HUMAN STRUCTURE

& FUNCTION
(GCSF 2013)

UNIT 8: NERVOUS SYSTEM

8.2 Central Nervous System

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Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the session, the student should be able
to:

• Describe the major parts of the brain and structure

spinal cord.

• Explain the function of each part of the brain and

the spinal cord.

• Explain the CSF production, circulation and

reabsorption.

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Central Nervous System

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BRAIN

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 BRAIN
• Brain is part of CNS.

• Large organ – 1.4 kg.

• Contained within cranial cavity.

• 4 division of brain:
❑ Brainstem
❑ Cerebellum
❑ Diencephalon
❑ Cerebrum

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CEREBRUM

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 Cerebrum
• Largest part of the brain.
• The cerebrum is divided into left and right
hemispheres by a longitudinal fissure.
• The numerous folds are called gyri.
• The grooves between the gyri called sulci.

• Each cerebral hemisphere is divided into five lobes:

✓ Frontal lobe
✓ Parietal lobe
✓ Occipital lobe
✓ Temporal lobe
✓ Insula
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 Cerebrum
• Every lobes divided by fissure sulcus.

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 Functional area of the cerebral
cortex:
• Motor areas • Association area
• Primary motor area • Premotor area
• Motor speech (Broca’s) • Prefrontal area
area • Sensory speech
(Wernicke’s) area
• Sensory area • Parieto-occipital area
• Somatosensory area
(pain, pressure etc)
• Auditory (hearing) area
• Olfactory (smell) area
• Taste area
• Visual area
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 Lobes Functions

Frontal Voluntary motor function, motivation,

lobe aggression, sense of smell and mood ,
personality and decision making .
Parietal Major center for receiving and evaluating most
lobe sensory information except smell, hearing, taste
and vision.
Occipital Receiving and integrating visual input.
lobe
Temporal Receive and evaluates input for smell and
lobe hearing. Important role in memory, abstract
thought and judgement.
Insula Receive and evaluates taste information 16
DIENCEPHALON

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 Diencephalon
• A part between brainstem and cerebrum.

• Components:

✓ Thalamus
✓ Subthalamus
✓ Epithalamus
✓ Hypothalamus

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 i. Thalamus
• A sensory relay centre of the brain.

• All sensory neurons that project to cerebrum first

synapse in the thalamus except olfactory neurons,
which project directly to cerebral cortex.

• The thalamus also influences mood and actions

associated with strong emotions such as fear and
rage.

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 ii. Subthalamus
• A small area immediately inferior to the thalamus.

• Contains nerve tracts and nuclei.

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 iii. Epithalamus
• A small area superior and posterior to the
thalamus.

• Consist of:

❖habenula → motivational control of

behaviour.

❖pineal gland → involve in modulation of the

sleep-wake cycle and other biorhythm.
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 iv. Hypothalamus
• The most inferior portion of diencephalon.

• A central controller of the endocrine system.

• Major control centre for maintaining

homeostasis and regulating endocrine function.

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• Hypothalamus is functioning in:

• Autonomic
• Endocrine
• Muscle control
• Regulation of body temperature
• Regulation of food and water intake
• Emotions
• Regulation of sleep-wake cycle
• Sexual development and behaviour

(Refer to Table 13.3 page 447 Seeley’s)

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BRAINSTEM

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 BRAINSTEM
• Connect the spinal cord to the cerebrum.

• Consist of:

✓ medulla oblongata
✓ pons
✓ midbrain

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 i. Medulla oblongata
• About 3cm long.

• Pathway for ascending and descending nerve

tracts.

• Contains sensory and motor tract.

• Medullary nuclei functioning as centres for vital

reflexes.
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Vital centres for autonomic reflex activity include:

• Cardiovascular center: regulate heart rate and

contraction strength to fulfill body demands.

• Respiratory center: regulate rate, rhythm and

depth of respiration.

• Vasomotor center: regulate blood pressure by

controlling diameter of blood vessel.

• Reflex centers of vomiting, coughing, sneezing

and swallowing.
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 Medulla Oblongata: Pyramids
• Near the pons and taper towards the spinal cord.

• Formed by large descending motor tracts involve in

the conscious control of skeletal muscle.

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 Medulla Oblongata: Olives
• The olive are nuclei involved in functions such as
balance, coordination and modulation of sound
from the inner ear.

• Nuclei of cranial nerves are also located in this part.

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 ii. Pons
• Contains ascending and descending nerve tracts.

• Relays information between cerebrum and

cerebellum.

• Site of reflex centers.

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 iii. Midbrain
• Located superior to the pons.

• Receive sensory input from visual, auditory and

tactile sensory system.

• Involved in the reflex movements of the head,

eyes and body towards these stimuli such as loud
noises, flashing light or startling pain.

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CEREBELLUM

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 Cerebellum
• Attached to the brainstem posterior to the pons.
• The cerebellar cortex has ridge called folia.
• The white matter resembles a branching trees called
arbor vitae.
• The cerebellum consist of 3 parts/ lobes:
➢ Flocculonodular lobe
➢ Vermis
➢ Lateral hemispheres
• Controls muscle movement and tone, governs
balance, regulates extent of intentional movement,
involved in learning motor skills.
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 Function:
• Flocculonodular lobe: control balance and eye
movement.

• Vermis: controls postures, locomotion, fine

motor coordination, producing smooth &
flowing movements.

• Lateral hemispheres: planning practicing and

learning complex movements.

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SPINAL CORD

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 SPINAL CORD
• Major communication link between the brain and
the PNS inferior to the head.

• Spinal cord extend from the brain at level of

foramen magnum down to level of second lumbar
vertebra.

• Spinal cord give rise to 31 pairs of spinal nerves.

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 Spinal cord
• Terdapat 30 pasang
saraf spinal keluar
dari spinal cord.
• Saraf crevical = 8
• Saraf thoracic = 12
• Saraf lumbar = 5
• Saraf sacral& coccyx
=5

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• Fungsi:

• Menghubungkan otak ke semua bahagian

tubuh.

• Pusat tindakan reflex arcs.

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 Cross Section Of Spinal Cord
• Spinal cord consists of a superficial, white matter and
gray matter.

• White matter consist of myelinated axons, which

form nerve tract.

• Gray matter consists of neuron cell bodies, dendrites

and axons.

• The white matter is organized into three columns:

• Ventral (anterior) column
• Dorsal (posterior) column
• Lateral column
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• Each column of the spinal cord is subdivided into
tracts or fascicles (pathways).

• Tract = a collection of axons inside CNS.

• Nerve = a collection of axons outside the CNS.

• Individual axons ascending to the brain or

descending from the brain are grouped together
within the tract.
• Eg: one ascending tract carries action potential
related to pain & temperature sensation whereas
another carries action potential related touch.

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 NERVE TRACT
• Terdiri daripada:
• Sensory nerve tracts
• Motor nerve tracts

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 Meninges of Brain & Spinal Cord
• Meninges are the connective tissue membranes that
surround spinal cord and brain which lie between
bone and spinal cord & brain.

• Meninges:

▪ Dura mater
▪ Arachnoid mater
▪ Pia mater

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Meninges

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• Surrounding each layer are three spaces:

▪ Epidural space
▪ Subdural space
▪ Subarachnoid space

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 i. Meningeal: Dura
• Tough, white fibrous connective tissue.

• Lapisan dibawah tulang cranial dan menyaluti

vertebral canal.

• Terdiri daripada lapisan periosteal (luar) dan

meningeal (dalam).

• Mempunyai dural sinuses yang mengumpul darah dari

vena dan hantar ke jantung.

• Fungsi:
✓ Melindungi otak
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 ii. Meningeal: Arachnoid Mater
• Lapisan fibrous tissue antara dura dan pia maters.
• Ruang antara lapisan:
• Subdural space: memisahkan dura mater.
• Subarachnoid space: memisahkan pia mater yang
mengandungi cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

Subdural space

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 iii. Meningeal: Pia Mater
• Connective tissue yang mengandungi salur darah halus.
• Melekat pada otak dan melapisi setiap fissure.
• Berterusan ke spinal cord sehingga filum terminale dan
tamat di coccyx.

Subdural space

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 VENTRICLE
• Merupakan 4 irregular shaped cavities yang
mengandungi CSF.
• Terdiri daripada:
• Right & left lateral ventricles
• Third ventricles
• Fourth ventricle

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CEREBROSPINAL
FLUID (CSF)

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 Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
• Clear fluid.

• Bathes the brain and spinal cord.

• Provide a protective cushion to CNS.

• CSF fills all the open space of CNS includes

ventricles, the subarachnoid space of brain and
spinal cord, and central canal of spinal cord.

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 Production of CSF
• CSF produce by choroid plexus.

• The choroid plexus consist of a layer of specialized

ependymal cells.

• The choroid plexus are formed by invaginations of

the vascular pia mater into the ventricles (refer to
figure 13.14 in Seeley’s, 2020).

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• CSF is formed by the transport of water and solutes
from the blood through a variety of mechanism.

• Majority of fluids enter the ventricles by following

Na+ concentration gradient.

• Ependymal cell transport the Na+ into the ventricles

and water passively follows.

• Large molecules are transported by pinocytosis.

• Glucose transported by a specific glucose

transporter.
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 Circulation & Reabsorption of CSF
• CSF passes from the lateral ventricles through the
interventricular foramina into the third ventricle
and then through the cerebral aqueduct into the
fourth ventricle.

• It can exit the interior of the brain only from the

fourth ventricle.

• One median aperture and two lateral apertures

which open through the walls allow the CSF to pass
from the fourth ventricle to the subarachnoid
space.
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• Some CSF continues to flow interiorly into the central
canal of the spinal cord.

• Arachnoid granulations penetrate into the dural

venous sinuses especially the superior sagittal sinus.

• CSF passes into the blood filled dura; venous sinuses

through these granulations.

• From the dural venous sinuses, the blood drains into

the jugular veins to enter the veins of the general
circulation → CSF reeenters the bloodstream.
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 Pengaliran CSF
▪ CSF daripada left & right lateral ventricle mengalir ke
third ventricle melalui interventricular foramina.

▪ CSF daripada third ventricle mengalir ke fourth

ventricle melalui cerebral aqueduct.

▪ CSF daripada fourth ventricle mengalir ke

subarachnoid space dan central canal menerusi medial
dan lateral aperture.

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 Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
• Fungsi:
• Sokong dan melindungi otak dan spinal cord.
• Mengekalkan tekanan dalam otak dan spinal cord.
• Sebagai cushion dan shock absorber antara otak dan
cranial bones.
• Mengekalkan kelembapan otak dan spinal cord.
• Berlaku pertukaran bahan antara CSF dengan neuron
seperti nutrien dan bahan kumuhan.

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MCQ
1. Pusat vital yang merangkumi sistem
kardiovaskular dan sistem pernafasan terdapat di

A. Midbrain
B. Serebrum
C. Cerebellum
D. Medulla oblongata

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MCQ
2. Berikut adalah tindakbalas hypothalamus dalam
pengekalan homeostasis badan manusia KECUALI

A. Mengawal suhu badan

B. Mengawal tingkahlaku makan
C. Mengawal rembesan hormon
D. Mengawalatur penghantaran maklumat

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MCQ
3. Cecair cerebrospinal dari fourth ventricle akan
melalui lateral foramen untuk masuk ke

A. Epidural space
B. Subdural space
C. Arachnoid space
D. Subarachnoid space

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MCQ
4. Apakah jenis neuron yang membawa impuls saraf
dari reseptor ke sistem saraf pusat?

A. motor
B. eferen
C. sensory
D. interneuron

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MCQ
5. Sekumpulan cell body yang berada di dalam
sistem saraf periferi dikenali sebagai

A. tract
B. nuclei
C. nerves
D. ganglia

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MCQ
6. Rangkaian kapilari darah yang membentuk cecair
cerebrospinal adalah

A. foramina
B. choroid plexus
C. arachnoid villi
D. cerebral aqueduct

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