝒅𝑨 = ∫[𝒇(𝒙𝟏 ) − 𝒇(𝒙𝟐 )]𝒅𝒙 = 3m2
3 3 3
𝑑𝑤 = 𝑥̅ = 4 ∫ 𝑥 [𝟐 − √𝟐𝒙 ]𝒅𝒙=4 ∫[𝟐𝒙 − 𝒙√𝟐𝒙 ] 𝒅𝒙 = 4 ∫[𝟐𝒙𝒅𝒙 − 𝒙√𝟐𝒙 𝒅𝒙]
5
( )
3 𝟐𝒙𝟐 √2𝑥 2 3 𝟏𝟔 3 𝟒 𝟑
𝑑𝑤 = 𝑥̅ = 4 ∫ [ ⃒20 − 𝟓 ⃒20 ]=4 [𝟒 − ]=4 [𝟓]=𝟓=0.6m.
𝟐 𝟓
𝟐
sum the moment at the hinge
−𝑷(𝟐) + 𝑭𝒘 ∗ 𝒅𝒘 − 𝑭𝑯 ∗ 𝒅𝟏
𝟐
𝑭 ∗𝒅 +𝑭 ∗𝒅 𝟏𝟗𝟔𝟐𝟎×𝟎.𝟔+𝟐𝟗𝟒𝟑𝟎×( )
𝑷 = 𝑯 𝟏 𝟐 𝒘 𝒘= 𝟑
=15696N.
𝟐
EXAMPLE: A long solid
cylinder of radius 0.8 m hinged
at point A is used as an
automatic gate, as shown in
Fig. When the water level
reaches 5 m, the gate opens by
turning about the hinge at point
A. Determine (a) the
hydrostatic force acting on the
cylinder and its line of action
when the gate opens and (b) the
weight of the cylinder per m
length of the cylinder.
EXAMPLE: Find the force P needed to
hold the 10-m-long cylindrical object in
position as shown in Fig.
Since all infinitesimal pressure forces pass
thru the center, we can place the resultant
forces at the center. Since the vertical
components pass thru the bottom point,
they produce no moment about that point.
Hence, consider only horizontal forces:
EXAMPLE: Find the force P needed to just open the
gate shown in Fig if: (a) H = 6 m, R = 2 m, and the gate is
4 m wide.
𝝅𝑹𝟐
𝑷 = 𝑭𝑽 = 𝜸[𝒘 × 𝑯 × 𝑹 + 𝒘 × ]
𝟒
𝝅𝑹𝟐
𝑷 = 𝑭𝑽 = 𝜸𝒘[𝑯 × 𝑹 + ]
𝟒
𝝅𝟐𝟐
𝑷 = 𝟗𝟖𝟏𝟎 × 𝟒[𝟔 × 𝟐 + 𝟒 ]=594.20KN.
EXAMPLE: (a) Determine the magnitude,
direction, and line of action of the horizontal and
vertical components of the hydrostatic force
acting on curved surface AB shown in Fig which
has a radius of 2 m and a width of 4 m. (b) Assume
that the water exists on the opposite side of the
vertical barrier (the surface AB remains as
shown with point A 8 m below the surface level).
Determine the information requested in part (a).

a) A free-body-diagram of the volume of water in

the vicinity of the surface is shown. Force
balances in the horizontal and vertical directions
give:
𝟐 𝟐 𝑹𝟐 𝟒
𝑭𝑯 = 𝑭𝟐 = 𝜸𝒘 ∫𝟎 𝒚 𝒅𝒚= 𝜸𝒘 ∫𝟎 (𝟖 + 𝒚) 𝒅𝒚=𝜸𝒘 [𝟖𝑹 + ] = 𝟗𝟖𝟏𝟎 × 𝟒 × [𝟖 × 𝟐 + 𝟐] =
𝟐
𝟕𝟎𝟔. 𝟑𝟐𝑲𝑵
4(2)3
𝐼𝑥𝑥 𝑅 4(2)3 𝐼𝑥𝑥 12
𝑦𝑅 = 𝑦 + 𝑦𝑐 , 𝑦𝑐 = 2 , 𝑦𝑐 = 9, 𝐼𝑥𝑥 = , 𝑦𝑅 = 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑦 =9+ =9.037m.
𝑐𝐴 12 𝑐𝐴 9×2×4
 𝝅𝑹𝟐 𝟒𝑹
(𝟐×𝟐)×𝟏−( )×( )
𝟒 𝟑𝝅
𝒅𝒘 = 𝒅𝟐 = 𝝅𝑹𝟐
=1.553m.
(𝟒− )
𝟒

Finally, the forces FH and FV that act on the surface AB are equal and opposite to those calculated
above. So, on the surface, FH acts to the right and FV acts downward.
b) If the water exists on the opposite side of the surface AB, the pressure distribution would be
identical to that of Part (a). Consequently, the forces due to that pressure distribution would have
the same magnitudes. The vertical force FV = 662 N would act upward and the horizontal force
FH = 706.3 N would act to the left.
EXAMPLE: What P is needed to hold the 4-m-wide gate shown in Fig.
closed?
Place the resultant FH + FV at the circular arc center. FH passes thru the
hinge so that P =FV. Use the water that could be contained above the
gate; it produces the same pressure distribution and hence the same FV.
We have
𝝅𝟑𝟐
𝑷 = 𝑭𝑽 = 𝜸[𝟔 × 𝟒 × 𝟑 + 𝟒 × ]
𝟒
𝝅𝟑𝟐
𝑷 = 𝟗𝟖𝟏𝟎 × 𝟒[𝟔 × 𝟑 + 𝟒 ]=983.70KN.

EXAMPLE: Find the force P if the parabolic gate shown in Fig. is:
(a) 2 m wide and H =2 m
𝑯 𝑯 𝑯 𝑯𝟐 𝟐𝟐
𝑭𝑯 = ∫𝟎 𝑷 𝒅𝑨 = 𝜸𝒘 ∫𝟎 𝒉 𝒅𝒚= 𝜸𝒘 ∫𝟎 𝒚 𝒅𝒚 = 𝜸𝒘 = 9810*2* 𝟐 =
𝟐
39.24KN.
𝐼 𝐻 𝑤(𝐻)3
𝑦𝑅 = 𝑦𝑥𝑥𝐴 + 𝑦𝑐 , 𝑦𝑐 = 2 , 𝑦𝑐 = 1, 𝐼𝑥𝑥 = ,
𝑐 12
𝑤(𝐻)3
𝐼𝑥𝑥 12 𝐻 𝐻 2𝐻
𝑦𝑅 = 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑦 =1+ 𝐻 = 2 + 6 = 3 = 1.333𝑚.
𝑐𝐴 ∗𝐻∗𝑤
2
 𝟐𝑯 𝑯
𝒅𝟏 = R-𝒚𝑹 = H - 𝟑 = 𝟑 =0.6667m.
sum the moment at the hinge
𝑃(𝐻) = 𝐹𝑉 ∗ 𝑑2 + 𝐹𝐻 ∗ 𝑑1
𝑭𝑯 ∗ 𝒅𝟏 + 𝑭𝑽 ∗ 𝒅𝟐
𝑷=
𝑯
𝑥 𝑥 1 2𝑥 3
𝐹𝑉 = ∫0 𝑃 𝑑𝐴 = 𝛾𝑤 ∫0 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 𝛾𝑤 ∫0 2𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥= 𝛾𝑤 3 , 𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 ,x=0 then y=0, and y=H=2,x=1
𝑥
2
𝐹𝑉 = ∫ 𝑃 𝑑𝐴 = 𝛾𝑤
0 3
𝜸𝒘 𝜸𝒘
𝒙 𝟏 𝟐𝒙𝟒 𝜸𝒘 𝟑
𝒅𝟐 𝑭𝑽 = ∫𝟎 𝑷 𝒙𝒅𝑨= 𝜸𝒘 ∫𝟎 𝟐𝒙𝟑 𝒅𝒙 = 𝜸𝒘 = , then 𝒅𝟐 = 𝟐
= 𝟐
𝟐 =𝟒
𝟒 𝟐 𝑭𝑽 𝜸𝒘
𝟑
𝑯𝟐 𝑯 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟒 𝟐 𝟑
𝑭𝑯 ∗𝒅𝟏 +𝑭𝑽 ∗𝒅𝟐 𝜸𝒘 ∗ +𝜸𝒘 ∗ 𝟗𝟖𝟏𝟎∗𝟐∗ × +𝟗𝟖𝟏𝟎∗𝟐∗ ×
𝟐 𝟑 𝟑 𝟒 𝟒 𝟑 𝟑 𝟒
𝑷= = = 17.985KN.
𝑯 𝑯 𝟐

4𝛾 𝑤 4 × 9810 × 2
𝐹𝑤 = 𝑚𝑔 = 𝛾 ∫ 𝑑∀ = 𝛾 𝑤 ∫ 𝑑𝐴 = 𝛾 𝑤 ∫[𝑓(𝑥1 ) − 𝑓(𝑥2 )]𝑑𝑥 = =
3 3
𝐹𝑤 = 26160𝑁.
1 4
𝑑𝑤 = 𝑥̅ = 𝐴 ∫ 𝑥 [𝑓(𝑥1 ) − 𝑓(𝑥2 )]𝑑𝑥 , ∫ 𝑑𝐴 = ∫[𝑓(𝑥1 ) − 𝑓(𝑥2 )]𝑑𝑥 = 3m2
3 3 3
𝑑𝑤 = 𝑥̅ = 4 ∫ 𝑥 [2 − 2𝑥 2 ]𝑑𝑥=4 ∫[2𝑥 − 2𝑥 3 ] 𝑑𝑥 = 4 ∫[2𝑥𝑑𝑥 − 2𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥]
𝑑𝑤 = 𝑥̅ =0.375m.

EXAMPLE: The gate shown is hinged at O and has constant

width, w=5 m. The equation of the surface is x=y2/a, where a=4
m. The depth of water to the right of the gate is D=4 m. Find
the magnitude of the force, Fa, applied as shown, required to
maintain the gate in equilibrium if the weight of the gate is
neglected.
We will take moments about point O after finding the
magnitudes and locations of the horizontal and vertical forces
due to the water. The free body diagram (FBD) of the system is
shown above in part (a). Before proceeding we need to think
about how we compute FV, the vertical component of the fluid force—we have stated that it is
equal (in magnitude and location) to the weight of fluid directly above the curved surface.

𝑫 𝑫 𝑫 𝒚𝟐 𝑫𝟐 𝜸𝒘𝑫𝟐
𝑭𝑯 = ∫𝟎 𝑷 𝒅𝑨 = 𝜸𝒘 ∫𝟎 𝒉 𝒅𝒚 = 𝜸𝒘 ∫𝟎 [𝑫 − 𝒚] 𝒅𝒚 = 𝜸𝒘 [𝑫𝒚 − ] = 𝜸𝒘[𝑫𝟐 − ]=
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝑫 𝑫 𝑫 𝑫 𝟐
̅ 𝑭𝑯 =
𝒚 𝒚 ∫𝟎 𝑷 𝒅𝑨 = 𝜸𝒘 ∫𝟎 𝒉𝒚 𝒅𝒚 = 𝜸𝒘 ∫𝟎 𝒚[𝑫 − 𝒚] 𝒅𝒚== 𝜸𝒘 ∫𝟎 [𝑫𝒚 − 𝒚 ] 𝒅𝒚
𝜸𝒘𝑫𝟑
𝑫𝟑 𝑫𝟑 𝜸𝒘𝑫𝟑 𝟔 𝑫
̅𝑭𝑯 = 𝜸𝒘[ −
𝒚 ]= ̅=
, then 𝒚 𝜸𝒘𝑫𝟐
=
𝟐 𝟑 𝟔 𝟑
𝟐
̅ = 𝑫 − 𝒚𝑹
Or we can calculate 𝒚
𝐼 𝐷 𝑤(𝐷)3
𝑦𝑅 = 𝑦𝑥𝑥𝐴 + 𝑦𝑐 , 𝑦𝑐 = 2 , 𝑦𝑐 = 1, 𝐼𝑥𝑥 = ,
𝑐 12
𝑤(𝐷)3
𝐼 𝐷 𝐷 𝐷 2𝐷
𝑦𝑅 = 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑦𝑥𝑥𝐴 = + 𝐷
12
=2 + 6 = 3 ,
𝑐 2 ∗𝐷∗𝑤
2
2𝐷 𝑫
̅ = 𝑫 − 𝒚𝑹 = 𝑫 −
𝒚 =
3 𝟑
𝐷2 𝐷2
𝑥 𝑥
2 2
𝐹𝑉 = ∫ 𝑃 𝑑𝐴 = 𝛾𝑤 ∫ ℎ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝛾𝑤 ∫ [𝑫 − 𝒚] 𝑑𝑥 = 𝛾𝑤 ∫ [𝑫 − √𝒂𝒙𝟎.𝟓 ] 𝑑𝑥
0 0 0 0

3
2 𝐷3 2 𝐷2 3 𝐷3 2 𝐷3 𝛾𝑤𝐷 3
𝐹𝑉 = 𝛾𝑤[𝐷𝑥 − 3 √𝑎𝑥 2 ]= 𝛾𝑤[ 𝑎 − 3 √𝑎( 𝑎 )2 ]= 𝛾𝑤[ 𝑎 − 3 ]=
𝑎 3𝑎
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝑥̅ 𝐹𝑉 = 𝑥 ∫0 𝑃 𝑑𝐴= 𝛾𝑤 ∫0 ℎ 𝑥𝑑𝑥= 𝛾𝑤 ∫0 [𝐷 − 𝑦] 𝑥𝑑𝑥= 𝛾𝑤 ∫0 [𝐷 − √𝒂𝒙𝟎.𝟓 ] 𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝐷2 𝟓
𝟎.𝟓 𝐷𝑥 2 √𝒂𝒙𝟐 𝐷5 2 𝐷5 𝛾𝑤𝐷 5
𝑥̅ 𝐹𝑉 = 𝛾𝑤 ∫0 [𝐷𝑥 − 𝑥√𝒂𝒙 2 ] 𝑑𝑥= 𝛾𝑤[ − 5 ]= 𝛾𝑤 [2𝑎2 − 5 √𝑎 5 ]=
2 10𝑎2
2 𝑎2
𝛾𝑤𝐷5 𝛾𝑤𝐷5
10𝑎2 10𝑎2 3𝐷 2
𝑥̅ = = 𝛾𝑤𝐷3
=10𝑎 =1.2m.
𝐹𝑉
3𝑎
EXAMPLE: The parabolic gate shown is 2 m wide and
pivoted at O; c=0.25 m-1, D=2 m, and H=3 m. Determine
(a) the magnitude and line of action of the vertical force
on the gate due to the water, (b) the horizontal force
applied at A required to maintain the gate in equilibrium,
and (c) the vertical force applied at A required to
maintain the gate in equilibrium.

𝑫 𝑫 𝑫 𝒚𝟐 𝑫𝟐 𝜸𝒘𝑫𝟐
𝑭𝑯 = ∫𝟎 𝑷 𝒅𝑨 = 𝜸𝒘 ∫𝟎 𝒉 𝒅𝒚 = 𝜸𝒘 ∫𝟎 [𝑫 − 𝒚] 𝒅𝒚 = 𝜸𝒘 [𝑫𝒚 − 𝟐 ] = 𝜸𝒘[𝑫𝟐 − ]=
𝟐 𝟐
𝐹𝐻 = 39.2𝐾𝑁.
𝐷 𝐷 𝐷 𝐷
𝑦̅𝐹𝐻 = 𝑦 ∫0 𝑃 𝑑𝐴 = 𝛾𝑤 ∫0 ℎ𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 𝛾𝑤 ∫0 𝑦[𝐷 − 𝑦] 𝑑𝑦== 𝛾𝑤 ∫0 [𝐷𝑦 − 𝑦 2 ] 𝑑𝑦
𝛾𝑤𝐷3
𝐷3 𝐷3 𝛾𝑤𝐷 3 6 𝐷
𝑦̅𝐹𝐻 = 𝛾𝑤[ 2 − ]= , then 𝑦̅ = 𝛾𝑤𝐷2
=
3 6 3
2
Or we can calculate 𝑦̅ = 𝐷 − 𝑦𝑅
𝐼 𝐷 𝑤(𝐷)3
𝑦𝑅 = 𝑦𝑥𝑥𝐴 + 𝑦𝑐 , 𝑦𝑐 = 2 , 𝑦𝑐 = 1, 𝐼𝑥𝑥 = ,
𝑐 12
𝑤(𝐷)3
𝐼 𝐷 𝐷 𝐷 2𝐷
𝑦𝑅 = 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑦𝑥𝑥𝐴 = + 𝐷
12
=2 + 6 = 3 ,
𝑐 2 ∗𝐷∗𝑤
2
𝟐𝑫 𝑫
̅ = 𝑫 − 𝒚𝑹 = 𝑫 −
𝒚 =
𝟑 𝟑
𝒙 𝒙 √𝑫 √𝑫
𝒄 𝒄
𝑭𝑽 = ∫ 𝑷 𝒅𝑨 = 𝜸𝒘 ∫ 𝒉 𝒅𝒙 = 𝜸𝒘 ∫ [𝑫 − 𝒚] 𝒅𝒙 = 𝜸𝒘 ∫ [𝑫 − 𝒄𝒙𝟐 ] 𝒅𝒙
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
3 3
3
𝑐𝑥 3 𝐷2 𝑐 𝐷 𝛾𝑤𝐷 2
𝐹𝑉 = 𝛾𝑤[𝐷𝑥 − ] = 𝛾𝑤[ 1 − 3 [ 𝑐 ] ]=
2 1 = 73.9𝐾𝑁.
3
𝑐2 𝑐2
𝐷
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 √
𝑐
𝑥̅ 𝐹𝑉 = 𝑥 ∫0 𝑃 𝑑𝐴= 𝛾𝑤 ∫0 ℎ 𝑥𝑑𝑥= 𝛾𝑤 ∫0 [𝐷 − 𝑐𝑥 2 ] 𝑥𝑑𝑥= 𝛾𝑤 ∫0 [𝐷 − 𝑐𝑥 2 ] 𝑥𝑑𝑥

𝐷𝑥 2 𝑐𝑥 4 𝛾𝑤𝐷 2
𝑥̅ 𝐹𝑉 = 𝛾𝑤[ − ]=
2 4 4𝑐
𝜸𝒘𝑫𝟐 𝜸𝒘𝑫𝟐 𝟏
𝟒𝒄 𝟒𝒄 𝟑 𝑫𝟐
̅=
𝒙 = 𝟑 = = 1.06m.
𝑭𝑽 𝟖 𝟏𝟐
𝜸𝒘𝑫𝟐 𝒄
𝟏
𝒄𝟐
If apply the horizontal force at point A then 𝐹𝐻𝐴
𝑭𝑯𝑨 . 𝑯 − 𝒙 ̅ 𝑭𝑽 − 𝒚̅ 𝑭𝑯
𝑥̅ 𝐹𝑉 +𝑦̅𝐹𝐻 73.9×1.06+39.2×0.6667
𝐹𝐻𝐴 = = =34.8KN.
𝐻 3
If apply the vertical force at point A then 𝐹𝑉𝐻𝐴
𝑯
̅ 𝑭𝑽 − 𝒚
𝑭𝑯𝑨 . 𝒍 − 𝒙 ̅𝑭𝑯 , at x=l ,y=H, then l=√ =3.46 m.
𝒄
𝑥̅ 𝐹𝑉 +𝑦̅𝐹𝐻 73.9×1.06+39.2×0.6667
𝐹𝐻𝐴 = = =34.8KN.
𝑙 3.64
  Buoyancy
The same principles used to
compute hydrostatic forces
on surfaces can be applied to
the net pressure force on a
completely submerged or
floating body. The results are
the two laws of buoyancy
discovered by Archimedes in
the third century
1. A body immersed in a fluid
experiences a vertical
buoyant force equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces.
2. A floating body displaces its own weight in the fluid in which it
floats.
This is known as Archimedes’ principle: The buoyant force
acting on a body immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the
fluid displaced by the body, and it acts upward through the
centroid of the displaced volume.

Example: A bar of soap floats on the surface of water, its bottom surface a distance D below the
surface of the water, as shown in figure The bar has a width W, a thickness H and a length L
normal to the plane of figure What is the specific
gravity SG of the soap?

Example: A crane is used to lower weights into the sea (density = 1025 kg/m3) for an underwater
construction project (Fig. Determine the tension in the rope of
the crane due to a rectangular 0.4-m ×0.4-m ×3-m concrete
block (density = 2300 kg/m3) when it is (a) suspended in the air
and (b) completely immersed in water.

 Stability of Immersed and Floating Bodies

We use the “ball on the floor” analogy to explain the fundamental concepts of stability and
instability. Shown in Fig, Case (a) is stable since any small disturbance (someone moves the ball
to the right or left) generates a restoring force (due to gravity) that returns it to its initial position.
Case (b) is neutrally stable because if someone moves the ball to the right or left, it would stay put
at its new location. It has no tendency to move back to its original location, nor does it continue
to move away. Case (c) is a situation in which the ball may be at rest at the moment, but any
disturbance, even an infinitesimal one, causes the ball to roll off the hill—it does not return to its
original position; rather it diverges from it. This situation is unstable.

The rotational stability of an immersed body depends on the relative locations of the center of
gravity G of the body and the center of buoyancy B, which is the centroid of the displaced volume.
An immersed body is stable if the
body is bottom-heavy and thus
point G is directly below point B
(Fig, A rotational disturbance of
the body in such cases produces a
restoring moment to return the
body to its original stable position.
Thus, a stable design for a
submarine calls for the engines and
the cabins for the crew to be located at the lower half in order
to shift the weight to the bottom as much as possible. Hot-air
or helium balloons (which can be viewed as being immersed
in air) are also stable since the cage that carries the load is at
the bottom. An immersed body whose center of gravity G is
directly above point B is unstable, and any disturbance will
cause this body to turn upside down. A body for which G and
B coincide is neutrally stable. This is the
case for bodies whose density is constant
throughout. For such bodies, there is no
tendency to overturn or right themselves,
When the center of gravity G of an
immersed neutrally buoyant body is not
vertically aligned with the center of
buoyancy B of the body, it is not in an
equilibrium state and would rotate to its
stable state, even without any
disturbance.
Example: A 0.25-m-diameter cylinder is 0.25 m long and composed of material with specific
weight 8000 N/m3.Will it float in water with the ends horizontal?
Example: What is buoyant force? What causes it? What is the magnitude of the buoyant force
acting on a submerged body whose volume is V? What are the direction and the line of action of
the buoyant force?
The upward force a fluid exerts on an immersed body is called the buoyant force. The buoyant
force is caused by the increase of pressure in a fluid with depth. The magnitude of the buoyant
force acting on a submerged body whose volume is V is expressed as FB = ρf gV . The direction of
the buoyant force is upwards, and its line of action passes through the centroid of the displaced
volume.

Example: Consider two identical spherical balls submerged in water at different depths. Will the
buoyant forces acting on these two balls be the same or different? Explain.
The magnitude of the buoyant force acting on a submerged body whose volume is V is expressed
as FB = ρf gV, which is independent of depth. Therefore, the buoyant forces acting on two identical
spherical balls submerged in water at different depths is the same.

Example: Consider two 5-cm-diameter spherical balls—one made of aluminum, the other of
iron—submerged in water. Will the buoyant forces acting on these two balls be the same or
different? Explain.
The magnitude of the buoyant force acting on a submerged body whose volume is V is expressed
as FB = ρf gV, which is independent of the density of the body ( ρ f is the fluid density). Therefore,
the buoyant forces acting on the 5-cm diameter aluminum and iron balls submerged in water is
the same.

Example: Consider a 3-kg copper cube and a 3-kg copper ball submerged in a liquid. Will the
buoyant forces acting on these two bodies be the same or different? Explain.
The magnitude of the buoyant force acting on a submerged body whose volume is V is expressed
as FB = ρf gV, which is independent of the shape of the body. Therefore, the buoyant forces acting
on the cube and sphere made of copper submerged in water are the same since they have the
same volume.

Example: Discuss the stability of (a) a submerged and (b) a floating body whose center of gravity
is above the center of buoyancy.
A submerged body whose center of gravity G is above the center of buoyancy B, which is the
centroid of the displaced volume, is unstable. But a floating body may still be stable when G is
above B since the centroid of the displaced volume shifts to the side to a point B’ during a
rotational disturbance while the center of gravity G of the body remains unchanged. If the point
B’ is sufficiently far, these two forces create a restoring moment, and return the body to the
original position.

Example: The density of a liquid is to be determined by an old 1-cm-diameter cylindrical

hydrometer whose division marks are completely wiped out. The hydrometer is first dropped in
water, and the water level is marked. The hydrometer is then dropped into the other liquid, and it
is observed that the mark for water has risen 0.5 cm above the liquid–air interface. If the height
of the water mark is 10 cm, determine the density of the liquid.
Example: Consider a large cubic ice block floating in seawater. The specific gravities of ice and
seawater are 0.92 and 1.025, respectively. If a 10-cm-high portion of
the ice block extends above the surface of the water, determine the
height of the ice block below the surface. Answer: 87.6 cm

Example: The 3-m-wide barge shown in Fig. weighs 20 kN

empty. It is proposed that it carry a 250-kN load. Predict
the draft in: (a) Fresh water (b) Salt water (SG = 1.03)
1 𝑥 1
= 𝑑 ,then x= 2 𝑑
2
1 1 1
We can calculate volume displacement ∀=A.w= [6d+2 (2 𝑑)(𝑑)(2)].w=[6d+2 𝑑 2 ].w
1 3 3
𝐹𝑊 = ∀ × 𝛾= 𝛾 [6d+2 𝑑2 ].w =[20× 103 + 250 × 103 ]= 𝛾 [18d+2 𝑑 2 ]=9810[18d+2 𝑑 2 ]
3 2 270000
𝐹𝑊 = 270000 = 9810[18𝑑 + 2 𝑑2 ], then 3 9810 = 12𝑑 + 𝑑 2 =18.3486, then d= 1.372m.
For sea water 𝛾𝑆𝑊 = 𝑆. 𝐺𝛾𝑊 =1.03× 9810
3 2 270000
𝐹𝑊 = 270000 = 1.03 × 9810[18𝑑 + 2 𝑑2 ],then 3 1.03×9810 = 12𝑑 + 𝑑 2 =17.81,then,d= 1.336m.

Example: A 30-m-long vessel, with cross section shown in Fig,

carries a load of 6000 kN. How far will the water level be from the
top of the vessel if its mass is 100 000 kg?

1
We can calculate volume displacement ∀=A.w= [2 (4)(3)](2)+[h× 8 ×w]
1
𝐹𝑊 = ∀ × 𝛾 = ([2 (4)(3)](2)+[h× 8 ×w]) × 𝛾=[6000× 103 + 100000 × 9.81]
h = 1.465 m. then distance from top = 2 – 1.465 = 0.535 m.
Example: The barge shown in Fig. is loaded such that the center of
gravity of the barge and the load is at the waterline. Is the barge stable?
Example: Is the symmetrically loaded barge shown in Fig. stable? The
center of gravity of the barge and load is located as shown.
1
We can calculate volume displacement ∀=A.w=[6√2 × 2 + 2 6 × 6 ×] × 𝑙
∀=34.97l.

Example: A uniform wooden beam (SG = 0.65) is 10 cm by 10 cm by 3

m and is hinged at A, as in Fig. At what angle 𝜃 will the beam float in
the 20°C water?
2 3
The total beam volume is 3(0.1) =0.03 m , and therefore its weight is W
=(0.65)(9790)(0.03) = 190.9 N, acting at the centroid, 1.5 m down from
point A. Meanwhile, if the submerged length is H, the buoyancy is FB
2
(9790) (0.1) H = 97.9H newton’s, acting at H/2 from the lower end. Sum moments about point A:

Example: The uniform beam in Fig, of size L by h by b and

with specific weight 𝛾𝑏 , floats exactly on its diagonal when
a heavy uniform sphere is tied to the left corner, as shown.
𝛾
Show that this can only happen (a) when 𝛾𝑏 = 3and (b) when
the sphere has size.
Example: A uniform block of steel (SG = 7.85) will “float’’ at a
mercury-water interface as in Fig. What is the ratio of the
distances a and b for this condition?

Example:A slender pole floating in a pond is anchored by a line tied to one end. as shown in
figure. so that the tethered end is submerged and the other extends into the air. The pole lies at an
angle𝜽) with the horizontal. The pole has
a length L. a uniform cross-sectional area
A and a density 𝝆b that is less than the
water density 𝝆w' Derive expressions for
the length D of the submerged portion of
the pole and the tension T in the anchor
line, in terms of the parameters 𝝆b ' 𝝆w, A
and L.

 FLUIDS IN RIGID-BODY MOTION

The forces acting on the fluid element consist of body forces such as gravity that act throughout
the entire body of the element and are proportional to the
volume of the body (and also electrical and magnetic forces,
which will not be considered in this text), and surface forces
such as the pressure forces that act on the surface of the
element and are proportional to the surface area (shear
stresses are also surface forces, but they do not apply in this
case since the relative positions of fluid elements remain
unchanged). The surface forces appear as the fluid element is
isolated from its surroundings for analysis, and the effect of the
detached body is replaced by a force at that location. Note that
pressure represents the compressive force applied on the fluid
element by the surrounding fluid and is always directed to the
surface.
  Special Case 1: Fluids at Rest

 Special Case 2: Free Fall of a Fluid Body

 Acceleration on a Straight Path

EXAMPLE: A rectangular container of water undergoes constant acceleration down an incline as

shown. Determine the slope of the free surface using the
coordinate system shown.
EXAMPLE: A drag racer rests her coffee mug on a horizontal tray while she accelerates at 7
m/s2. The mug is 10 cm deep and 6 cm in diameter and contains
coffee 7 cm deep at rest. (a) Assuming rigid body acceleration
of the coffee, determine whether it will spill out of the mug. (b)
Calculate the gage pressure in the corner at point A if the density
of coffee is 1010 kg/m3.

𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝
𝑑𝑃 = 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑥𝑖 + 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑦𝑗 + 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑧𝑘, and 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑎𝑧 = 0, and
𝑔𝑥 = 𝑔𝑦 = 0, and the total derivative of pressure at open surface equals to zero,

EXAMPLE: The tank shown in Fig. is accelerated to the right. Calculate the acceleration ax
needed to cause the free surface,
shown in Fig, to touch point A. Also,
find pB and the total force acting on
the bottom of the tank if the tank
width is 1 m.
Review Problems
 Conceptual Questions

1-The gate shown is 1.5 m wide and pivoted at O; a=1.0 m-2, D=1.20 m,
and H=1.40 m. Determine (a) the magnitude and moment of the vertical
component of the force about O, and (b) the horizontal force that must
be applied at point A to hold the gate in position.
Answer (FA = 5.71KN)

2- The parabolic gate shown is 2 m wide and pivoted at O; c=0.25 m-1,

D=2 m, and H=3 m. Determine (a) the magnitude and line of action of
the vertical force on the gate due to the water, (b) the horizontal force
applied at A required to maintain the gate in equilibrium, and (c) the
vertical force applied at A required to maintain the gate in equilibrium.
Answer (FAH = 34.8KN, FAV = 30.2KN)

3- Consider the cylindrical weir of diameter 3 m and length 6 m. If the

fluid on the left has a specific gravity of 1.6, and on the right has a
specific gravity of 0.8, find the magnitude and direction of the resultant
force.
Answer (F = 577KN,𝜶 = 𝟒𝟖. 𝟑° 𝒅𝒆𝒈)

3-A block of volume 0.025 m3 is allowed to sink in water as shown.

A circular rod 5 m long and 20 cm2 in cross-section is attached to the
weight and also to the wall. If them rod mass is 1.25 kg and the rod
makes an angle of 12 degrees with the horizontal at equilibrium, what
is the mass of the block?
Answer (𝜶 = 𝟐𝟑. 𝟖° 𝒅𝒆𝒈)

4- The uniform 5-m-long round wooden rod in

Fig is tied to the bottom by a string. Determine
(a) the tension in the string and (b) the specific
gravity of the wood. Is it possible for the given
information to determine the inclination angle
𝜃? Explain.
Answer (T = 39N

5- The uniform rod in Fig. is hinged at point B on the waterline

and is in static equilibrium as shown when 2 kg of lead (SG =
11.4) are attached to its end. What is the specific gravity of the
rod material? What is peculiar about the rest angle = 30?
Answer (SGrod = 0.63N)
6- The balloon in Fig. is filled with helium and pressurized to 135 kPa and
20°C. The balloon material has a mass of 85 g/m2. Estimate (a) the tension
in the mooring line and (b) the height in the standard atmosphere to which
the balloon will rise if the mooring line is cut.

Answer (Z= 12800m)

7- The uniform beam in Fig., of size L by h by b and with specific

weight 𝛾𝑏 , floats exactly on its diagonal when a heavy uniform
sphere is tied to the left corner, as shown. Show that this can only
happen (a) when 𝛾𝑏 = 𝛾/3 and (b) when the sphere has size

Answer ( )

8- A uniform block of steel (SG = 7.85) will “float’’ at a mercury-

water interface as in Fig. What is the ratio of the distances a and b
for this condition.
Answer (a/b = 0.834N)
 Chapter 4
Basic Equations in Integral Form for a
Control Volume
Case Study in Energy and the Environment
Wave Power: Pelamis Wave Energy Converter: As we have seen in earlier Case Studies in Energy
and the Environment, there is a lot of renewable energy in ocean waves that could be exploited. A
good example of a machine for doing this is the Pelamis Wave Energy Converter developed by
Pelamis Wave Power Ltd. In Scotland. Thismachine was the world’s first commercialscale
machine to generate power and supply it to the power grid fromoffshore wave energy, and the first
to be used in a commercial wave farm project.

Schematic of possible Pelamis wave farm. (Picture courtesy of

Pelamis Wave Power Ltd.)
 Basic Laws for a System
 Conservation of Mass

 Newton’s Second Law

 The Angular-Momentum Principle

 The First Law of Thermodynamics

 The Second Law of Thermodynamics

  Relation of System Derivatives to the Control Volume Formulation
We now have the five basic laws expressed as system rate equations. Our task in this section is to
develop a general expression for converting a system rate equation into an equivalent control
volume equation.
 Control Volume and Reynolds Transport Theorem
Reynolds Transport Theorem (RTT)
An analytical tool to shift from describing the laws governing fluid motion using the system concept
to using the control volume concept
Reynolds transport theorem (also known as the Leibniz-Reynolds transport theorem), or in short
Reynolds theorem, is a three-dimensional generalization of the Leibniz integral rule. This theorem
is used to compute derivatives of integrated quantities.
Reynolds transport theorem can be simply stated as - What was already there plus what goes in
minus what comes out is equal to what is there. Reynolds theorem is used in formulating the basic
conservation laws of continuum mechanics, particularly fluid dynamics and large-deformation
solid mechanics. These conservation laws (law of conservation of mass, law of conservation of
linear momentum, and law of conservation of energy) are adopted from classical mechanics
and thermodynamics where the system approach is normally followed. In fluid mechanics, it is
often more convenient to work with control volumes as it is difficult to identify and follow a system
of fluid particles. Thus, there is a need to relate the system equations and corresponding control
volume equations. The link between the two is given by the Reynolds transport theorem. The
theorem is named after Osborne Reynolds (1842–1912).
Imagine a system and a coinciding control volume with a control surface. Reynolds transport
theorem states that the rate of change of an extensive property N, for the system is equal to the
time rate of change of N within the control volume and the net rate of flux of the property N
through the control surface. For an example, the law of conservation of mass states that rate of
change of the property, mass, is equal to the sum of the rate of accumulation of mass within a
control volume and the net rate of flow of mass across the control surface.
The differential forms of these equations with additional assumption of Newton's viscosity law are
commonly known as the Navier-Stokes equations.
System vs. Control Volume
System: A collection of matter of fixed identity
– Always the same atoms or fluid particles – A specific, identifiable quantity of matter
Control Volume (CV): A volume in space through which fluid may flow
– A geometric entity – Independent of mass
Physical Interpretation
It took several pages, but we have reached our goal: We now have a formula that we can use to convert the rate of
change of any extensive property N of a system to an equivalent formulation for use with a control volume.

1- Conservation of Mass
The first physical principle to which we apply this conversion from a system to a control volume
description is the mass conservation principle: The mass of the system remains constant,
  Momentum Equation for Inertial Control Volume
We now wish to obtain a control volume form of Newton’s second law. We use the same procedure
we just used for mass conservation, with one note of caution: the control volume coordinates (with
respect to which we measure all velocities) are inertial; that is, the control volume coordinates
xyz are either at rest or moving at constant speed with respect to an “absolute” set of coordinates
XYZ.
 Useful Equations
 Bernoulli equation
 Chapter 5
Introduction to Differential Analysis of
Fluid Motion
INTRODUCTION
The material in this chapter can be omitted in an introductory course. The subsequent chapters in
this book have been designed to allow two possible routes: The general differential equations
presented in this chapter may be used, or equations unique to a particular geometry may be
derived without referring to these general equations.
Partial differential equations require conditions that specify certain values for the dependent
variables at particular values of the independent variables. If the independent variable is time, the
conditions are called initial conditions; if the independent variable is a space coordinate, the
conditions are boundary conditions. The total problem is referred to as an initial-value problem
or a boundaryvalue problem.
In fluid mechanics the boundary conditions result from:
• The no-slip conditions for a viscous flow. The viscosity causes the fluid to stick to the wall, and
thus the velocity of the fluid at the wall assumes the velocity of the wall. Usually the velocity of
the wall is zero.
• The normal component of velocity in an inviscid flow, a flow in which viscous effects are
negligible. Near a non-porous wall the velocity vector must be tangent to the wall, demanding
that the normal component be zero.
• The pressure in a flow involving a free surface. For problems with a free surface, such as a
flow with a liquid–gas interface, the pressure is known on the interface. This would be the
situation involving wave motion or in a
separated flow involving cavitation.
• The temperature of the boundary or the temperature gradient at the boundary. If the
temperature of the boundary is held constant, the temperature of the fluid next to the boundary
will equal the boundary temperature. If the boundary is insulated, the temperature gradient will
be zero at the boundary.
There are two primary methods used in deriving the differential forms of the fundamental laws.
One method involves the application of Gauss’s theorem, which allows the area integrals of the
basic equations to be transformed to volume integrals; the integrands are then collected under
one integral, which can be set equal to zero.The integration is valid over any arbitrary control
volume, and thus the integrand itself can be set equal to zero, providing us with the differential
form of the basic law. The other approach, the one used in this book, is to identify an
infinitesimal element in space and apply the basic laws directly to that element. Both methods
result in the differential forms of the basic laws; the first method, however, demands the use of
vector and tensor calculus, mathematics that is usually considered unnecessary in a first course
in fluids.We introduce some vector calculus, but it will not be used at the operational level
demanded by Gauss’s theorem.
DIFFERENTIAL CONTINUITY EQUATION
 Motion of a Fluid Particle (Kinematics)
DIFFERENTIAL MOMENTUM EQUATION
General Formulation
Suppose that we do not know the velocity field or the pressure field in an incompressible flow of
interest and we wish to solve differential equations to provide us with that information. The
differential continuity equation is one differential equation to help us toward this end; however, it
has three unknowns, the three velocity components.The differential momentum equation is a vector
equation and thus provides us with three scalar equations. These component equations will aid us
in our attempt to determine the velocity and pressure fields.There is a difficulty in deriving these
equations, however, since we must use the stress components to determine the forces required in
the momentum equation. Let us identify these stress components.
  Euler’s Equations
Good approximations to the components of the stress
tensor for many flows, especially for flow away from
a boundary (flow around an airfoil) or in regions of
sudden change (flow through a contraction) are
displayed by the array
  Navier–Stokes Equations
Many fluids exhibit a linear relationship between the stress components and the velocity gradients.
Such fluids are called Newtonian fluids and include common fluids such as water, oil, and air. If
in addition to linearity, we require that the fluid be isotropic it is possible to relate the stress
components and the velocity gradients using only two fluid properties, the viscosity m and the
second coefficient of viscosity l.The stress–velocity gradient relations, often referred to as the
constitutive equations,5 are stated as follows:
  Fluid Rotation
A fluid particle moving in a general three-dimensional flow field may rotate about all three
coordinate axes. Thus particle rotation is a vector quantity and, in general,
Consider steady, laminar, and incompressible fluid flow between two fixed vertical parallel
plates. If the fluid is moving downward between the two plates, use the Navier–Stokes equations
to determine an expression for the velocity profile.
 Chapter 6
Incompressible Inviscid Flow
 Review:
Momentum Equation for Frictionless Flow: Euler's Equation

Bernoulli Equation: Integration of Euler's Equation Along a Streamline for Steady Flow

Static, Stagnation, and Dynamic Pressures

Inthisequationpiscalledstaticpressure,becauseitisthepressurethatwouldbemeasuredbyaninstrume
ntthatisstaticwithrespecttothefluid.Ofcourse,iftheinstrumentwerestaticwithrespecttoflowingfluid,it
wouldhavemovealongwiththefluid.However,suchameasurementratherdifficulttomakeinapractical
situation.However,weshowedthattherewasnopressurevariationnormaltostraightstreamlines.Thi
sfactmakesitpossibletomeasurethestaticpressureinaflowingfluidusingawallpressure“tap”placedin
aregionwheretheflowstreamlinesarestraightasshowninthefigure.Thepressuretapisasmallhole,drill
edcarefullyinthewall,withitsaxisperpendicularto the surface.
Energy Grade Line and Hydraulic Grade Line
Stream Function and Velocity Potential for Two-Dimensional, Irrotational, Incompressible
Flow: Laplace’s Equation
 Chapter 8
Internal Incompressible Viscous Flow
Fluid flow in circular and noncircular pipes is commonly encountered in practice. The hot and
cold water that we use in our homes is pumped through pipes. Water in a city is distributed by
extensive piping networks. Oil and natural gas are transported hundreds of miles by large
pipelines. Blood is carried throughout our bodies by arteries and veins.
INTRODUCTION
Liquid or gas flow through pipes or ducts is commonly used in heating and cooling applications
and fluid distribution networks. The fluid in such applications is usually forced to flow by a fan or
pump through a flow section. We pay particular attention to friction, which is directly related to
the pressure drop and head loss during flow through pipes and ducts. The pressure drop is then
used to determine the pumping power requirement. A typical piping system involves pipes of
different diameters connected to each other by various fittings or elbows to route the fluid, valves
to control the flow rate, and pumps to pressurize the fluid.
The terms pipe, duct, and conduit are usually used interchangeably for flow sections. In general,
flow sections of circular cross section
are referred to as pipes (especially
when the fluid is a liquid), and flow
sections of noncircular cross section as
ducts (especially when the fluid is a
gas). Small diameter pipes are usually
referred to as tubes. Given this
uncertainty, we will use more
descriptive phrases (such as a circular
pipe or a rectangular duct) whenever
necessary to avoid any misunderstandings
LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOWS
If you have been around smokers, you probably noticed that the cigarette smoke rises in a smooth
plume for the first few centimeters and then
starts fluctuating randomly in all directions
as it continues its rise. Other plumes behave
similarly (Fig). Likewise, a careful
inspection of flow in a pipe reveals that the
fluid flow is streamlined at low velocities
but turns chaotic as the velocity is increased
above a critical value, as shown in Fig. The
flow regime in the first case is said to be
laminar, characterized by smooth
streamlines and highly ordered motion, and
turbulent in the second case where it is
characterized by velocity fluctuations and
highly disordered motion. The transition
from laminar to turbulent flow does not
occur suddenly rather, it occurs over some
region in which the flow fluctuates between
laminar and turbulent flows before it
becomes fully turbulent. Most flows encountered in practice are turbulent. Laminar flow is
encountered when highly viscous fluids such as oils flow in small pipes or narrow passages
The Reynolds number was observed to be a ratio of the inertial force to the viscous force. Hence,
when this ratio becomes large, it is expected that the inertial forces may dominate the viscous
forces. This is usually true when short, sudden geometric changes occur; for long reaches of pipe
or open channels, this is not the situation

THE ENTRANCE REGION

Consider a fluid entering a circular pipe at a uniform velocity. Because of the no-slip condition,
the fluid particles in the layer in contact with the surface of the pipe come to a complete stop. This
layer also causes the fluid particles in the adjacent layers to slow down gradually as a result of
friction. To make up for this velocity reduction, the velocity of the fluid at the midsection of the
pipe has to increase to keep the mass flow rate through the pipe constant. As a result, a velocity
gradient develops along the pipe.

Entry Lengths
The hydrodynamic entry length is usually taken to be the distance from the pipe entrance to where
the wall shear stress (and thus the friction factor) reaches within about 2 percent of the fully
developed value. In laminar flow, the hydrodynamic entry length is
given approximately as
Laminar or Turbulent Flow
First Law of Thermodynamics—The Energy Equation
Derivation of the Energy Equation
Application of the Energy Equation
Comparison of the Energy Equation with the Bernoulli Equation
Dimensional Analysis of Pipe Flow
As noted previously, turbulent flow can be a very complex, difficult topic—one that as yet has
defied a rigorous theoretical treatment. Thus, most turbulent pipe flow analyses are based on
experimental data and semiempirical formulas. These data are expressed conveniently in
dimensionless form.
The overall head loss for the pipe system consists of the head loss due to viscous effects in the
straight pipes, termed the major loss and denoted h L major, and the head loss in the various pipe
components, termed the minor loss and denoted h L minor. That is,

 Major Losses

As was done for laminar flow, the functional representation can be simplified by imposing the
reasonable assumption that the pressure drop should be proportional to the pipe length. (Such a
step is not within the realm of dimensional analysis. It is merely a logical assumption supported
by experiments.) The only way that this can be true is if the l/D dependence is factored out as
Moody chart. Typical roughness values for various new, clean pipe surfaces are given in Table

The following equation is valid for the entire nonlaminar range of the Moody chart In fact, the
Moody chart is a graphical representation of this equation, which is an empirical fit of the pipe
flow pressure drop data. Equation a is called the Colebrook formula.
  Minor Losses
Most pipe systems consist of more than straight pipes. These additional components (valves, bends,
tees, and the like) add to the overall head loss of the system. Such losses are generally termed
minor losses, with the corresponding head loss denoted hL minor.
 Pumps, Fans, and Blowers in Fluid Systems

 Solution of Pipe Flow Problems

Single-Path Systems
1-Why are liquids usually transported in circular pipes?
Analysis Liquids are usually transported in circular pipes because pipes with a circular cross
section can withstand large pressure differences between the inside and the outside without
undergoing any significant distortion.
Discussion Piping for gases at low pressure are often non-circular (e.g., air conditioning and
heating ducts in buildings).
2- What is the physical significance of the Reynolds number? How is it defined for (a) flow in a
circular pipe of inner diameter D and (b) flow in a rectangular duct of cross section a * b?

Reynolds number is the ratio of the inertial forces to viscous forces, and it serves as a criterion
for determining the flow regime. At large Reynolds numbers, for example, the flow is turbulent
since the inertia forces are large relative to the viscous forces, and thus the viscous forces cannot
prevent the random and rapid fluctuations of the fluid. It is defined as follows:

3- Consider a person walking first in air and then in water at the same speed. For which motion
will the Reynolds number be higher?

4-What is hydraulic diameter? How is it defined? What is it equal to for a circular pipe of
diameter D?

5-How is the hydrodynamic entry length defined for flow in a pipe? Is the entry length longer
in laminar or turbulent flow?
6-How does surface roughness affect the pressure drop in a pipe if the flow is turbulent? What
would your response be if the flow were laminar?

7-Consider fully developed flow in a circular pipe with negligible entrance effects. If the length
of the pipe is doubled, the head loss will (a) double, (b) more than double, (c) less than double,
(d) reduce by half, or (e) remain constant.
Analysis In fully developed flow in a circular pipe with negligible entrance effects, if the length
of the pipe is doubled, the head loss also doubles (the head loss is proportional to pipe length in
the fully developed region of flow).
Discussion If entrance lengths are not negligible, the head loss in the longer pipe would be less
than twice that of the shorter pipe, since the shear stress is larger in the entrance region than in the
fully developed region.
8-Someone claims that the volume flow rate in a circular pipe with laminar flow can be
determined by measuring the velocity at the centerline in the fully developed region, multiplying
it by the cross-sectional area, and dividing the result by 2. Do you agree? Explain.

9- Consider fully developed laminar flow in a circular pipe. If the diameter of the pipe is reduced
by half while the flow rate and the pipe length are held constant, the head loss will (a) double,
(b) triple, (c) quadruple, (d) increase by a factor of 8, or (e) increase by a factor of 16.