MA1301 Chapter 1

MA1301 Introductory Mathematics
Chapter 1
Sequences and Series
TAN BAN PIN
National University of Singapore
TAN BAN PIN MA1301 Introductory Mathematics 1 / 71

Overview
Infinite Sequences
Definition of Sequence
Series and the Sigma Notation
Arithmetic Sequences/Arithmetic Progressions
Geometric Sequences/Geometric Progressions
Infinite Geometric Series
Binomial Theorem/Generalised Binomial Theorem
Telescoping Series/Telescoping Sum

Sequence
A sequence is an infinite list of numbers written in a definite order.
2, 4, 8, 16, 32, · · ·
The numbers in the list are called the terms of the sequence.
How can we figure out the 10th term in this sequence?
How to find a formula for the sequence,

i.e., a formula for how the nth term depends on n.

Different Ways of Writing a Sequence
It’s often clearer when writing a sequence to provide a formula for the nth
term immediately.
One method is to include the formula among the list of terms.
2, 4, 8, 16, 32, · · · , 2n , · · ·
Sometimes, it is convenient to write only the formula for a sequence.

The convention is that any formula surrounded by braces specifies a
sequence
{2n }∞
n=1 or simply {2n }

When talking about a sequence in general, we write the terms using
variables.
a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , · · · , an , · · ·
Such a sequence may also be written using braces.
{an }∞
n=1 or simply {an }

COMMON SEQUENCES
{2n } : 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, · · ·

{3n } : 3, 9, 27, 81, 243, 729, · · ·
{n2 } : 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, · · ·
{n3 } : 1, 8, 27, 64, 125, 216, · · ·
{n!} : 1, 2, 6, 24, 120, 720, · · ·
The last of these is the sequence of factorials, which you may not be
familiar with.
The nth term in this sequence (written n!, and pronounced ”n factorial”)
is the product of all the whole numbers between 1 and n. For example:
5! = 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 × 5 = 120.

Example 1
Find the nth term of the following sequences:

(i) 72 , 92 , 112 , 132 , · · ·
(ii) 13, 17, 21, 25, · · ·

Fibonacci Sequence
{1, 1, 2, 3, 5, · · · }
Let fn denote the nth term, then
f1 = 1, f2 = 1, f3 = f2 + f1 = 2, f4 = f3 + f2 = 3, ···
In general, we have the following recurrence equation (or difference

equation)
fn+2 = fn + fn+1

Fibonacci Sequence
{1, 1, 2, 3, 5, · · · }
Let fn denote the nth term, then
f1 = 1, f2 = 1, f3 = f2 + f1 = 2, f4 = f3 + f2 = 3, ···
In general, we have the following recurrence equation (or difference

equation)
fn+2 = fn + fn+1
For interest
It can be shown that
√ !n √ !n !
1 1+ 5 1− 5
fn = √ −
5 2 2
√
1+ 5
The number 2 is known as the golden ratio
Example 2
The sequence of real numbers {x1 , x2 , · · · } is such that x1 = 1 and

xn+1 = (n + 1)xn for all positive integers n.
Find the values of xn for n = 2, 3 and 4.
Write down an expression for xn in terms of n.

A series is built from a sequence, but differs from it in that the terms are
added together.
2, 4, 8, 16, 32, · · · is a sequence,
2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 + · · · is a series.

Series: sum of terms of a sequence

Let u1 , u2 , · · · , un be a sequence.
Then u1 + u2 + · · · + un is called the nth partial sum of the sequence and
is denoted by Sn .
Sn = u1 + u2 + · · · + un
Result: u1 = S1 and un = Sn − Sn−1 for n > 2.

Example 3
Given that the sum of the first n terms of a sequence is given by

Sn = n(n + 1), find the first term and the nth term.

The Sigma Notation
n
X
ui = um + um+1 + um+2 + · · · + un
i=m
Since Sn = u1 + u2 + · · · + un
n
X
we can write Sn = ui
i=1

Example 4
5
X i
(i) =
i=2
i + 1
3 p
X
(ii) r2 + 1 =
r=0
X
1 1 1 1
(iii) 5 + 6 + 7 + ··· + 99 =

X
1 1 1 1
(iii) 5 + 6 + 7 + ··· + 99 =

2 4 8 16 1024
(iv) 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ··· + 10

√ √ √
1×2+ 2×3+ 3 × 4 + · · · + to nth term =
P
(v)

Fact For any constants α, β
n
X n
X n
X
(αur + βvr ) = α ur + β vr
r=m r=m r=m
100
X √ 100
X X100 √
Example: (3t2 − 4 t) = 3 t2 − 4 t
t=5 t=5 t=5
Fact For any constant C,

n
X
C = C(n − m + 1)
r=m

Example 5
n
X 1
It is given that r2 = n(n + 1)(2n + 1). Find the following
r=1
6
n
X
(i) (4r2 + 3) (ii) 1012 + 1022 + 1032 + · · · + 2002
r=1

Arithmetic Sequence/Arithmetic Progression (A.P.)
u1 , u2 , u3 · · · is an A.P.
a, a + d, a + 2d, · · ·
Arithmetic Sequences
{an } is an Arithmetic Sequence with Common Difference d if
the difference of any two consecutive terms is d.
d = a2 − a1 = a3 − a2 = a4 − a3 = · · · .
an+1 − an = d for all n ∈ Z+ .
Let {an } be an Arithmetic Sequence.
Let a = a1 be the first term and d be the common difference.
a1 = a;
a2 = a1 + d = a + d;
a3 = a2 + d = (a + d) + d = a + 2d;
a4 = a3 + d = (a + 2d) + d = a + 3d;
a5 = a4 + d = (a + 3d) + d = a + 4d;
···
an = a + (n − 1)d for all n ∈ Z+
The Set of Positive Integers is denoted by Z+ .

Arithmetic Sequence/Arithmetic Progression (A.P.)
u1 , u2 , u3 · · · is an A.P.
a, a + d, a + 2d, · · ·
u1 = a is the first term

d = un − un−1 is the common difference
Note that
x, y and z are three consecutive terms of an arithmetic progression
⇔y−x=z−y

Example 6
Find the value of x for which 3x−1 , 3x and 3x + 6 are consecutive terms of
an arithmetic sequence.

Sum of Arithmetic Sequences
Example. Find the sum of the first 1000 terms of

arithmetic sequence: 12, 15, 18, 21, · · ·
Solution. First term: a = 12; Common difference: d = 3.
The 1000th term: a + 999d = 12 + 999 × 3 = 3009.
12 +15 +18 + · · · +3003 +3006 +3009
+3009 +3006 +3003 + · · · +18 +15 +12
3021 +3021 +3021 + · · · +3021 +3021 +3021
Sum ×2 = 3021 × 1000 = 3021000
Sum = 3021000 ÷ 2 = 1510500
Sum of an Arithmetic Sequence:
(First Term + Last Term) × Number of Terms ÷2

Formulae
Let un and sn denote the nth term and sum of the first n terms of the
arithmetic sequence {a, a + d, a + 2d, · · · } respectively
un = a + (n − 1)d
sn = n2 [2a + (n − 1)d]
sn = n2 (u1 + un )
un −u1
n= d +1

Example 7
Find the sum of all multiples of 7 between 100 and 300.

Example 8
Given an arithmetic sequence such that

(i) the fifth term is 41, and
(ii) the sum of the third and fourth term is 70,
find the eighth term of the arithmetic sequence.

Example 9
Sum all the positive terms in the sequence
2036, 2016, 1996, 1976, 1956, · · ·

Example 10
Find the value of n such that the sum of the first n terms of the sequence
lg 3, lg 27, lg 243, · · ·
first exceeds 150.
(For this course, lg x denotes log10 x.)

Geometric Sequences (Progressions)
Examples
Consider a segment of length 1.

Cut half on the first day.
Cut half of the remaining in the second day.
In general, cut half of the remaining everyday.
How much have we cut by the 100th day?
100
1 1 1 1 1
X 1
2 + 2 2 + 2 3 + 2 4 + · · · + 2 100 = i
i=1
2

Examples
Consider an 8 × 8 chessboard.
Put 1 grain of rice in the first square of the chessboard.
Doubling the number in the next square.
How much rice do we need to fill the chessboard?
64
X 1
1 + 2 + 22 + 23 + 24 + · · · + 263 = i−1
i=1
2

The sequence
a, ar, ar2 , ar3 , · · ·
is called a geometric sequence (or geometric progression) and is denoted
by G.P.
Geometric Sequences
{an } is a Geometric Sequence with Common Ratio r if
the ratio of any two Consecutive Terms is r.
a2 a3 a4 an an+1
r= = = = ··· = = = ···
a1 a2 a3 an−1 an
Let {an } be the First Term and r be the Common Ratio:
a1 = a;
a2 = a1 r = ar;
a3 = a2 r = (ar)r = ar2 ;
a4 = a3 r = (ar2 )r = ar3 ;
a5 = a4 r = (ar3 )r = ar4 ;
···
an = arn−1
We always assume that a 6= 0.
Example 11
A geometric sequence is given such that

(i) the first term exceeds the third term by 112, and
(ii) the second term exceeds the fourth term by 84.
Find the first term and the common ratio.
Find also the number of terms which exceed 50.

Sum of Geometric Sequences
A geometric sequence with first term a and common ratio r:

a, ar, ar2 , ar3 , · · · , arn−1 , · · ·
What is the sum of the first n terms?
Solution. Consider the sum, S5 , of the first 5 terms:
S5 = a + ar + ar2 + ar3 + ar4 .
rS5 = ar + ar2 + ar3 + ar4 + ar5 .
S5 − rS5 = (a + ar + ar2 + ar3 + ar4 ) − (ar + ar2 + ar3 + ar4 + ar5 )

= a − ar5 .
a
(1 − r)S5 = a(1 − r5 ) ⇒ S5 = (1 − r5 )
1−r

A geometric sequence with first term a and common ratio r:

a, ar, ar2 , ar3 , · · · , arn−1 , · · ·
What is the sum of the first n terms?
Sum of geometric Sequence:
The sum of the first n terms is
a
Sn = (1 − rn ), (r 6= 1)
1−r
If r = 1, then every term is a, and the sum is
Sn = na
(
a
1−r (1 − rn ), if r 6= 1,
Conclusion: Sn =
na, if r = 1.

Remark
Sn , the sum of the first n terms of the sequence, is given by
a(1 − rn ) a(rn − 1)
Sn = = .
1−r r−1
Note that
x, y and z are three consecutive terms of an geometric progression
⇔ xz = y 2

Example 12
1 1 1
Sum the series 64 + 16 + 4 + 1 + · · · + 4123

Example 13
Find the least n so that the sum of the first n terms of the geometric
sequence
5 6
, 1, , · · ·
6 5
exceeds 30.

Example 14
The second, fifth and ninth terms of an arithmetic progression with

non-zero common difference are consecutive terms of a geometric
progression. Find
(i) the common ratio of the geometric progression
(ii) the ratio S20 : S10 , where Sn is the partial sum of the arithmetic
progression.

Infinite Geometric Series (Sum to infinity)
Geometric Series
A Geometric Series is the series associated to a Geometric Sequence.
If the first term is a, and the common ratio is r.
S∞ = a + ar + ar2 + ar3 + ar4 + · · · + arn−1 + · · · .
(
a
1−r (1 − rn ), if r 6= 1,
Recall that Sn =
na, if r = 1.
Suppose −1 < r < 1. Then
n → ∞ ⇒ rn → 0 ⇒ 1 − rn → 1 ⇒ Sn → a
1−r
·1= a
1−r
.
Conclusion:
a
If −1 < r < 1, S∞ =
1−r
If r 6 −1 or r > 1, S∞ does NOT exist.
If the sum to infinity S∞ exists, we say that the series converges.
Geometric series converges for −1 < r < 1.

Examples
Consider a segment of length 1.
Cut half on the first day.
Cut half of the the remaining everyday.
How much have we cut by the 100th day?
Recall that first term a = 21 , common ratio r = 12 .
a
Sn = −
1−r (1 h rn ).
1
i
1 100 1

S100 = 2
1− 12
1− 2 =1− 2100
1
In general, Sn = 1 − 2n
As n gets larger, Sn gets close to 1.

Geometric Series
Express 0.321321321321 · · · as a rational number.

0.321321321321 · · · is a recurring decimal number.
Method 1:
0.321321321321 · · · = 0.321
+ 0.000321
+ 0.000000321
+ 0.000000000321
+ ···
Geometric series with first term 0.321 & common ratio 0.001.
a 0.321 0.321 107
S∞ = 1−r = 1−0.001 = 0.999 = 333 .

Geometric Series
Express 0.321321321321 · · · as a rational number.
0.321321321321 · · · is a recurring decimal number.
Method 2: Let S = 0.32132132131 · · · .
1000S = 321.321312321321321 · · ·
−S = 0.321321321321321 · · ·
999S = 321.000000000000000 · · ·
321 107
999S = 312 ⇒ S = 999 = 333 .
Example. Express 1.123232323 · · · as a rational number.
S = 1.1 + (0.023232323 · · · )
11
= + (0.023 + 0.00023 + 0.0000023 + · · · )
10
11 0.023 11 23 556
= + = + = .
10 1 − 0.01 10 990 495
Geometric Series
S = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 + · · · (−1 < x < 1).

Method 1: Geometric series: first term 1, common ratio x.
a 1
S= 1−r
= 1−x
.
Method 2:
S = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 + · · ·
−xS = x + x2 + x3 + x4 + · · ·
S − xS = 1
1
S(1 − x) = 1 ⇒ S =
1−x
Examples.
1 1 1 1
1+ 3 + 32 + 33 + ··· = 1− 13
= 32 .
1
1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + · · · + 2n + · · · = 1−2 = −1 WRONG!

Example 15
Determine whether the following geometric series converge or diverge (=

does not converge). Find the sum to infinity of any series that converges.
(i) 999 + 333 + 111 + · · ·
1 1 1
(ii) 32 + 16 + 8 + ···
(iii) e2011 + e2010 + e2009 + · · ·

Example 16
The geometric series

1 1
+ + ···
x2 −4 x+2
has a sum to infinity. Find the range of values of x.

More on Geometric Series
For a geometric series with first term = 1 and common ratio = x

∞
1 X
2
= 1 + x + x + ··· = xr
1−x r=0
provided −1 < x < 1
We can use the above result to express certain functions as an infinite

series.

Example 17
Express the following as an infinite series of the form
a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · ·
giving the first three non-zero terms. In each case, find the range of
values of x for which the series is valid.
3
(i) 4−5x
(ii) 1−x
2+x

Binomial Theorem
It is not difficult to verify the following identities:

(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 .
(a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3 .
In general, what is (a + b)n for every positive integer n?
Binomial Theorem:
! ! !
n n 0 n n−1 1 n n−2 2
(a + b)n = a b + a b + a b + ···
0 1 2
! !
n n 0 n
+ a1 bn−1 + a b .
n−1 n

n n!
= , where n! = 1 × 2 × · · · × n.
r r!(n − r)!

Binomial Theorem
!
n n!
= r!(n−r)! is the Binomial Coefficient, 0 6 r 6 n.
r
It represents the number of ways to form a group of r people from n
people, read as ”n choose r”.
For example, choose 2 letters from {A, B, C, D, E}:
{A, B}, {A, C}, {A, D}, {A, E},
{B, C}, {B, D}, {B, E},
{C, D}, {C, E},
{D,
E}.
5 5! 5! 120
= 2!(5−2)! = 2!×3! = 2×6 = 10.
2
In a Scientific
Calculator,
n
can be evaluated using nCr
r

Binomial Theorem
Pascal’s Triangle: Each number is the sum of the two above.
For example,

4 4 4 4 4
= 1, = 4, = 6, = 4, =1
0 1 2 3 4

5 5 5 5 5 5
= 1, = 5, = 10, = 10, = 5, =1
0 1 2 3 4 5

Binomial Theorem
The expansion of (a + b)n is the sum of the terms:

n n−r r
a b r = 0, 1, 2, · · · , n.
r
Example. (a + b)4 = a4 + 4a3 b + 6a2 b2 + 4ab3 + b4

4 4−0 0
r=0: a b = a4
0

4 4−1 1
r =1: a b = 4a3 b
1
4 4−2 2
r =2: a b = 6a2 b2
2
4 4−3 3
r =3: a b = 4ab3
3
4 4−4 4
r =4: a b = b4
4

Binomial Theorem
Example. (a + b)5 = a5 + 5a4 b + 10a3 b2 + 10a2 b3 + 5ab4 + b5

5 5−0 0
r =0: a b = a5
0
5 5−1 1
r =1: a b = 5a4 b
1

5 5−2 2
r =2: a b = 10a3 b2
2

5 5−3 3
r =3: a b = 10a2 b3
3

5 5−4 4
r =4: a b = 5ab4
4
5 5−5 5
r =5: a b = b5
5
Exercises: Find (a + b)6 and (a + b)7 .

Examples
Expand (3 + 2x)5 .
Recall that (a + b)5 equals

5 5 0 5 4 1 5 3 2 5 2 3 5 1 4 5 0 5
a b + a b + a b + a b + a b + a b
0 1 2 3 4 5
= a5 + 5a4 b + 10a3 b2 + 10a2 b3 + 5ab4 + b5
Let a = 3 and b = 2x. Then
(3 + 2x)5 = (3)5 + 5(3)4 (2x) + 10(3)3 (2x)2 + 10(3)2 (2x)3

+ 5(3)(2x)4 + (2x)5
= 243 + 5 · 81 · 2x + 10 · 27 · 4x2 + 10 · 9 · 8x3
+ 5 · 3 · 16x4 + 32x5
= 243 + 810x + 1080x2 + 720x3
+ 240x4 + 32x5 .

Examples
Find the coefficient of x3 in (3 + 2x)6 .
By Binomial Theorem, (3 + 2x)6 is the sum of

6
(3)6−r (2x)r , r = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
r

6
Separate the coefficients: 36−r 2r · xr .
r
Coefficient of x3 : Let r = 3.

6
36−3 23 = 20 · 27 · 8 = 4320.
3

Examples
12
Find the coefficient of x−9 in 3x2 − 2
x .
2 12
12
= (3x2 ) + − x2

3x2 − x .
By Binomial Theorem, it is the sum of

12 2 12−r 2 r

(3x ) −x , r = 0, 1, 2, · · · , 12.
r

12
(3)12−r (−2)r · (x2 )12−r (x−1 )r
r

12
(3)12−r (−2)r · x24−3r .
r
Let 24 − 3r = −9. Then 3r = 24 + 9 = 33 ⇒ r = 11.

12
(3)12−11 (−2)11 = 12 × 3 × (−2048) = −73728.
11
Examples
12
2
Find the constant term in 3x2 − x .
2 12
12
= (3x2 ) + − x2

3x2 − x .
By Binomial Theorem, it is the sum of

12 r
(3x2 )12−r − x2 , r = 0, 1, 2, · · · , 12.
r

12
(3)12−r (−2)r · x24−3r , r = 0, 1, 2, · · · , 12.
r
Constant term is the coefficient of 1 = x0 .
Let 24 − 3r = 0. Then r = 8.

12
(3)12−8 (−2)8 = 495 × 81 × 256 = 10264320.
8

Generalized Binomial Coefficients
Recall that for all integers 0 6 r 6 n,

!
n n! 1 1 × 2 × ··· × n
= = ×
r r!(n − r)! r! 1 × 2 × · · · × (n − r)
1 1 × 2 × · · · × (n − r) × (n − r + 1) × · · · × n
= ×
r! 1 × 2 × · · · × (n − r)
(n − r + 1) × (n − r + 2) × · · · × (n − 1) × n
= .
r!
We allow n to be any number, and define

n (n−r+1)×(n−r+2)×···×(n−1)×n n(n−1)(n−2)···(n−r+1)
= r! = 1×2×3×···×r .
r
The number of factors in the numerator is r.
For example,
1
1 )(− 1 )(− 3 )
(2
2 2 2 1
= 3!
= 16
.
3

Find the value of: !
5
3
4
!
−6
5

Generalized Binomial Theorem
n(n−1) 2 n(n−1)(n−2) 3
(1 + a)n = 1 + na + 2! a + 3! a + ···,
n is not a nonnegative integer, and −1 < a < 1.
We may use the sum of the first few terms to obtain an approximation.
1
1−x = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + · · · , −1 < x < 1.
1
1−x ≈ 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 .
For example, let x = 13 .
1
L.H.S. = 1 = 1.5
1− 3
1 1 1 1 121
R.H.S. = 1 + + + + = ≈ 1.494.
3 9 27 81 81
The approximation is more accurate by taking more terms.

Find the first 3 terms of the expansion of √ 1 .

4+3x
1 1 1
3x − 2
√ 1
4+3x
= (4 + 3x)− 2 = 4− 2 1 + 4 .
1 1 (− 12 )(− 12 − 1) 2
(1 + a)− 2 = 1 + (− )a + a + ···
2 2!
1 3
= 1 − a + a2 + · · · .
2 8
− 12 2
3x 1 3x 3 3x
1+ =1− + + ···
4 2 4 8 4
3 27 2
=1− x+ x + ··· .
8 128
1 1 3 27 2
√ = 1− x+ x + ···
4 + 3x 2 8 128
1 3 27 2
= − x+ x + ··· .
2 16 256


4+3x
1
3x − 2
√ 1 1 1
− 3 27 2
+ ···.
4+3x
= 2 1+ 4 = 2 16 x + 256 x
3x
It is valid ⇔ −1 < 4
<1⇔ − 34 <x< 4
3
.
Let x = 1.
1
L.H.S. = √ ,
7
1 3 27 107
R.H.S. ≈ − + = .
2 16 256 256
√ 256
7 ≈ 107 . This approximation seems not accurate.
√ 256
7 ≈ 2.646, 107 ≈ 2.393.


4+3x
1
3x − 2
√ 1 1 1
− 3 27 2
+ ···.
4+3x
= 2 1+ 4 = 2 16 x + 256 x
3x
<1⇔ − 34 <x< 4
3
.
Let x = 13 .
1
L.H.S. = √ ,
5
1 1 3 15
R.H.S. ≈ − + = .
2 16 256 256
√ 256
5 ≈ 115 . This is a better approximation.
√ 256
5 ≈ 2.236, 115 ≈ 2.226.


4+3x
1
3x − 2
√ 1 1 1
− 3 27 2
+ ···.
4+3x
= 2 1+ 4 = 2 16 x + 256 x
3x
<1⇔ − 34 <x< 4
3
.
Let x = 14 .
1 2
L.H.S. = q =√ ,
4+ 3 19
4
1 3 27 1883
R.H.S. ≈ − + = .
2 64 4096 4096
√
19 ≈ 8192 . This approximation is more accurate.
√ 1883
19 ≈ 4.359, 8192
1883
≈ 4.351.

Telescoping Series
A series of the form

n
X n
X
(ar − ar−1 ) or (ar − ar+1 )
r=m r=m
can be summed easily as terms other than the first term and the last term
will cancel off.

Telescoping Sum
1 1 1 1
Find S = 1×2 + 2×3 + 3×4 + ··· + 100×101 .
1 2−1 2 1 1 1
= = − = − ,
1×2 1×2 1×2 1×2 1 2
1 3−2 3 2 1 1
= = − = − ,
2×3 2×3 2×3 2×3 2 3
1 2−1 4 3 1 1
= = − = − ,
3×4 3×4 3×4 3×4 3 4
··· = ···
1 100 − 99 100 99 1 1
= = − = − ,
99 × 100 99 × 100 99 × 100 99 × 100 99 100
1 101 − 100 101 100 1 1
= = − = − ,
100 × 101 100 × 101 100 × 101 100 × 101 100 101
100
X 1 1 1 100
S= = − = .
n=1
n(n + 1) 1 101 101
Telescoping Sum
A Telescoping Sum is a sum which has a fixed number of terms after

cancellation.
Consider a sequence a1 , a2 , a3 , · · · , an , an+1 , · · ·
Set
u1 = a1 − a2
u2 = a2 − a3
u3 = a3 − a4
··· = ···
un−1 = an−1 − an
un = an − an+1
n
X
ui = u1 + u2 + · · · + un = a1 − an+1
i=1

Telescoping Sum
A Telescoping Sum is a sum which has a fixed number of terms after

cancellation.
Consider a sequence a1 , a2 , a3 , · · · , an , an+1 , · · ·
Set
um = am − am+1
um+1 = am+1 − am+2
um+2 = am+2 − am+3
··· = ···
un−1 = an−1 − an
un = an − an+1
n
X
ui = um + um+1 + · · · + un = am − an+1
i=m

Example
Sum the following series

400 √ n
X √ X 1
(i) ( r − r − 1) (ii)
r=2 r=1
(r + 1)(r + 2)

Example
Show that r(r + 1)! − (r − 1)r! = (r2 + 1)r!

Hence, sum the series
(112 + 1)11! + (122 + 1)!12! + · · · + (1002 + 1)100!

Telescoping Sum
Recall that if ui = ai − ai+1 for all i = 1, 2, 3, · · · ,

n
X
ui = am − an+1 .
i=m
If n → ∞ ⇒ an+1 → 0, then the Telescoping Series
X∞
ui = um + um+1 + um+2 + · · · = am
i=m
Examples.
n n
X 1 X 1 1 1 1
= − = − .
i=1
i(i + 1) i=1
i i+1 1 n+1
1
Note that n → ∞ ⇒ n+1 → 0.
∞
X 1 ∞
X 1
1 1
= − = = 1.
i=1
i(i + 1) i=1
i i + 1 1

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MA1301 Introductory Mathematics

TAN BAN PIN

National University of Singapore

TAN BAN PIN MA1301 Introductory Mathematics 1 / 71

TAN BAN PIN MA1301 Introductory Mathematics 2 / 71

A sequence is an infinite list of numbers written in a definite order.

How can we figure out the 10th term in this sequence?

How to find a formula for the sequence,

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Sometimes, it is convenient to write only the formula for a sequence.

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{2n } : 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, · · ·

TAN BAN PIN MA1301 Introductory Mathematics 6 / 71

Find the nth term of the following sequences:

TAN BAN PIN MA1301 Introductory Mathematics 7 / 71

In general, we have the following recurrence equation (or difference

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In general, we have the following recurrence equation (or difference

The sequence of real numbers {x1 , x2 , · · · } is such that x1 = 1 and

TAN BAN PIN MA1301 Introductory Mathematics 10 / 71

2, 4, 8, 16, 32, · · · is a sequence,

TAN BAN PIN MA1301 Introductory Mathematics 11 / 71

Series: sum of terms of a sequence

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Given that the sum of the first n terms of a sequence is given by

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TAN BAN PIN MA1301 Introductory Mathematics 17 / 71

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Fact For any constant C,

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The Set of Positive Integers is denoted by Z+ .

u1 = a is the first term

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TAN BAN PIN MA1301 Introductory Mathematics 23 / 71

Example. Find the sum of the first 1000 terms of

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TAN BAN PIN MA1301 Introductory Mathematics 25 / 71

Find the sum of all multiples of 7 between 100 and 300.

TAN BAN PIN MA1301 Introductory Mathematics 26 / 71

Given an arithmetic sequence such that

TAN BAN PIN MA1301 Introductory Mathematics 27 / 71

Sum all the positive terms in the sequence

2036, 2016, 1996, 1976, 1956, · · ·

TAN BAN PIN MA1301 Introductory Mathematics 28 / 71

first exceeds 150.

(For this course, lg x denotes log10 x.)

TAN BAN PIN MA1301 Introductory Mathematics 29 / 71

Consider a segment of length 1.

TAN BAN PIN MA1301 Introductory Mathematics 30 / 71

TAN BAN PIN MA1301 Introductory Mathematics 31 / 71

A geometric sequence is given such that

TAN BAN PIN MA1301 Introductory Mathematics 33 / 71

A geometric sequence with first term a and common ratio r:

S5 − rS5 = (a + ar + ar2 + ar3 + ar4 ) − (ar + ar2 + ar3 + ar4 + ar5 )

TAN BAN PIN MA1301 Introductory Mathematics 34 / 71

A geometric sequence with first term a and common ratio r:

TAN BAN PIN MA1301 Introductory Mathematics 35 / 71

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