HISTOLOGY OF;

1. BLOOD
2. BONE
3. MUSCLES &
4. NERVOUS TISSUES

DR O R ASUQUO
 BLOOD
• considered to be a fluid connective tissue
because of the mesenchymal origin of its
cells.
• In human adults about 5 liter of blood
contribute 7-8 % to the body weight of the
individual.
• The contribution of red blood cells
(erythrocytes) to the total volume of the
blood (haematocrit) is about 43%.
• Erythrocytes are the dominant (99%) but not the
only type of cells in the blood.
• Erythrocytes, leukocytes and blood platelets are
referred to as the formed elements of the blood.
• Erythrocytes and blood platelets perform their
functions exclusively in the blood stream.
• Leukocytes reside only temporarily in the blood.

• Leukocytes can leave the blood stream through the

walls of capillaries and venules and enter either
connective or lymphoid tissues.
ERYTHROCYTES
• Do not contain a nucleus.

• They contain haemoglobin,

which fills almost the
entire cytoplasm.

• Erythrocytes are unable to

move actively, but they are
remarkably elastic and can
withstand deformation
• They are typically biconcave disks although their
shape is influenced by osmotic forces.
• The average diameter of the disk is ~7 µm.
• Mature erythrocytes do not contain organelles, and
their cytoplasm looks fairly homogenous.
FUNCTIONS
• Erythrocytes function in the transport of oxygen.
• Haemoglobin, the oxygen binding protein in
erythrocytes, contributes about 30% of the weight
of an erythrocyte.
• The lifespan of an erythrocyte in the bloodstream is
100-120 days.
 LEUKOCYTES
• Leukocytes can be subdivided into
a. Granular leukocytes: neutrophils, basophils and
eosiniphils, and
b. Non-granular leukocytes: monocytes and
lymphocytes.
• In healthy individuals the relative numbers of
circulating leukocyte types are quite stable.
• A differential leukocyte count would typically
produce the following cell frequencies
• ~ 60% neutrophils (50% - 70%)

• ~ 3% eosinophils (>0% - 5%)

• ~ 0.5% basophils (>0% - 2%)

• ~ 5% monocytes (1% - 9%)

• ~ 30% lymphocytes (20% - 40%)

• Changes in their relative numbers indicate that
something abnormal is happening in the organism.

• A larger than usual number of neutrophils

(neutrophilia) would indicate e.g. an acute or
chronic infection.

• . The number of basophils and eosinophils may

increase (eosinophilia orbasophilia) as a
consequence of e.g. allergic disorders.
 GRANULAR LEUKOCYTES
• Granular leukocytes are all approximately the same
size - ~ 12-15 µm in diameter.
• Their nuclei form lobes, and nucleoli cannot be
seen.
• The number of nuclear lobes varies according to cell
type.
• All granulocytes are motile.
• The term granulocytes refers to the presence of
granules in the cytoplasm of these cells.
• The granules correspond to secretory vesicles and
lysosomes.
NEUTROPHIL GRANULOCYTES ( NEUTROPHILS)
• have a very characteristic nucleus.
• It is divided into 3-5 lobes which are
connected by thin strands of chromatin. The
number of lobes increases with cell age.
• Up to 7 lobes can be found in very old
neutrophils.
• Neutrophils (like all other granulocytes,
monocytes and lymphocytes) contain all the
organelles that make up a typical cell.
• they also contain two types of granules.
• Primary granules (or A granules) contain
lysosomal enzymes .
• Secondary granules (or B granules),
the specific granules of the neutrophils,
contain enzymes with strong bactericidal
actions.
• The specific granules of neutrophils stain only
weakly if they are at all visible - they are
"neutral", hence the term neutrophil.
•
 FUNCTIONS
• Neutrophils play a central role in inflammatory
processes.
• Large numbers invade sites of infection in
response to factors (e.g. cytokines) released by
cells which reside at an infection site.
• Neutrophils are the first wave of cells invading
infection sites.
• Receptors in their plama membrane allow them
to recognise foreign bodies, e.g. bacteria, and
tissue debris, which they begin to phagocytose
and destroy.
• The phagocytotic activity of neurophils is further
stimulated if invading microorganisms are "tagged"
with antibodies.
• Neutrophils cannot replenish their store of
granules.
• The cells die once their supply of granules has been
exhausted.
• Dead neutrophils and tissue debris are the major
components of pus.
• Their lifespan is only about one week.
• Lost neutrophils are quickly replenished from a
reserve population in the bone marrow.
EOSINOPHIL GRANULOCYTES (EOSINOPHILS)
• As the term "eosinophil" indicates, these
granules are not neutral but stain red or pink
when eosin or a similar dye is used in the
staining process.
• Their nucleus usually has only two lobes.
• Almost all of the cytoplasm appears filled
with the specific granules of the eosinophils.
• Aside from the usual complement of
organelles, eosinophils contain some large
rounded vesicles (up to 1 µm in diameter) in
their cytoplasm.
• These granules correspond to the eosinophilic
grains that we see in the light microscope.
• FUNCTIONS
• The presence of antibody-antigen complexes
stimulates the immune system.

• Eosinophils phagocytose these complexes, and this

may prevent the immune system from
"overreacting".
•
•
BASOPHIL GRANULOCYTES (BASOPHILS)
• Basophilic granulocytes have 2 or 3 lobed nucleus.
• The lobes are usually not as well defined as in
neutrophilic granulocytes and the nucleus may
appear S-shaped.
• The specific granules of basophils are stained
deeply bluish or reddish-violet.
• The granules are not as numerous as those in
eosinophils.
• The specific granules of basophils (~ 0.5 µm in
diameter) contain heparin, histamine, lysosomal
enzymes and leukotrienes.
 FUNCTIONS
• Heparin and histamine are vasoactive
substances.
• They dilate the blood vessels, make vessel
walls more permeable and prevent blood
coagulation.
• They facilitate the access of other
lymphocytes and of plasma-borne
substances of importance for the immune
response (e.g. antibodies) to a site of
infection.
 NON- GRANULAR LEUCOCYTES
• MONOCYTES
• These cells can be slightly larger than
granulocytes (~ 12-18 µm in diameter).
•
• Their cytoplasm stains usually somewhat stronger
than that of granulocytes.

• Monocyte has a C-shaped nucleus.

 FUNCTIONS
• Once monocytes enter the connective tissue they
differentiate into macrophages.
• At sites of infection macrophages are the dominant
cell type after the death of the invading neutrophils.
• They phagocytose microorganisms, tissue debris
and the dead neutrophils.
• Monocytes also give rise to osteoclasts, which are
able to dissolve bone.
• Osteoclasts are of importance in bone remodelling.
LYMPHOCYTES
• These cells are very variable in size.

• The smallest lymphocytes may be smaller than

erythrocytes (down to ~ 5 µm in diameter).
•
• The largest may reach the size of large granulocytes
(up to 15 µm in diameter).

• Cytoplasm depends on the size of the lymphocyte.

• In small lymphocytes , which are the majority in

the blood, the nucleus may appear to fill the entire
cell.
• Large lymphocytes have a wider rim of cytoplasm
which surrounds the nucleus.

• Both the nucleus and the cytoplasm stain blue (and

darker than in most other cell types in the blood).

• The typical lymphocyte only contains the usual

complement of cellular organelles.

• The appearance of lymphocytes may change

drastically when they are activated
 FUNCTIONS
• Most lymphocytes in the blood stream belong to
either the group of B-lymphocytes (~5%) or the
group of T-lymphocytes (~90%).

• Unless they become activated, the two groups

can not easily be distinguished.

• Upon exposure to antigens by macrophages and T-

helper cells (one special group of T-
lymphocytes) B-lymphocytes differentiate into
antibody producing plasma cells.
•
• The amount of cytoplasm increases and RER fills a
large portion of the cytoplama of plama cells.

• T-lymphocytes represent the "cellular arm" of the

immune response (cytotoxic T cells) and may attack
foreign cells, cancer cells and cells infected by a
virus.
BLOOD PLATELETS (THROMBOCYTES)
• Blood platelets do not contain a nucleus.
• Blood platelets are fragments of the cytoplasm of
very large thrombocyte precursor cells, the
megakaryocytes.
• Like other cells involved in the formation in blood
cells, megakaryocytes are found in the bone
marrow.
• Platelets are about 3 µm long but appear smaller in
the microscope.
• This is because their cytoplasm is divided into two
zones:
• an outer hyalomere, which hardly stains, and
• an inner granulomere, which contains bluish
staining granules.
• mitochondria, ribosomes, lysosomes and a little ER
are present in the thrombocyte granulomere.
• The hyalomere contains cytoskeletal fibres, which
include actin and myosin.
 FUNCTIONS
• Platelets assist in haemostasis, the arrest of
bleeding.
• Serotonin is a potent vasoconstrictor and is
released from thrombocytes.
• It adheres to the walls of a damaged vessels, to
close even small arteries.
• Platelets, which come into contact with
collagenous fibers in the walls of the
vessel swell, become "sticky" and activate other
platelets to undergo the same transformation.
• This cascade of events results in the formation
of a platelet plug (or platelet thrombus).
THE END
 BONE
• Bone is the main component of the
skeleton in the adult human.
• Is a specialised form of dense connective
tissue.
• It gives the skeleton the necessary
rigidity to function as attachment and
lever for muscles and supports the body
against gravity.
 TYPES OF BONE
• Two types of bone can be
distinguished macroscopically;
• TRABECULAR BONE(cancellous or spongy bone)
• Consists of delicate bars and sheets of
bone, trabeculae.
• This branch and intersect to form a sponge like
network.
• The ends of long bones (or epiphyses) consist
mainly of trabecular bone.
• COMPACT BONE
• Does not have any spaces or hollows in the
bone matrix that are visible to the eye.
• Compact bone forms the thick-walled tube of
the shaft (or diaphysis) of long bones, which
surrounds the marrow cavity (or medullary
cavity).
• A thin layer of compact bone also covers the
epiphyses of long bones.
 BONE CELLS
• OSTEOPROGENITOR CELLS (or stem
cells of bone)
• are located in the periosteum and
endosteum.
• They are very difficult to distinguish
from the surrounding connective
tissue cells.
• They differentiate into osteoblasts.
• OSTEOBLASTS (or bone forming cells).
• Osteoblasts may form a low columnar
"epitheloid layer" at sites of bone
deposition.
• contain plenty of rough
endoplasmatic reticulum (collagen
synthesis) and a large Golgi apparatus.
• As they become trapped in the
forming bone they differentiate into
osteocytes.
• OSTEOCYTES.
• Osteocytes contain less endoplasmatic
reticulum and are somewhat smaller than
osteoblasts.
• OSTEOCLASTS
• are very large (up to 100 µm)
• multi-nucleated bone-resorbing cells.
• They arise by the fusion of monocytes
(macrophage precursors in the blood) or
macrophages.
• attach themselves to the bone matrix and
• form a tight seal at the rim of the
attachment site.
• Osteoclasts are often seen within the
indentations of the bone matrix that are
formed by their activity (resorption bays or
Howship's lacunae).
 HISTOLOGICAL ORGANISATION OF BONE
• COMPACT BONE
• Compact bone consists almost entirely of
extracellular substance, the matrix.
• Osteoblasts deposit the matrix in the
form of thin sheets which are
called lamellae.
• Lamellae are microscopical structures.
• Collagen fibres within each lamella run
parallel to each other.
• Osteoblasts are encased in small
hollows within the matrix,
the lacunae.
• Osteocytes have several thin
processes known as the canaliculi
• canaliculi extend from the lacunae
into small channels within the bone
matrix.
• Canaliculi provide the means for the
osteocytes to communicate with each
other.
• In mature compact bone lamellae form
concentric rings around larger
longitudinal canals within the bone
tissue.
• These canals are called Haversian canals.
• Haversian canals typically run parallel to
the surface and along the long axis of the
bone.
•A second system of canals,
called Volkmann's canals, penetrates the
bone.
• These canals establish connections of the
Haversian canals with the inner and outer
surfaces of the bone.
• Vessels in Volkmann's canals
communicate with vessels in the
Haversian canals.
 TRABECULAR BONE
• The matrix of trabecular bone is also deposited in
the form of lamellae.
• In mature bones, trabecular bone will also be
lamellar bone.
• However,lamellae in trabecular bone do not form
Haversian systems.
• Lamellae of trabecular bone are deposited on pre-
existing trabeculae depending on the local demands
on bone rigidity.
• Osteocytes, lacunae and canaliculi in trabecular
bone resemble those in compact bone
 ASSIGNMENT

WRITE ON THE FORMATION OF

BONE
 MUSCLES
Three structurally and functionally distinct
types of muscle are found in vertebrates:
1.Smooth muscle,
2.Skeletal muscle and
3.Cardiac muscle.
 SMOOTH MUSCLE
•Consists of spindle shaped cells of variable size.
• The largest occur in the uterus during pregnancy
(12x600 µm).
• The smallest are found around small arterioles
(1x10 µm).
•Cells contain one centrally placed nucleus.
•The innervation of smooth muscle is provided by
the autonomic nervous system.
•Smooth muscle makes up the visceral or involuntary
muscle.
•Cytoplasm contains actin and myosin microfilaments
 SKELETAL MUSCLE
• Skeletal muscle consists of very long tubular cells,
which are also called muscle fibres.
• The average length of skeletal muscle cells in humans
is about 3 cm
• Their diameters vary from 10 to 100 µm.
• Skeletal muscle fibres contain many peripherally
placed nuclei.
Skeletal muscle fibres show in many preparations
characteristic cross-striations. It is therefore also
called striated muscle.
• Skeletal muscle is innervated by the somatic nervous
system.
• Skeletal muscle makes up the voluntary muscle.
• The regular organisation of the myofilaments gives
rise to the cross-striation.
• This characterises skeletal and cardiac muscle.
• Sets of individual "stria" correspond to the smallest
contractile units of skeletal muscle, the sarcomeres.
• Rows of sarcomeres form the myofibrils, which
extend throughout the length of the skeletal muscle
fibre.
• Depending on the distribution and interconnection
of myofilaments a number of "bands" and "lines"
can be distinguished in the sarcomeres
• I-band - actin filaments,
• A-band - myosin filaments
which may overlap with
actin filaments,
• H-band - zone of myosin
filaments only (no overlap
with actin filaments) within
the A-band,
• Z-line - zone of apposition of
actin filaments belonging to
two neighbouring
sarcomeres
• M-line - band of connections
between myosin filament
 CARDIAC MUSCLE
• Cardiac muscle, the myocardium, consists of muscle
cells, cardiomyocytes, with one centrally placed
nucleus.
• Nuclei are oval, rather pale and located centrally in the
muscle cell which is 10 - 15 µm wide.
• Cardiac muscle cells exhibit cross-striations.
• Cardiac muscle cells excitation is mediated by
rythmically active modified cardiac muscle cells.
• Cardiac muscle is innervated by the autonomic nervous
system.
• Cardiac muscle is for these reasons also
called involuntary striated muscle.
• the cross-striations in cardiac muscle are less
distinct
• cardiac muscle cells often branch at acute angles
and are connected to each other by specialisations
of the cell membrane in the region of
the intercalated discs.
• Intercalated discs invariably occur at the ends of
cardiac muscle cells in a region corresponding to
the Z-line of the myofibrils
 NERVOUS TISSUE
• The nervous system consists of all
nervous tissue in the body.
• It is divided anatomically into
• The CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM and
• The PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.
 CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)
• The CNS consists of;
• the brain, which is enclosed in the skull, and
• the spinal cord, which is contained within the
vertebral canal.
• Nervous tissue of the CNS does not contain
connective tissue other than that in the three
meninges (dura mater, arachnoid membrane and
pia mater) and in the walls of large blood vessels
• The two major classes of cells that make up the
nervous tissue are nerve cells, neurones, and
supporting cells, glia.
 NEURONS
• The vast majority of neurones are generated before
birth.
• Are generally large cells.
• Neurons have long processes and a cell body.
• The long processes extend from the part of the cell
body around the nucleus, the perikaryon or soma.
• The processes can be divided into two;
• Axons and
• Dendrites
• Most neurones have a light, large nucleus with a
distinct nucleolus.
• The cytoplasm of many neurones contains fairly
large amounts of rough endoplasmatic reticulum.
• These aggregate within the cytoplasm of the
neurone to form Nissl-bodies.
• Nissl-bodies are prominent in motor neurones
located in the ventral horn of the grey matter of the
spinal cord.
 GLIA
• CNS tissue contains several types of non-
neuronal, supporting cells, neuroglia.
• Made up of;
• Astrocytes
• Oligodendrocytes
• Microglia
• Ependymal cells
 ASTROCYTES
• Are star-shaped cells.
• Their processes are often in contact with a blood vessel
(perivascular foot processes).
• Astrocytes provide mechanical and metabolic support
to the neurones of the CNS.
• They participate in the maintenance of the composition
of the extracellular fluid.
• They are not directly involved in the process of
communication between neurones
• They may be involved in the removal of transmitters
from synapses and the metabolism of transmitters.
• Astrocytes are also the scar-forming cells of the CNS.
OLIGODENDROCYTES (OR OLIGOGLIA)
• Have fewer and shorter processes.

• Oligodendrocytes form myelin sheath around

axons in the CNS and are the functional
homologue of peripheral Schwann cells.

• Oligodendrocytes may, in contrast to Schwann

cells in the periphery, form parts of the
myelin sheath around several axons.
 MICROGLIA
• Are small cells with complex shapes.
• Microglia are, in contrast to neurones and the
other types of glial cells, of mesodermal origin.
• They are derived from the cell line which also
gives rise to monocytes, i.e. macrophage
precursors which circulate in the blood stream.
• In the case of tissue damage, microglia can
proliferate and differentiate into phagocytotic
cells.
 EPENDYMAL CELLS
• The ventricles of the brain and the central
canal of the spinal cord are lined
with ependymal cells.
• The cells are often ciliated and form a simple
cuboidal or low columnar epithelium.
• The lack of tight junctions between
ependymal cells allows a free exchange
between cerebrospinal fluid and nervous
tissue.
 PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)
• The PNS comprises all nervous tissue outside the
brain and spinal cord.
• It consists of groups of neurones (ganglion cells),
called GANGLIA, networks of nerve fibres,
called PLEXUSES, and bundles of parallel nerve
fibres that form the NERVES and NERVE ROOTS.
• Nerve fibres, which originate from neurones within
the CNS and pass out of the CNS in cranial and
spinal nerves, are called EFFERENT OR MOTOR
FIBERS.
• Nerve fibres which originate from nerve cells
outside the CNS but enter the CNS by way of the
cranial or spinal nerves are
called AFFERENT OR SENSORY NERVE FIBRES.
 FUNCTIONS OF NEUROGLIA
• THEY PROVIDE MECHANICAL SUPPORT TO
NEURONS.
• THEY SERVE AS INSULATORS AND PREVENT
NEURONAL IMPULSES FROM SPREADING IN
UNWANTED DIRECTIONS.
• THEY HELP NEURONAL FUNCCTION BY
MAINTAINING A SUITABLE METABOLIC
ENVIRONMENT FOR THE NEURONS.
• THEY ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE REPAIR OF
DAMAGED AREAS OF NERVOUS TISSUE.
• OLIGODENDROCYTES PROVIDE MYELIN SHEATHS TO
NERVE FIBRES WITHIN THE CNS.
• EPENDYMAL CELLS ARE INVOLVED IN EXCHANGES
OF MATERIALS BETWEEN THE BRAIN AND THE CSF.
 PERIPHERAL NERVES
• Afferent, sensory fibres enter the spinal cord via
the dorsal roots.
• Efferent, motor fibres leave the spinal cord via the
ventral roots.
• Dorsal and ventral roots merge to form the spinal
nerves, which consequently contain both sensory
and motor fibres.
• As the spinal nerves travel into the periphery they
split into branches and the exact composition of
the nerve in terms of motor and sensory fibres is,
determined by the structures the nerve will
innervate.
 FIBRE TYPES IN PERIPHERAL NERVES
• TYPE A FIBRES (myelinated) are 4 - 20 µm in
diameter and conduct impulses at high velocities
(15 - 120 m per second). Examples: motor fibers,
which innervate skeletal muscles, and sensory
fibres.
• TYPE B FIBRES (myelinated) are 1 - 4 µm in
diameter and conduct impulses with a velocity of 3
- 14 m per second. Example: preganglionic
autonomic fibres.
• TYPE C FIBRES (unmyelinated) are 0.2 - 1 µm thick
and conduct impulses at velocities ranging from 0.2
to 2 m per second. Examples: autonomic and
sensory fibres.
THANK YOU FOR YOUR
ATTENDING THESE
LECTURES. GOD BLESS