CRAYFISH TERMINOLOGY IN ANCIENT GREEK, LATIN, AND OTHER

EUROPEAN LANGUAGES

BY

EMMANUIL KOUTRAKIS1,5 ), YOICHI MACHINO2 ), DIMITRA MYLONA3 )

and COSTAS PERDIKARIS4 )
1 ) Fisheries Research Institute, National Agricultural Research Foundation,
GR-64007 Nea Peramos, Kavala, Greece
2 ) Higashi-Monzen-cho 520-4, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8345, Japan
3 ) The Kalaureia Research Project — The Swedish Archaeological Institute at Athens,
63 E. Daskalaki, GR-74100 Rethymno, Greece
4 ) Department of Aquaculture & Fisheries, Technological Educational Institute of Epirus,
Irinis & Filias 1, GR-46100 Igoumenitsa, Greece

ABSTRACT

Information on freshwater crayfish both in natural history and literature goes back to ancient
times, reflecting the interactions of humans with the natural environment. From Aristotle to modern
astacologists, different terms have been used in different European countries to express the notion
“crayfish”. Inconsistency in the usage of terms in scientific literature generated confusion in the
past. The present work aims to review, and present evidence for, the use of the terms that describe
the freshwater crayfish in different European cultures. In Ancient Greek, “κάραβoς” (káravos) was
used for spiny lobster, while “άστακóς” (astakós) for both lobster and freshwater crayfish. The
word “άστακóς” was used by Greeks for naming towns and persons and as a city symbol on
coins. No specific term denoting the freshwater crayfish in Ancient Latin could be identified. In
the Renaissance, the freshwater crayfish was “cambarus” in popular Latin and “astacus” in scientific
Latin. Modern words such as in Italian (gambero), Castilian (cangrejo), Catalonian (cranc), and Old
French of southern France (chambre and cambre) seem to be descendants of the popular Latin term
(cambarus). One might detect similarities in the sound of the words for freshwater crayfish across
European countries: the German (Krebs), French (écrevisse), or English (crayfish), and these appear
to have affinities with the terms in Old Dutch, Old English, Luxemburgian, Dutch, Danish, Swedish,
and Norwegian. The Slavic term “rak” is echoed in Russian, Ukrainian, Belarussian, Old Prussian,
Polish, Czech, Slovak, all Slavic languages from the former Yugoslavia, Bulgarian, Hungarian, and
Romanian. These and more terms that are discussed in the paper form a varied body of examples that
illustrates the complex cultural and linguistic relations arisen around the freshwater crayfish across
Europe, over time.

5 ) Corresponding author; e-mail: manosk@inale.gr

© Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2009 Crustaceana 82 (12): 1535-1546

Also available online: www.brill.nl/cr DOI:10.1163/001121609X12475745628586
1536 EMMANUIL KOUTRAKIS ET AL.

RÉSUMÉ

L’information sur les écrevisses en histoire naturelle et en littérature remonte à des temps anciens,
reflétant les interactions des humains avec le milieu naturel. D’Aristote aux astacologistes modernes,
différents termes ont été utilisés dans les pays européens pour exprimer le terme «écrevisse». Les
divergences dans l’usage des termes dans la littérature scientifique ont généré des confusions dans le
passé. Le présent travail a pour but de ré-examiner et de montrer l’évidence de l’emploi des termes
qui décrivent les écrevisses dans les différentes cultures européennes. En grec ancien, “κάραβoς”
(káravos) était utilisé pour désigner la langouste tandis que “άστακóς” (astakós) désignait à la fois
le homard et l’écrevisse. Le mot “άστακóς” était utilisé par les Grecs pour nommer des villes et
des personnes et comme symbole de la ville sur les monnaies. Aucun terme spécifique désignant
l’écrevisse n’a pu être identifié en latin ancien. À la Renaissance, l’écrevisse était désignée par
“cambarus” en latin populaire et par “astacus” en latin scientifique. Les termes modernes, tels que
en italien (gambero), en castillan (cangrejo), en catalan (cranc) et en ancien français du midi de la
France (chambre et cambre), semblent être des descendants de ce terme populaire latin (cambarus).
On peut reconnaître des similarités dans le son des mots désignant l’écrevisse à travers les pays
européens: l’allemand (Krebs), le français (écrevisse) ou l’anglais (crayfish), et ceux-ci semblent
avoir des affinités avec les termes en néerlandais ancien, an anglais ancien, en luxembourgeois, en
néerlandais, en danois, en suédois et en norvégien. Le terme slave “rak” se retrouve en russe, en
ukrainien, en biélorusse, en prussien ancien, en polonais, en tchèque, en slovaque, dans toutes les
langues slaves de l’ex-Yougoslavie, en bulgare, en hongrois et en roumain. Ces termes ainsi que
d’autres discutés dans cet article constituent un ensemble d’exemples variés qui illustre les relations
culturelles et linguistiques complexes établies autour de l’écrevisse à travers l’Europe, au cours du
temps.

INTRODUCTION

Freshwater crayfish have a long association with humans in European history,

either being an object of scientific research, or an economic resource used in
cooking, as an aquarium pet, and even as a plaything for children. Over the years,
however, crayfish have declined in many places and today, the once dense crayfish
populations have become part of nostalgia, found only in the memory of older
people or in literature.
Researching the crayfish literature from several European countries, it became
clear that the terminology about “freshwater crayfish” is far from simple, echoing
perhaps the complex cultural relations between crayfish and humans. There have
been already dictionaries of terms used for crayfish in various languages or dialects
(Rolland, 1881; Belloc, 1898; Gozmány, 1979; Hart, 1994), but these largely
remain simple lists of crayfish names. In this paper, some short notes about
“freshwater crayfish” in different languages, in particular Ancient Greek and Latin,
are drawn, in an attempt at exploring part of this complexity and to discern patterns
in use and meaning.
 CRAYFISH TERMINOLOGY IN ANCIENT GREEK 1537

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Terms related to “freshwater crayfish” were picked up during the literature

search on crayfish carried out during our research on crayfish populations
(Koutrakis et al., 2007). The crayfish bibliographies of Hart & Clark (1987, 1989)
were thus useful to us. Internet dictionaries were used as a complementary re-
source, whenever specialized literature had been inadequate (see E-Dictionaries
Used). In the text below, all references are transliterated in the Latin standard al-
phabet. Additionally, Greek and Cyrillic fonts are used, since we think that it is
important to keep the original writing in each language. We use both the terms
“crayfish” and “freshwater crayfish” to indicate animals of the Astaciformes. On
the contrary, “sea crayfish” indicates the spiny lobsters or Palinuridae. At this point
some commenting is perhaps required on the grammar of the English term “cray-
fish”, which is often a source of confusion. In this paper, the same form of the
word (crayfish) is used, both in singular and in plural (e.g., several individuals of
crayfish and several species of crayfish) as most authors seem to do (e.g., Taylor,
2002). However, in the literature the form “crayfishes” has sympathizers, too (e.g.,
Thomas Henry Huxley 1825-1895, a great English zoologist) and is occasionally
encountered in North American usage whenever reference is made to more than
one taxon (e.g., several individuals of crayfish, whereas several species of cray-
fishes) (e.g., Hobbs, 1989).

RESULTS

Greek language (ancient)

Linnaeus (1758) used the term Cancer astacus for crayfish, the animal known
today in taxonomic literature as Astacus astacus (Linnaeus, 1758). The word asta-
cus comes from the Ancient Greek “άστακóς” (astakós). The Greek philosopher
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) provides the earliest extant literary reference to crayfish
as “άστακóς” in his Historiae Animalium (HA line 530a 28). According to Cuvier
(1803) and Huxley (1880a: 13; 1880b: 8-9), Aristotle used the term “άστακóς”
mostly for the European lobster, Homarus gammarus (Linnaeus, 1758). Unfortu-
nately, Aristotle’s use of names was not very specific, thus it is not easy to identify
the animal that corresponds to each name (see Cuvier, 1803). Here follows a brief
discussion and critical evaluation of the relevant passages in Aristotle’s work.
Aristotle, who discussed the different kinds of aquatic animals in his treatise
Historiae Animalium (4th century B.C.), provides perhaps the best evidence
on crayfish and their classification in ancient Greece. He attempted to make a
distinction between “άστακóς” and another similar aquatic animal, the “κάραβoς”
1538 EMMANUIL KOUTRAKIS ET AL.

(káravos). According to him, these two animals could be distinguished mainly by

the presence or absence of large claws. So he called “κάραβoς” those animals
without claws and “άστακóς” those with claws (HA, line 525 a 30-33). Thus,
according to Cuvier (1803), Aristotle’s “κάραβoς” may be the European spiny
lobster Palinurus elephas (Fabricius, 1787), whereas “άστακóς” would be the
European lobster. Elsewhere in HA, Aristotle mentioned that the smaller of the
two animals, “άστακóς”, lived in rivers (HA, line 528 a 28). The authors believe
that in this case “άστακóς in rivers” was the freshwater crayfish.
Concluding, it appears that Aristotle was aware of the existence of two different,
yet similar, taxa of marine and freshwater origin, but did not follow this distinction
consistently. He used the term “άστακóς” mostly for lobster but also occasionally
for freshwater crayfish. Apart from Aristotle, for whom “κάραβoς” is a marine
creature (i.e., spiny lobster), all other ancient sources that refer to “κάραβoς” do
not clarify whether it is a marine, or a freshwater animal. However, both the terms,
“κάραβoς” and “άστακóς”, were used, most often in conjunction with marine fish
and sea food.
Archaeology offers another source of information on the possible involvement
of crayfish in ancient Greek culture. Crayfish-like (or lobster-like) animals are
illustrated on coins from at least two Greek cities that were called Astakos. One
is a silver coin from Astakos of Bithynia (today Basiskele near İzmit in Turkey)
on the southern coast of the Gulf of İzmit, then called “Aστακηvóς” (Astakenós)
(Strabo 12.4.2; Steph. Byz. 238.17). The toponym is found in two forms, either
“Aστακóς” (Strabo 12.4.2) or “Oστακoς” (Charon of Lampsakos, FGrHist 262,
frg. 6). The city ethnic was “Aστακηvóς” (attested in the Athenian tribute lists,
IG i3, 259.III.27). The territory of Astakos was described by Polyaenos (Polyaen.
2.30.3) as a marshy place inhabited by Thracians (Avram, 2004: 977; see also
Larson, 1997). The literary tradition offers two hypotheses for the origin of the
name. According to these, the town was named so after (a) its founder, Astakos,
a descendant of the Spartans from Thebes (Memnon, FGrHist 336), or alternatively
the son of Poseidon and the Nymph Olbia (Arrian, FGrHist 156 fr. 26) and (b) a
nearby tribe called Astai — Astike (Hind, 1985). The crayfish-like animal on the
coin of this town is thought to be a pun on the name of the town and its territory.
The second example is a 4th century B.C. silver coin from the town of Astakos, of
Aitoloakarnania Prefecture (western Greece) (Gehrke & Wirbelauer, 2004: 358-
359). It was a coastal town and the toponym was “Aστακóς” (Thuc. 2.30.1, 33.1)
or “Aστακoi” (only in IG iv2.1). The bay was called Astakinos (Strabo 10.2.21).
A crayfish-like animal is illustrated on this coin along with a head of the goddess
Athena (Head, 1911: 329).
There are other Greek cities, however, which chose to depict a crayfish on their
coins, having no such semantic relation between name and symbol. Apollonia
 CRAYFISH TERMINOLOGY IN ANCIENT GREEK 1539

Fig. 1. Coin from the city of Priapos, Mysia, 1st century B. C. (10 mm, 1.05 g) illustrating a head
of Apollo on one side and of a crayfish-like animal on the other. (Classical Numismatic Group Inc.,
http://www.cngcoins.com).

Pontica (Sozopol in Bulgaria today), a Milesian colony on the Black Sea coast,
provides such an example. One of its early silver coins illustrates a wooden anchor
and a crayfish-like animal (Koutrakis et al., 2007). Another example comes from
Priapos (modern Karabiga in Turkey), also a Milesian colony on the coast of
Bosporous. The city minted coins that illustrate Apollo on the one side and a
crayfish-like animal on the other (fig. 1).
A survey of the relevant literature shows that, although there is not always a
coincidence between the choice of a crayfish as a motif and the presence of the
actual crayfish in the vicinity of the city, such a relationship often exists. No
exploitation of freshwater crayfish has been attested for Astakos of Aitoloakar-
nania Prefecture although the town is situated close to large freshwaters masses
(the River Ahelóos and the Lakes Amvrakia, Ozeros, Lysimahia, and Trihonida),
where, however, crayfish are unknown so far. Interestingly, however, the narrow-
clawed crayfish Astacus leptodactylus (Eschscholz, 1823), has been attested in the
vicinity of most of the aforementioned cities. Populations of A. leptodactylus have
been located across the River Danube in Bulgaria and in several coastal areas in
the Black Sea (mainly around Varna and Burgas and in Mandra Lake, all close to
ancient Apollonia Pontica) (Chichkoff, 1912; Pesta, 1926; Bulgurkov, 1938, 1939,
1961; Subchev & Stanimirova, 1998). The same species of crayfish has also been
mentioned from Lake İznik and Lake Sapanca, which are close to İzmit, and from
Lake Kus, close to Karabiga (ancient Priapos) (Roth & Kinzelbach, 1986; Kök-
sal, 1988). In all these cases we could discern some importance of the actual (as
opposed to the mythological) crayfish for the city. The nature of this relationship
remains, at present, enigmatic.
1540 EMMANUIL KOUTRAKIS ET AL.

Whether there is an economic or other importance of crayfish for the cities that
chose to depict it on their coins is a matter of debate. These illustrations, however,
along with the incorporation of the word “άστακóς” in local foundation legends
and Greek mythology more generally, certainly attest to a familiarity of the ancient
Greek culture with the crayfish (as in Jett, 1997; Fair, 1997; and references therein).
In modern Greek, the usage of the words has been reversed: “άστακóς”
(astakós) is the marine European spiny lobster P. elephas, which has no claws,
while “καραβiδα” (karavída) is both the freshwater crayfish and a marine animal,
the Norway lobster, Nephrops norvegicus (Linnaeus, 1758), both with claws.

Latin language
Caius Plinius Secundus (AD 23-79), known as Pliny the Elder, was a scientific
encyclopedist, who wrote extensively on various topics. In his most famous
work, Naturalis Historia (NH) Pliny surveys all the known sciences of his day,
notably astronomy, meteorology, geography, mineralogy, zoology, and botany. In
it, various species of crabs and shrimps are mentioned under different names.
Among these, “astacus”, “cammarus”, “cancer”, “carabus” and “locusta” occur,
which may be translated in English as crayfish or crayfish-like. Detailed analyses
of the text however, show that “astacus” (book 9. chapter 51) is the European
lobster; “cammarus” (27.2; 32.53) is a kind of indeterminate sea-crab; “cancer”
(in many chapters) refers to various crabs and shrimps without determination;
“carabus” (9.51) is the European spiny lobster; and “locusta” (9. 2, 14, 50, 74, 88;
11.55; 32.53; 37.23) is also the European spiny lobster (N.B.: “locusta” in other
books and chapters is referred to orthopteran insects). His “cancer fluviatilis” in the
pharmaceutical chapters (19.58; 20.48; 32.19, 25, 28, 31, 32, 33, 34, 36, 38, 39,
40, 43, 44, 46) may mean either freshwater crayfish or freshwater crabs (Potamon
spp.) or even both, without giving any specific keys for the readers to determine.
Several English translations describe “cancer fluviatilis” as freshwater crayfish, but
concrete arguments from the translators are missing. As Plinius himself omitted
the description of “cancer fluviatilis” in the zoological part of his treatise (book
9), he left “doubts” whether he really knew about either freshwater crayfish or
freshwater crabs. Both these animals are quite common in Italy, Greece, and other
south-eastern countries in Europe. Concluding, we may argue, that in Naturalis
Historia no specific terms for freshwater crayfish are encountered. The term that is
usually translated by classicists as such, i.e., “cancer fluviatilis”, in the context of
Pliny’s treatise, means either freshwater crayfish or freshwater crab or even both.
The word “locusta”, which is occasionally encountered in Latin texts, is often
translated as “crayfish” in English when aquatic (it is an orthopteran insect when
terrestrial). But these aquatic locustae are always marine ones in the original texts,
 CRAYFISH TERMINOLOGY IN ANCIENT GREEK 1541

thus they bear no relation to freshwater crayfish. We find the term “locusta”, for
example, in a classic Latin novel, the “Satyricon” by Gaius Petronius Arbiter,
widely known just as Petronius (A.D. ca 27-66) (Sat.). This “locusta”, which
appears in a dining-room scene (chapter 35) is not the freshwater crayfish but either
the European spiny lobster or the European lobster.
Aristotle’s work undoubtedly influenced the study of living organisms in Roman
times and through it the modern natural history. Aristotle’s Historiae Animalium,
written in Ancient Greek, was translated into Latin by Theodorus Gaza (ca. 1400-
1475) in the 15th century A.D. He translated “άστακóς” into “gammarus” (Cuvier,
1803). His contemporary, Paolo Santonino (chancellor of the patriarch of Aquileia)
referred to the freshwater crayfish in the memoirs of his travel (1485-1487) around
East Tyrol, Carinthia, Styria, and Slovenia, also written in Latin (Vale, 1943). He
used the term “cambarus” and its derivative forms “gambarus” and “gammarus”
(under “gammarosque”). According to the 16th century naturalist Belon (1555),
“Cammarus” or “Gammarus” were used in popular Latin for freshwater crayfish,
while in scientific Latin the animal’s name was Astacus fluviatilis, meaning
“lobster of river”. Another scientist of the time, Rondelet (1558) testifies to the use
of the name Astacus fluviatilis in scientific treatises. It appears, therefore, that by
the end of the 16th century two terms were used for designating crayfish: “astacus”
in scientific Latin and “cambarus” in popular Latin.
Since the 19th century, the term “cambarus” has been applied in taxonomic
nomenclature. Erichson (1846: 95) gave it as a name of a subgenus under the genus
Astacus, and Hagen (1870) raised it to generic level as the genus Cambarus, to
which many species of North American crayfish belong today.

Other languages
Today, “écrevisse” is crayfish in French. This word is certainly related ety-
mologically to other words in central and northern European languages: “Kriibs”
(Luxembourgian), “Krebs” (German), “crayfish” (English), “crawfish” (English),
“kreeft” (Dutch), “krebs” (Danish), “kreps” (Norwegian), “kräfta” (Swedish), and
“crevis” (Old English; Huxley, 1880a). A similar word “crevik” of Low Dutch
mentioned in Huxley (1880a) seems to belong to Old Dutch.
In Old French of southern France, the crayfish was called “chambre” or
“cambre”. It seems that these old words were still used in the 19th century
(Charvet, 1846; see also Belloc, 1898). These are almost out of use today,
surviving, however, as place-names, particularly of features related to water (e.g.,
“ruisseau des chambres” means “crayfish brook”). These old terms (chambre
and cambre) originate from the Latin (cambarus) and have linguistic affinities
in southern neighbouring languages as well: “cranc” (Catalonian), “cangrejo”
(Castilian), and “gambero” (Italian).
1542 EMMANUIL KOUTRAKIS ET AL.

The term “rak” or other related forms that indicate crayfish, is used across
an extended geographical area and various languages in Eastern Europe: “rak”
(Slovenian, Croatian, Czech, Slovak, Polish), “rak” (rak: Serbian, Slavic from the
Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia — F.Y.R.O.M., Bulgarian, Belarussian,
Ukrainian, Russian), “rák” (Hungarian) and “rac” (Romanian), and “rokis” (old
Prussian) according to Blažek et al. (2004). Montenegro as well as Bosnia and
Herzegovina (i.e., two countries of the former Yugoslavia) use both “rak” in Latin
alphabet and “rak” in Cyrillic. It is interesting that in this area, the term “rak”
(and related forms) has been adopted even by languages of non-Slavic origin, such
as Romanian and Hungarian.
Moreover, the crayfish is called “gaforre” in Albanian suggesting linguistic
affinities with Greek’s “κάβouρας” (“kávouras” = crab), “kerevit” in Turkish (sim-
ilar to Greek’s “καραβiδα” karavída = crayfish, suggesting a Greek linguistic
origin), “lagostim” in Portuguese originating from Latin “locusta” (= spiny lob-
ster), “rapu” in Finnish, “vähk” in Estonian, “vēzis” in Latvian, and “vėžys” in
Lithuanian. Various other European languages and dialects also have a word for
crayfish, apparently of a different origin than the broader groups discussed so far,
but limitations of time and linguistic expertise preclude any detailed discussion of
this issue.

DISCUSSION

The ambiguity of various terms used to describe similar, yet distinct aquatic
animals such as the crayfish, both in the ancient Greek and Latin literature could
be understood if we consider the issue of classification in more general terms.
Recent research has demonstrated that where edible marine animals are concerned,
as least in an ancient Greek context, several classificatory schemes were at play,
which were based on both biological characteristics and on properties such as
texture of the flesh, cultural associations, etc. (Mylona, 2008). These schemes
form what is known in anthropological literature as special-purpose classifications,
which are fashioned by cultural interest, experience, and use (Ellen, 1993; Atran,
1998). The ambiguity, by modern taxonomic standards, in the use of certain terms
such as “astakos” or “carabus” by Greek and Latin authors, might just reflect
a different way of conceptualizing the classificatory criteria, by people with a
different cultural background than ours.
Among the words discussed so far, with the exception of the Latin terms
(both popular and scientific), certain trends that transcend linguistic groups can
be discerned. In some cases the word for crayfish may refer to different an-
imals depending on the context, as for example is the case with the word
 CRAYFISH TERMINOLOGY IN ANCIENT GREEK 1543

“άστακóς” in Ancient Greek indicating both the European lobster and cray-
fish, and the case of “καραβiδα” in modern Greek, and “lagostim” in Por-
tuguese that indicate both the crayfish and the Norway lobster. In other instances,
the word may require an adjective in order to specify “freshwater crayfish”.
For example, freshwater crayfish is described as “river crayfish” in many lan-
guages: “Flußkrebs” (German), “rivierkreeft” (Dutch), “cangrejo de río” (Castil-
ian), “cranc de riu” (Catalonian), “gaforre lumi” (Albanian), ”jõevähil” (Estonian),
“jokirapu” (Finnish), “reqnoĭ rak” (rechnoi rak: Russian), “riqkoviĭ rak”
(richkovyi rak: Ukrainian), “reqen rak” (rechen rak: Bulgarian and Slavic from
the F.Y.R.O.M.). But the matter may still be problematic in some cases. Bulgar-
ian “reqen rak” can be understood as a freshwater crab, Potaman ibericum
(Bieberstein, 1808) in southeastern Bulgaria, although the Bulgarian language has
“reqen kriv rak” (rechen kriv rak) for the crab. Even the English “crayfish”
can be crowned by an adjective “freshwater” in order to be distinguished from “sea
crayfish”, which can mean a spiny lobster (of the family Palinuridae). Similarly, in
Italy to specify the crayfish one has to add “freshwater”, e.g., gambero d’acqua
dolce. The only exception among modern languages seems to be French. Today
the word “écrevisse” denotes the freshwater crayfish (Astaciformes) without any
other adjectives needed.
The examination of the diachronic use of the words for crayfish in various
languages reveals an interesting feature. Active involvement with crayfish (as an
economic resource, food, etc.) may have given rise to a multitude of related terms.
Changes in these circumstances and diminishing of the crayfish’s importance may
have resulted in abandoning these words or their use only in one of the most slowly
changing areas of a spoken language, the toponyms. The use of the word “astakos”
as a personal name in ancient Greek mythology and as a place name, without
any apparent relation to any actual exploitation or even knowledge of the animal,
may be exactly such a phenomenon. It may reflect the importance of crayfish for
the Greeks in the distant past, which left only the faint traces of personal and
place names. Other European languages offer similar examples (e.g., Krebsbach
or rakovica, both meaning crayfish brook/water).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to thank Dr. Claudio Comoglio for indicating us the coin used in
fig. 1 of this paper.

E-DICTIONARIES USED
English<>Albanian: http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Albanian-english/
index12.html
1544 EMMANUIL KOUTRAKIS ET AL.

English<>Danish: http://www.freedict.com/onldict/dan.html
English<>Dutch: http://www.majstro.com/Web/Majstro/taleninfo/dut_en.php
English<>Finnish: http://efe.scape.net/index.php
English<>Estonian: http://aare.pri.ee/dictionary.html?switch=en, http://dict.ibs.ee/index.html
English<>Hungarian: http://dict.sztaki.hu/english-hungarian
English>Latvian: http://www.ectaco.co.uk/Latvian-English-Dictionary/
Latvian>English: http://dictionary.site.lv/
English>Lithuanian: http://dictionaries.vnvsoft.com/index_lten.html
Lithuanian>English: http://dictionaries.vnvsoft.com/en/index.html
English<>Norwegian: http://www.freedict.com/onldict/nor.html
English<>Romanian: http://www.ectaco.co.uk/English-Romanian-Dictionary/
http://www.dictionarenglezroman.ro/en/
English<>Swedish: http://lexin2.nada.kth.se/swe-eng.html
English/German<>Turkish: http://www.mydictionary.de/
French<>Luxembourgian: http://84.16.246.84/dict.html
Russian<>Belarussian: http://slounik.org/slouniki/
Russian<>Ukrainian: http://slovnyk.org.ua/cgi-bin/dic.cgi?if=uk-UA

ABBREVIATIONS

FGrHist JACOBY, F., 1923-1930. Die Fragmente der Griechischen Historiker (Berlin).
HA Aristotle, Historiae Animalium. Translators: A. L. P ECK & E. S. F ORSTER (Loeb
Classical Library, London: W. Heinemann, 1965).
IG i3 L EWIS , D., 1981. Inscriptiones Atticae Euclidis anno anteriores, Inscriptiones Grae-
cae, i3, v. i. (W. De Gruyter, Berlin). http://epigraphy.packhum.org/inscriptions/
search_main.html
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First received 11 August 2008.

Final version accepted 2 December 2008.