Module 1 Unit 1 Construction and Arrangement of Parts of DC Generator and Motor

PRINCIPLES,
CONSTRUCTION AND
PARTS OF DIRECT
CURRENT MACHINES
UNIT 1: CONSTRUCTION AND ARRANGEMENT
OF THE PARTS DC GENERATOR AND MOTOR
MODULE 1
Principles, Construction and Parts of Direct Current Machines
TOPICS:
Generator and Motor Construction

Types of Armature Winding
Armature Winding Parameters
Armature with More Commutator Segments than Slots
Multi-element Winding
Dead/Dummy Elements in Armature Winding
Equalizer Connection for Lap Windings
Frog-leg Winding
References
Theraja, B. T. (2005). A Textbook of Electrical Technology Vol.2. New Delhi: S. Chand

and Company Ltd.
Chapman, S. J. (2004). Electric Machinery Fundamentals. McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc.
Fitzgerald, A. E. et.al. (2003). Electric Machinery. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc.
Siskind, C. S. (1982). Electrical Machines. McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.
Unit Learning Outcomes
At the end of this learning unit, you should be able to:
 Know the construction and the arrangement of the different

parts of the dynamo
 Calculate the different armature winding parameters
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MODULE 1
Generator and Motor Construction
You can also watch the following video clip for a simple explanation
of the construction and working principle of a DC machine.
 DC Machine: Construction and Working Principle

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oI-
O9FCDqmg&feature=emb_logo
The term dynamo is a symbol of power. Electrically, a dynamo is defined as a rotating

electrical machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy or electrical
energy into mechanical energy. Therefore, the two kinds of dynamo are:
1. Electric generators that convert mechanical energy into electrical energy; and
2. Electric motors that convert electrical energy into mechanical energy.
The load on a generator constitutes those electrical devices that convert electrical
energy into other forms of energy; loads such as electric lighting, electrical furnaces,
electrical wielding, electric motors, electric battery charging, etc., are well known.
The load on a motor constitutes the force that tends to oppose rotation and is called a
countertorque; such loads may be fan blades, pumps, grinders, boring mills, crushers,
excavators, elevators, turntables, churns, drills, food mixers, and a host of other
commonly used machines.
NOTE: DC generators and motors are fundamentally similar in construction. They

differ only in the way they are used.
For purposes of description, the electric generators and motors may be divided into two
sections, namely:
 Stator (stationary part)
 The most important function of the stator is to serve as the seat of the
magnetic flux that must be made to enter the armature core. The most
important part of the stator is the field that generally consists of a cylindrical
yoke or frame to which is bolted a set of electromagnets.
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Figure 1.1.1 The Stator
 The yoke or the outer frame of the dc machine holds the magnetic pole
cores and acts as the cover of the machine. It also carries the magnetic
flux produced by the poles. In small dc machines, yoke are made of cast
iron. But for larger machines, where weight of the machine is an important
factor, lighter cast steel or rolled steel is preferable. The feet, terminal box,
and hangers are wielded to the outer periphery of the yoke frame.
 The field-pole cores are built up of a stack of steel laminations, about 0.025
in. thick per lamination, having good magnetic qualities. Rivets are driven
through the holes in the sheets to fasten together a stack of such
laminations equal to the axial length of the armature core. The shape of
the assembled core is such that the smaller cross section is provided for the
field winding/s, while the spread-out portion called the pole shoe permits
the flux to spread out over a wider area where the flux enters the armature
core.
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Figure 1.1.2 Field-pole Core
This construction has several desirable features among which are:
 reduced cross section where the field coils fit over the core so that
a minimum of copper wire may be used;
 increased area of the pole shoe that is exposed to the armature so
that the reluctance of the air gap is reduced to a minimum and the
flux may be spread out over a greater portion of the circumference;
and
 the complete pole core and its windings may be assembled before
it is bolted to the yoke.
 The field windings are simple coil of insulated copper wire or strip that are
wound around the pole core. Each of the main pole cores may have one or
combination of the two types of the field winding depending whether the
machine is to be operated as shunt, series or compound dynamo. The two
types of field-winding are:
a) the shunt-field winding that has a comparatively large number of turns

of fine wires; its resistance is therefore high enough so that it may be
connected directly across (in shunt) the armature voltage or to a
separate source of emf about the same order of magnitude; and
b) the series-field winding that has relatively few turns of large wires and is
connected in such a way that high values of current usually pass
through it; its resistance is extremely low so that even when carrying
normal load current, its voltage drop will be small.
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Figure 1.1.3 Field Windings
NOTE: In the case of a compound machine where a combination of the shunt and
series field windings is employed, the series coil is wound over the shunt field
coil. This is a good general practice because the series coil, carrying high
values of current, is kept cool more readily when placed on the outside.
 Rotor (rotating part)
 The rotor is the source of the electric power (generator) or the mechanical
power (motor). It includes the armature core, the armature windings and the
commutator.
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Figure 1.1.4 The Rotor
 The purpose of the armature core is to hold the armature winding and provide
low reluctance path for the flux through the armature from N pole to S pole. It
is built up of laminated steel core. Generally, these laminations are offered to
decrease the loss because of the eddy-current. It is slotted to receive the
insulated copper armature winding. The number of slots is carefully selected in
conjunction with the number of commutator segments on the basis of good
design. The slots are either die-cut or punched on the outer periphery of the
disc and the keyway is located of the inner diameter.
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Figure 1.1.5 Armature Slots
 The armature winding is virtually the heart of the dynamo. It is where the
voltage is generated in the generator or where torque is developed in the
motor. The armature-coil ends are soldered to the commutator.
 The commutator is a built-up group of hard-drawn copper bars, wedge-

shaped in section when viewed on end, and having V-shaped grooves at
each end. Together with the stationary brushes that ride over its rotating
surface, it is assigned the duty of changing an internally generated alternating
current to an external direct current in the generator and of changing an
externally applied direct current to an internal alternating current in the motor.
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Figure 1.1.6 The Commutator and Brushes
 The brushes are made of rectangular block-shaped carbon. The only

function of these carbon brushes is to collect current from the commutator
segments. The brushes are housed in the rectangular box shaped brush
holder or brush box. The brush rigging consists of groups of brush holders
properly fastened together and bolted to the yoke. It is customary to have
as many brush arms as poles, although in some special cases only two sets
of brush arms are used regardless of the number of poles.
Types of Armature Winding
There are only two general types of armature winding: lap and wave. They may be
distinguished from each other in two general ways:
 From the standpoint of construction, they differ only by the manner in which the
coil ends are connected to the commutator segments:
 A lap winding is one in which the coil ends are connected to the
commutator segments that are near one another.
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MODULE 1
Figure 1.1.7 Lap Winding Connections
 A wave winding is one in which the coil ends are connected to commutator
segments that are some distance from one another – nearly 360 electrical
degrees apart.
Figure 1.1.8 Wave Winding Connections
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 From the standpoint of an electrical circuit, they differ in the number of parallel
paths between the positive and the negative brushes. For example, simplex-lap
windings have as many parallel paths as main poles, whereas, simplex-wave
windings have two parallel paths regardless of the number of poles.
 Lap winding is necessary for high current, low voltage applications because
it has more parallel paths. All two-pole machines have lap windings.
 Wave winding is used in high voltage and low current machines. Most four-
pole machines, up to about 75 kW or 100 hp for 115- or more volt service,
have wave windings.
NOTE: Another construction, which combines the advantages of both lap and wave
types and which is used on machines manufactured by the Allis-Chalmer
Manufacturing Company, is called a frog-leg winding. However, it should not
be classified as a fundamentally different type since it is actually just a
combination of a lap and a wave winding.
The armature may have a lap or a wave winding arranged in a single layer or in two
layers per slot as shown in the figure below:
Figure 1.1.9 Single- and Double-layer Windings
 In a single-layer winding:
 Each slot is containing only one conductor or one coil side.
 The total number of coils used is half the numbers of armature slots.
 In a two-layer winding:
 There are two conductors or coil sides per slot (Fig. 1.1.10a). Sometimes 4 or
6 or 8 coil sides are used in each slot because it is not practicable to have
too many slots (Figure 1.1.10b).
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 Usually, one side of every coil lies in the upper half of one slot and the other
side lies in the lower half of some other slot at a distance of approximately
one pitch away. The coil sides lying at the upper half of the slots are odd-
numbered (1, 3, 5, etc.) while those at the lower half are even-numbered
(2, 4, 6, etc.).
 The total number of coils used is equal to the number of armature slots.
Figure 1.1.10 (a) Two conductors in two layers per slot

(b) Four conductors in two layers per slot
Armature Winding Parameters
The armature winding parameters are essential for the proper design of the armature.
 Pole Pitch: It may be variously defined as:
 The periphery of the armature divided by the number of poles, i.e., the
distance between two adjacent poles (180 electrical degrees apart).
 It is equal to the number of armature slots per pole. For instance, if there are
48 slots and 4 poles, the pole pitch is 48/4 = 12 slots per pole.
 Coil Pitch (or Coil Span), YS: This refers to the distance between the two sides of
the individual coils, measured in terms of the number of slots. It is determined in
exactly the same way for all windings, whether lap or wave. The fundamental rule
that fixes the coil pitch in any given machine is: the distance between the two sides
of the coil must be equal or very nearly so to the pole pitch. This rule can only
mean that if one coil side is under the center of the north pole, then the other coil
side must be very close to the center of the south pole. The reason for this
important requirement follows from these facts:
 In a generator, the voltages generated in the two coil sides are to aid one
another.
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 In a motor, the forces in the two coil sides are to develop torque for rotation
in the same direction.
Figure 1.1.11 Coil Pitch
If the coil span is equal to the pole pitch the winding is called full-pitched. It means
that the coil span is 180 electrical degrees.
If the coil span is less than the pole pitch, then the winding is called fractional-
pitched.
NOTE: Fractional-pitched windings are purposely used to effect substantial saving in

the copper of the end connections and for improving commutation.
The coil span can be obtained by the following equation:
S
YS   k
P
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Where:
YS = coil pitch or coil span
S = total number of armature slots
P = number of main poles
k = any fractional part of S/P that is
subtracted to make YS an integer
EXAMPLE 1.1.1
Calculate the coil pitches (coil spans) and indicate the slots into which the first coils
should be placed for the following armature windings: (a) 28 slots, 4 poles; (b) 39 slots, 4
poles; (c) 78 slots, 6 poles; (d) 121 slots, 8 poles; (e) 258 slots, 14 poles.
Solution
S 28
(a) YS   k   0  7 slots
P 4
 If one side of the coil is placed in slot 1, then the
other side is placed in slot 1  7  8.
39 3
(b) YS    9 slots
4 4
other side is placed in slot 1  9  10.
121 1
(d) YS    15 slots
8 8
other side is placed in slot 16.
258 6
(e) YS    18 slots
14 14
other side is placed in slot 19.
In the foregoing example, the armature windings in (a) and (c) are full-pitched since k =
0, i.e., YS is exactly equal to the pole pitch (S/P). Whereas, the armature windings in (b),
(d) and (e) are fractional-pitched because YS is less than S/P. A fractional part, k, is
subtracted from S/P making YS to be less than 180 electrical degrees.
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MODULE 1
 Back Pitch, YB: It is the distance which a coil advances on the back of the
armature. It is measured in terms of the armature conductors. A conductor is a
length of wire lying in the magnetic field and in which an emf is generated in a
generator or torque is developed in a motor. For instance, as shown in Fig. 1.1.12,
length AB and CD are conductors connected on the back of the armature.
Figure 1.1.12 Single-turn Coil
Now, if we say that length AB is conductor 1 and length CD is conductor 8 placed

in two different armature slots that are YS apart, then, YB is equal to (8 -1) = 7. The
back pitch must be an odd number.
NOTE: Two conductors along with their end connections constitute one coil of the
armature winding. The coil may be a single-turn coil as in Figure 1.12 or a multi-
turn coil (Figure 1.1.13). A single-turn coil will have two conductors. A multi-
turn coil may have many conductors wrapped with a tape as a unit per coil
side. The side of a coil (single- or multi-turn) is called a winding element.
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Figure 1.1.13 Multi-turn Coil
 Front Pitch, YF: It is the distance in terms of armature conductors between the
second conductor of one coil and the first conductor of the next coil which are
connected together at the front, i.e., commutator end of the armature. For
instance, if we assume that conductor 8 is connected to conductor 3 (the first
conductor of the next coil) at the commutator segment, then, YF = 8 - 3 = 5. The
front pitch, too, must be an odd number.
 Resultant Pitch, YR: It is the distance between the beginning of one coil and the
beginning of the next coil to which it is connected. The following figure shows the
relation between YB, YF, and YR for lap and wave windings.
Figure 1.1.14 Back-, Front-, and Resultant-pitch for Lap and Wave Windings
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For Lap : YR  YB  YF
For Wave : YR  YB  YF
 Commutator Pitch, YC: It refers to the distance on the commutator between the
two ends of a coil, measured in terms of commutator segments. The commutator
pitch is determined in a different way for lap and wave windings.
 For Lap: YC is equal to the degree of multiplicity, m, or the “plex” of the

winding. Hence, YC equals 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. for simplex-, duplex-, triplex-,
quadruplex-, etc., windings, respectively.
YC   m
 For Wave: A wave winding is possible if the following equation for YC results
in an integer.
C  m
YC 
P
2
Where:
YC = commutator pitch
C = total number of commutator segments
= total number of coils
m = degree of multiplicity or the “plex” of the
winding
NOTE:  Use +m if the winding is progressive. A progressive winding advances

in the direction in which the coil is wound. For lap, it is progressive if the
starting end of a coil is connected to one commutator segment and
the finishing end is connected to the commutator segment that is m
segments ahead of the previous one. For wave, it is progressive if, after
one trip around the commutator, a segment is reached that is m
segments ahead of the starting segment.
 Use –m if the winding is retrogressive. For lap, it is retrogressive if the
finishing end of a coil is connected to a commutator segment that is
m segments behind the previous one. For wave, it is retrogressive if,
after one trip around the commutator, a segment is reached that is m
segments behind of the starting segment.
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The various pitches should have the following relations:
 For Lap winding:

a. The back and front pitches are both odd numbers. They cannot be
equal and they differ numerically by 2m. Hence,
YB  YF  2m
Use:
+2m for progressive
-2m for retrogressive
b. Since YB and YF must be about one pole pitch (or coil pitch, YS) (Fig.
1.14) and differ numerically by 2m, then for a given number of
conductors per slot, n:
For Progressive Winding:
YB  nYS  1
YF  YB  2m
For Retrogressive Winding:
YB  nYS  1
YF  YB  2m
c. The commutator pitch is numerically equal to one-half the resultant

pitch.
YR  YB  YF  2m
YC   m
YR
YC  segments
2
 For Wave Winding:
a. Back and front pitches are odd numbers. They may be equal or differ
by 2m.
b. The commutator pitch, YC, is numerically equal to average pitch, YA.

YA must be an integer.
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MODULE 1
YB  YF Y C  m
YA   R 
2 2 P
2
EXAMPLE 1.1.2
Determine the (a) coil pitch, (b) back pitch, (c) front pitch, (d) resultant pitch, and (e)
commutator pitch for a 4-pole dc generator with a simplex progressive 2-layer lap
winding, 16 slots with two conductors per slot and 16 commutator segments.
Solution
S 16
(a) YS   k   0  4 slots
P 4
(b) YB  nYS  1  24  1  9
C  YF  YB  2m  9  21  7
d  YR  YB  YF  9  7  2
e YC   m   1 segment
Winding Table for Example 1.1.2
Back End Connections Front End Connections

From From To To From To
Segment Conductor/Slot Conductor/Slot Segment Conductor/Slot Conductor/Slot
1 1/1 10/5 2 10/5 3/2
2 3/2 12/6 3 12/6 5/3
3 5/3 14/7 4 14/7 7/4
4 7/4 16/8 5 16/8 9/5
5 9/5 18/9 6 18/9 11/6
6 11/6 20/10 7 20/10 13/7
7 13/7 22/11 8 22/11 15/8
8 15/8 24/12 9 24/12 17/9
9 17/9 26/13 10 26/13 19/10
10 19/10 28/14 11 28/14 21/11
11 21/11 30/15 12 30/15 23/12
12 23/12 32/16 13 32/16 25/13
13 25/13 2/1 14 2/1 27/14
14 27/14 4/2 15 4/2 29/15
15 29/15 6/3 16 6/3 31/16
16 31/16 8/4 1 8/4 1/1
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MODULE 1
The winding is completed by travelling 9 conductors to right at the back and 7 to the left
at the front of the armature. Based on the winding table, the front end of conductor 1 in
the upper half of slot 1 is connected to commutator segment 1. The back end is joined
at the back of the armature to conductor 10 in the lower half of slot 5. The front end of
conductor 10 is connected to segment 2 to which is connected the front end of
conductor 3 in the upper half of slot 2. This continues until we reach conductor 1 from
where we started.
EXAMPLE 1.1.3
Determine the (a) coil pitch, (b) back pitch, (c) front pitch, (d) resultant pitch, and (e)
commutator pitch for a 4-pole dc generator with a duplex retrogressive 2-layer wave
winding with 16 slots and 16 commutator segments.
Solution
S 16
YS   k   0  4 slots
P 4
C  m 16  2
YA    7
P 4
2 2
If we let YB  YF :
YB  YF
YA   7
2
YB  YB
 7
2
YB  YF  7
or if we let YB  YF  2m :
YB  YF  4
YB  YF  14
2YB  18; YB  9, YF  5
YR  YB  YF  14
YC  YA  7 segments
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YB = YF = 7
1 1/1 8/4 8 8/4 15/8
8 15/8 22/11 15 22/11 29/15
15 29/15 4/2 6 4/2 11/6
6 11/6 18/9 13 18/9 25/13
13 25/13 32/16 4 32/16 7/4
4 7/4 14/7 11 14/7 21/11
11 21/11 28/14 2 28/14 3/2
2 3/2 10/5 9 10/5 17/9
9 17/9 24/12 16 24/12 31/16
16 31/16 6/3 7 6/3 13/7
7 13/7 20/10 14 20/10 27/14
14 27/14 2/1 5 2/1 9/5
5 9/5 16/8 12 16/8 23/12
12 23/12 30/15 3 30/15 5/3
3 5/3 12/6 10 12/6 19/10
10 19/10 26/13 1 26/13 1/1
As shown above, conductor 1 is connected to conductor 8 (i.e., YB = 7) at the back and

to commutator segment 1 at the front. Next, conductor 8 is joined to commutator
segment 8 (i.e., YC = 7) to which is connected the front end of conductor 15 (i.e., YF = 7).
Continuing this way, we return to conductor 1 from where we started. Hence, the winding
closes upon itself.

YB = 9, YF = 5
1 1/1 10/5 8 10/5 15/8
8 15/8 24/12 15 24/12 29/15
15 29/15 6/3 6 6/3 11/6
6 11/6 20/10 13 20/10 25/13
13 25/13 2/1 4 2/1 7/4
4 7/4 16/8 11 16/8 21/11
11 21/11 30/15 2 30/15 3/2
2 3/2 12/6 9 12/6 17/9
9 17/9 26/13 16 26/13 31/16
16 31/16 8/4 7 8/4 13/7
7 13/7 22/11 14 22/11 27/14
14 27/14 4/2 5 4/2 9/5
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5 9/5 18/9 12 18/9 23/12
12 23/12 32/16 3 32/16 5/3
3 5/3 14/7 10 14/7 19/10
10 19/10 28/14 1 28/14 1/1
As shown in the above tables, both back- and front-pitch combinations are possible. The
only difference is that in the first winding table where YB = YF = 7, the coil pitch is less than
4 slots (YS = 3 < 180 electrical degrees). The winding is fractional-pitched. When YB = 9 and
YF = 5, the coil span is exactly equal to 4 slots (180 elect. degrees). The winding is full-
pitched.
EXAMPLE 1.1.4
Calculate the commutator pitches for the following pole and commutator segment
combinations: (a) 6 poles, 34 segments and (b) 8 poles, 63 segments. Assume a simplex
wave winding.
Solution
a  6 poles, 34 segments
C  m 34  1
YC    11 retrogressive
P 6
2 2
 b  8 poles, 63 segments
C  m 63  1
YC    16  progressive
P 8
2 2
EXAMPLE 1.1.5
Determine the commutator pitch for a four-pole simplex wave-wound armature having
21 segments. Also list the commutator segments in the proper order as the coils are
traced through the entire winding from segment 1 until it closes.
Solution
C  m 21  1
YC    10 or 11
P 4
2 2
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For YC = 10:
11 21 10 20 9 19 8 18 7 17
12 2 13 3 14 4 15 5 16 6
For YC = 11:
12 2 13 3 14 4 15 5 16 6
11 21 10 20 9 19 8 18 7 17
 Degree of Reentrancy: All dc armatures have closed-circuit windings. This implies

that they may be traced completely from any point through all or part of the
winding, and such tracing will always lead back to the starting point.
 For Lap: The degree of reentrancy is that number which is the highest
common factor between the number of commutator segments and the
commutator pitch.
 For Wave:
 YC
 m if  integer
m

Reentrancy  
 YC
 1 if  integer
 m
 Number of Parallel Paths, a: It refers to the number of groups of coils in series

connection and connected in parallel between the positive and negative
brushes.
 For lap: a  mP
 For wave: a  2m
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NOTE: When the current passes through any armature winding, it always divides into
an even number of parallel paths.
 Position and Number of Brushes: The brushes, like field poles, remain fixed in space
as the commutator and winding rotate. The number of brushes for lap and wave
are given below.
 For lap, the number of brushes is equal to the number of poles.

 For wave, only two brushes are necessary, however, as many brushes as
there are poles may be used.
It is very important that brushes are in correct position relative to the field poles. In
order to find the position of the brushes, a ring diagram like the one shown in Fig.
1.1.16 is quite helpful. Brush positions can be located by finding the direction of
currents flowing in the various conductors. A brush is placed on a commutator
segment where the currents in the conductors are entering or leaving that
segment.
The actual current direction in a conductor can be obtained by Fleming’s Right-

Hand Rule which will be discussed in Unit 2 of this module. For now, we can assume
downward currents for conductors under N-pole and upward currents for
conductors under S-pole. In Example 1.1.2, the pole pitch, S/P, is 4 slots per pole or
8 conductors per pole (since there are 2 conductors per slot). We can, therefore,
distribute the conductors between the N and S poles in this manner:
N S N S
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32
Figure 1.1.15 Distribution of conductors between N and S poles for Example 1.1.2
Downward currents are assigned to conductors 1 to 8 and 17 to 24, while upward

currents are given for conductors 9 to 16 and 25 to 32. As shown in Fig. 1.1.16,
currents are entering segments 1 and 9, and currents are leaving segments 5 and
13. Hence, a brush is placed on each of these segments. In a dc generator, the
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brush from which current is flowing out is assigned positive and the brush where
current is flowing in is negative. The opposite is true for a dc motor. In all, there are
four brushes (equal to 4 poles), two positive and two negative. If brushes of the
same polarity are connected together, then the armature conductors are group
into four parallel paths (a = mP = 1 x 4), with 8 conductors in series per path.
Back-end Connections
8 1 10 3 12 5 14 7 16 9 18 11 20 13 22 15 24 17 26 19 28 21 30 23 32 25 2 27 4 29 6 31 8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
+ - + -
Front-end Connections
Figure 1.1.16 Ring Diagram for Example 1.1.2
EXAMPLE 1.1.6
Determine the degrees of reentrancy, number of parallel paths, number of conductors

in series per path and the number of brushes for the following windings:
a) triplex-lap, 48 segments, 4 poles
b) triplex-wave, 90 segments, 6 poles
Solution
a triplex - lap, 48 segments, 4 poles

YC  m  3
C  48 segments
degree of reentrancy  HCF b/w C and YC
 HCF b/w 48 and 3
 3 (triple re - entrant*)
a  mP  34  12 parallel paths
Number of coils  C  48 coils
43
MODULE 1
Assuming a single - turn coil :

 cond. turn 
No. of conductors, Z   2 1 48 coils
 turn  coil 
 96 conductors
96
No. of conductors in series/path   8 cond./path
12
b  P  4 brushes
*A triple re-entrant winding means that 3 closed circuits are formed in tracing through
the winding. Each closed circuit contains only one-third of the total number of coils. This
can be shown below.
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22
46 43 40 37 34 31 28 25
Closed Circuit 1
2 5 8 11 14 17 20 23
47 44 41 38 35 32 29 26
Closed Circuit 2
3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24
48 45 42 39 36 33 30 27
Closed Circuit 3
44
MODULE 1
 b  triplex - wave, 90 segments, 6 poles

C  m 90  3
YC    31 or 29
P 6
2 2
YC 31 29
  integer or  integer
m 3 3
Reentrancy  1 (single re - entrant)
a  2m  23  6 parallel paths
Number of coils  C  90 coils
Assuming a single - turn coil :
 cond. turn 
No. of conductors, Z   2  1  90 coils
 turn  coil 
 180 conductors
180
No. of conductors in series/path   30 cond/path
6
b  2 or P  6
 Width of each Brush: The width of each brush must cover m segments.
EXAMPLE 1.1.7
Determine the armature winding parameters for a retrogressive triplex-wave armature

with 15 slots, 15 segments and 2 poles.
Solution
S 15 1
YS   k    7 slots/pole
P 2 2
C  m 15  3
YC    12 segments
P 2
2 2
Y  YF
YA  YC  B  12
2
45
MODULE 1
YB  YF  24
YB  YF  23  6
YB  15, YF  9
 YC 
Reentrancy  m  3   4  integer 
m 
a  2m  23  6 parallel paths
b  2
width of each brush  m  3 segments

1 1/1 16/8 13 16/8 25/13
13 25/13 10/5 10 10/5 19/10
10 19/10 4/2 7 4/2 13/7
7 13/7 28/14 4 28/14 7/4
4 7/4 22/11 1 22/11 1/1
---First Closed Circuit----
3 3/2 18/9 15 18/9 27/14
15 27/14 12/6 12 12/6 21/11
12 21/11 6/3 9 6/3 15/8
9 15/8 30/15 6 30/15 9/5
6 9/5 24/12 3 24/12 3/2
---Second Closed Circuit---

5 5/3 20/10 2 20/10 29/15
2 29/15 14/7 14 14/7 23/12
14 23/12 8/4 11 8/4 17/9
11 17/9 2/1 8 2/1 11/6
8 11/6 26/3 5 26/3 5/3
---Third Closed Circuit---
Reentrancy = 3
46
MODULE 1
Back-end Connections
P Q R
22 1 16 25 10 19 4 13 28 7 24 3 18 27 12 21 6 15 30 9 26 5 20 29 14 23 8 17 2 11
1 13 10 7 4 3 15 12 9 6 5 2 14 11 8
- + - + - +
Front-end Connections
Ring Diagram for Example 1.1.7
From the equivalent ring diagram, it is found that there are three adjacent segments
where currents are meeting, namely, segments 6, 7, and 8. A positive brush (with width =
3 segments) will be positioned on these segments. To find the position of the negative
brush, it can be seen that points P, Q, and R are the points where currents are separating.
Hence, these points will fix the position of the negative brush. However, these points are
found at the back and not at the commutator end of the armature. In this case, there
are two alternative positions that we can choose from for each point that is identified.
We can select either segment 1 or 13 for P, segment 3 or 15 for Q, and either segment 2
or 14 for point R. In other words, a negative brush can be placed on segments 1-2-3 or
13-14-15. Obviously, the width of the negative brush will be such that it will cover 3
segments.
3
6 9 12 15
4 1
+ 7 10 13 -
5 2
8 11 14
Schematic Diagram for Example 1.1.7 showing six parallel paths
Note that the paths 6-3-15, 7-10-13 and 8-11-14 have two coils in series while the other
paths, 6-9-12-15, 7-4-1-13, and 8-5-2-14, have 3 coils in series. The paths with lesser coils will
supply less current to the external circuit. However, the identity of the coils in any path is
rapidly changing from moment to moment since the armature conductors are in
continuous motion over the pole faces. Therefore, the average value of the current
through any particular coil is the same. In armatures having a great many coils and
segments, a difference of one or two coils among parallel paths would be less significant
than in the 15-slot armature chosen for this example.
47
MODULE 1
Armature with More Commutator Segments than Slots
Modern armatures are generally constructed with more commutator segments than slots
for the following reasons:
a) Commutation is improved because as the number of segments is increased, the

voltage between those that are adjacent to each other decreases.
b) As the number of core slots is reduced, the teeth become mechanically stronger,
and this results in less damage to laminations and coils when these are handled in
manufacture.
c) Assuming that a comparatively large number of segments has been selected for
good commutation, the choice of an armature with one-half, one-third, one-
fourth, etc., as many slots means that fewer coils will be coils will be constructed.
This reduces the manufacturing cost.
Multi-element Winding
When the number of slots does not equal the number of segments, the formed coils are
no longer simple and double-ended. For example, an armature with twice as many
segments as slots has double coils, each one of which connects to a pair of segments.
Each of the completely formed coils is a sort of a double-element coil. When they are
constructed, the coils are wound with two wires at the same time, with as many turns
used as necessary. When completed, they will have four ends as indicated in Fig.
1.1.17(a). Note that coil ends a and a’ correspond to one element, while coil ends b and
b’ correspond to the second element. Connections to the commutator for a simplex-lap
winding are shown in Fig. 1.1.17(b). Also, Fig. 1.1.18 represents a triple-element coil for
wave winding.
As a general rule, when there are n times as many segments as slots, each complete coil
must have n coil elements. Thus, if the ratio of segments to slots (C/S) is 2, 3, 4, etc., the
individual coils will have 2, 3, 4, etc., elements, respectively.
48
MODULE 1
Figure 1.1.17 (a) Formed double-element simplex-lap coil; (b) Commutator connections
for simplex-lap winding with double-element coil
Figure 1.1.18 (a) Formed triple-element simplex-wave coil; (b) Commutator connections
for simplex-wave winding with triple-element coil
49
MODULE 1
Dead or Dummy Elements in Armature Winding
When the ratio of segments to slots (C/S) is not a whole number, it will always be found
that there is one complete element of a multi-element coil that cannot be used
electrically. There are not sufficient segments for exactly two ends of one element. The
unconnected element is called a dead or dummy element. It serves only to keep the
revolving structure balance mechanically. Figure 1.1.19 is a complete winding diagram
for a four-pole simplex-wave winding and illustrates the idea of the dead, or dummy
element.
Figure 1.1.19 Winding diagram for 4-pole simplex-wave armature with dummy element
NOTE: 1) The pitch calculations for YS and YC are made in exactly the same way,
regardless of whether the number of slots and segments is the same or
not.
2) The number of active elements is equal to the number of commutator
segments.
3) The number of coils is equal to the number of slots.
50
MODULE 1
C
4) The number of elements per coil is  k , where k is the decimal
S
number to be added to C/S to round it off to the nearest integer. If C/S
is not an integer, then a dummy element is present.
5) The number of element-sides (conductors) per slot is twice the number
of elements per coil.
EXAMPLE 1.1.8
Determine the armature winding parameters for a simplex-lap armature with 12 slots, 24
segments and four poles. Also, calculate the number of active elements, number of coils,
number of elements per coil and the number of conductors per slot.
Solution
S 12
YS   k   0  3 slots per pole
P 4
YC  m  1 segment
YR  2YC  2 conductors
a  mP  12  2 parallel paths
Reentrancy  HCF b/w 24 and 1  1 single reentrant 
b  P  4 brushes
width of each brush  m  1 segment
No. of active elements  C  24 elements
C 24 elements
No. of elements per coil   k   0  2
S 12 coil
No. of conductors per slot  2  No. of elements per coil
 22  4 conductors per slot
YB  4YS  1  43  1  13 conductors
YF  YS  2m  13  21  11 conductors
51
MODULE 1
Complete winding diagram for Example 1.1.8
Equalizer Connections for Lap Windings
The voltages generated in the various paths of lap-wound armature are rarely the same.
This situation arises in the practical machine because the air gaps under all the poles are
not always alike, due to some degree of misalignment, and because the reluctances of
the several iron magnetic circuits are unequal.
 As a result of such voltage inequalities, circulating currents flow in the armature

winding and tends to heat the armature to temperatures well above those caused
by the normal load current.
 These undesirable currents pass across the brush contacts as they circulate from
one path to another, and this produces an unusual amount of arcing and burning
at the commutator. If the situation becomes serious, a flashover between positive
and negative brushes is likely to occur, a situation that represents a direct short
circuit across the supply lines.
52
MODULE 1
NOTE: Circulating currents can flow in lap-wound armatures only because the
conductors of each path are not distributed completely around the
circumference, as in wave windings, but occupy positions under one pair of
poles at a time.
To overcome the detrimental effects resulting from the circulating currents, it is customary
to use equalizer connections in all lap-wound armatures.
 Equalizer Connections: These are low-resistance copper wires that connect

between points on the armature winding that are 360 electrical degrees apart;
they are placed on the armature outside the influence of the magnetic field. They
are non-potential-generating wires and carry equalizing currents only. Such
equalizer connections perform two important functions:
a) They relieve the brushes of the circulating current load by causing the
latter to be bypassed.
b) They create a magnetic effect that actually reduces the flux under those
poles where there is too much magnetism and increases the flux under
those poles where there is too little magnetism.
Their usual location is at the rear end of the armature winding, each of the
equalizers being tapped in at the rear bend of the coils. Sometimes, when this is
possible, equalizer rings connect together commutator segments exactly two pole
pitches apart. The diagram in Fig. 1.1.20 indicates one equalizer connection to
points A, B, and C for a six-pole machine.
Figure 1.1.20 Sample Equalizer Connection for a 6-pole machine
53
MODULE 1
Since equalizers must connect points that are exactly 360 electrical degrees apart, it
follows that the total number of coils in an armature winding must be divisible by half the
number of poles. Thus for 100% equalization,
C
No. of Equalizers 
P
2
Where:
C = total number of commutator segments
= total number of coils
In many lap-wound armatures, the equalizers are more easily made at the commutator
instead of the coils. In such cases, it is common to refer to the armature as having a cross-
connected commutator.
EXAMPLE 1.1.9
Determine the number of equalizer connections at the commutator of a 36-segment 6-

pole armature for 100% equalization? 75% equalization? Make a table showing those that
are joined together at each one.
Solution
For 100% equalization:
C 36
No. of Equalizers    12 equalizers
P 6
2 2
Equalizer Connections
1-13-25 5-17-29 9-21-33
2-14-26 6-18-30 10-22-34
3-15-27 7-19-31 11-23-35
4-16-28 8-20-32 12-24-36
For 75% equalization:
C 36
No. of Equalizers   0.75  9 equalizers
P 6
2 2
54
MODULE 1
Equalizer Connections
1-10-19 4-13-22 7-16-25
2-11-20 5-14-23 8-17-26
3-12-21 6-15-24 9-18-27
Frog-leg Winding
The frog-leg winding combines the advantages of both lap and wave types. The term
frog-leg is used to indicate the Allis-Chalmers Manufacturing Company similarity
between this type of coil and the legs of a frog. The real purpose of this type of winding
is to eliminate the equalizer connections and yet to retain their advantages. The wave
portion of the frog-leg winding, acting together with the lap portion, serves to replace
the equalizers, but acts, in addition, as a current-carrying winding.
If we look at Fig. 1.1.20 once again, we see that points A, B and C are at the same
potential. Since this is so, points a and a’, b and b’, and c and c’ are also at the same
potential because these points are connected to the equalizer and are themselves
outside the influence of the magnetic field. It is therefore quite possible, without affecting
the winding in any way, to connect points a’ and b by connection E; points b’ and c by
connection F; and points c’ and a by connection D. These additional connections are
shown in the diagram below.
Figure 1.1.21 A simple modification of Fig. 1.1.20 in which wires D, E and F have been
added
55
MODULE 1
By carefully looking at Fig. 1.1.21, you will observe that it really represents a sort of
combination lap-wave winding. The wave winding resulted when the second set of
connections was made, i.e., E, F and D.
Suppose that the wire representing each of the single-turn coil of Fig.1.1.21 is slit in half
lengthwise from each of the commutator segments up to the points a, a’, b, b’, c and
c’. Electrically, no change has taken place from such an imaginary slitting process. The
equalizer can now be omitted for the reason that any wave elements, such as E, and the
succeeding lap element, such as B, connect two points on the commutator exactly two
pole pitches apart. In addition, the net voltage theoretically generated in elements E
and B is zero. Elements E and B together therefore have the two important characteristic
properties that must be possessed by an equalizer connection and may serve in the
place of the removed connection. The connections are as given in Figure 1.1.22.
Figure 1.1.22 A further modification of Figs. 1.1.20 and 1.1.21 in which the arrangement
of coils appears like a combination of a lap and wave winding.
In practice, the lap portion of the frog-leg winding is always simplex, so that it is necessary
to give the wave portion a multiplicity equal to P/2. Thus for frog-leg winding, the number
of parallel paths is given by
56
MODULE 1
a FL  aL  aW
a FL  mP  2m
P
a FL  1P  2 
 2
a FL  2P
EXAMPLE 1.1.10
How many parallel paths are there in (a) a 10-pole frog-leg winding and (b) an 8-pole
frog-leg winding?
Solution
(a) P  10 poles
a FL  2P  210  20 parallel paths
(b) P  8 poles
a FL  2P  28  16 parallel paths
EXAMPLE 1.1.11
Determine the coil and commutator pitches for a 24-slot, 48-segment, 6-pole frog-leg
armature winding.
Solution
S 24
YS   k   0  4 slots/pole
P 6
Lap portion : YC  m  1 segment

Wave portion :
P 6
m    3
2 2
C  m 48  3
YC    15 or 17 segments
P 6
2 2
57
MODULE 1
EXERCISES 1.1
Test your skills by working on the exercises below.
1. Calculate the coil pitches and indicate the slots into which the first coils should be
placed for the following armature windings: (a) 36 slots, 4 poles; (b) 57 slots, four
poles; (c) 76 slots, 6 poles; (d) 132 slots, 8 poles; (e) 270 slots, 10 poles.
2. The armature of a 6-pole generator carries a total of 350 A. What current flows in
each path if the winding is (a) triplex lap? (b) duplex wave?
3. The total armature current carried by a 50-hp, 4-pole, 230-V motor is 180 A. If the
winding is wave, how much current is handled by each path and by each brush
arm if there are (a) 4 brush arms? (b) 2 brush arms?
4. Determine the commutator pitches for the following wave-wound armatures: (a)
75 segments, 4 poles; (b) 93 segments, 4 poles; (c) 229 segments, 6 poles.
5. A 17-slot, 33-segment armature is wound simplex-wave for four poles. Calculate

the coil and commutator pitches and specify whether or not there will be a
“dead” element.
6. A 500-kW, 600-V, 10-pole generator has an armature with 108 slots, 324
commutator segments, and a simplex-lap winding with a total of 648 conductors.
Calculate: (a) the no. of conductors per slot; (b) the no. of winding elements per
coil; (c) the no. of turns per winding element.
7. How many equalizers are there in a 6-pole, 50% equalized armature in which there
are 216 segments? To what three segments is the first equalizer connected?
8. Determine the coil and commutator pitches, and the number of parallel paths for
a 72-slot, 288-segment, 6-pole frog-leg armature winding.
58
MODULE 1
GRADED QUIZ
Work on Graded Quiz No. 1

Schedule: TBA
Time: TBA
59

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PRINCIPLES,

Generator and Motor Construction

Theraja, B. T. (2005). A Textbook of Electrical Technology Vol.2. New Delhi: S. Chand

Chapman, S. J. (2004). Electric Machinery Fundamentals. McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc.

Siskind, C. S. (1982). Electrical Machines. McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.

Unit Learning Outcomes

At the end of this learning unit, you should be able to:

 Know the construction and the arrangement of the different

Generator and Motor Construction

 DC Machine: Construction and Working Principle

The term dynamo is a symbol of power. Electrically, a dynamo is defined as a rotating

NOTE: DC generators and motors are fundamentally similar in construction. They

 Stator (stationary part)

Figure 1.1.1 The Stator

Figure 1.1.2 Field-pole Core

This construction has several desirable features among which are:

a) the shunt-field winding that has a comparatively large number of turns

Figure 1.1.3 Field Windings

 Rotor (rotating part)

Figure 1.1.4 The Rotor

Figure 1.1.5 Armature Slots

 The commutator is a built-up group of hard-drawn copper bars, wedge-

Figure 1.1.6 The Commutator and Brushes

 The brushes are made of rectangular block-shaped carbon. The only

Types of Armature Winding

Figure 1.1.7 Lap Winding Connections

Figure 1.1.8 Wave Winding Connections

Figure 1.1.9 Single- and Double-layer Windings

Figure 1.1.10 (a) Two conductors in two layers per slot

Armature Winding Parameters

 Pole Pitch: It may be variously defined as:

Figure 1.1.11 Coil Pitch

NOTE: Fractional-pitched windings are purposely used to effect substantial saving in

The coil span can be obtained by the following equation:

Figure 1.1.12 Single-turn Coil

Now, if we say that length AB is conductor 1 and length CD is conductor 8 placed

Figure 1.1.13 Multi-turn Coil

 For Lap: YC is equal to the degree of multiplicity, m, or the “plex” of the

NOTE:  Use +m if the winding is progressive. A progressive winding advances

The various pitches should have the following relations:

 For Lap winding:

For Progressive Winding:

For Retrogressive Winding:

c. The commutator pitch is numerically equal to one-half the resultant

b. The commutator pitch, YC, is numerically equal to average pitch, YA.

Winding Table for Example 1.1.2

Back End Connections Front End Connections

Winding Table for Example 1.1.3

As shown above, conductor 1 is connected to conductor 8 (i.e., YB = 7) at the back and

Winding Table for Example 1.1.3

 Degree of Reentrancy: All dc armatures have closed-circuit windings. This implies

 Number of Parallel Paths, a: It refers to the number of groups of coils in series

 For lap, the number of brushes is equal to the number of poles.

The actual current direction in a conductor can be obtained by Fleming’s Right-

Downward currents are assigned to conductors 1 to 8 and 17 to 24, while upward

Figure 1.1.16 Ring Diagram for Example 1.1.2

Determine the degrees of reentrancy, number of parallel paths, number of conductors

a triplex - lap, 48 segments, 4 poles