F8 AOF Lecture Note - 7.2023

AOF ACCA Paper F8 – Audit and Assurance
Lecture note
ACCA F8
LECTURE NOTE
4.2023
Ngo Nhu Vinh, PhD, FCCA
Nguyen Thu Hao, MA, FCCA
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Lecture note
SECTION 1: AUDIT AND ASSURANCE ENGAGEMENTS 4
1. THE CONCEPT OF AUDIT 4
2. ASSURANCE ENGAGEMENTS 6
3. DEVELOPMENT AND STATUS OF IAS 8
SECTION 2: CODE OF ETHICS AND CONDUCT 12
1. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF PROFESSIONAL ETHICS 12
2. THREATS TO INDEPENDENCE AND OBJECTIVITY 14
SECTION 3: RISK ASSESSMENT 23
1. MATERIALITY 23
2. INTRODUCTION TO RISK 25
3. UNDERSTANDING THE ENTITY AND ITS ENVIRONMENT 27
4. RESPONDING TO THE RISK ASSESSMENT 31
5. FRAUDS 34
SECTION 4: AUDIT PLANNING AND DOCUMENTATION 36
1. AUDIT PLANNING 36
2. AUDIT DOCUMENTATION 40
3. INTRODUCTION TO AUDIT EVIDENCE 44
4. ASSERTION 46
5. AUDIT PROCEDURES 47
SECTION 5: INTERNAL CONTROLS 49
1. INTERNAL CONTROL SYSTEMS 49
2. THE USE OF INTERNAL CONTROL SYSTEMS BY AUDITORS 54
3. EVALUATION OF INTERNAL CONTROL COMPONENTS 57
4. CONTROL OBJECTIVES, CONTROL PROCEDURES AND TEST OF CONTROL FOR MAIN CYCLE 59
SECTION 6: AUDIT SUBSTANTIVE PROCEDURES 79

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1. AUDIT PROCEDURES 79
2. SALES AND RECEIVABLES 82
3. INVENTORY 89
4. LIABILITIES AND CAPTIAL 98
5. CASH AND BANK 106
6. NON-CURRENT ASSETS (FIXED ASSETS) 109
SECTION 7: REPORTING 113
LEARNING OBJECTIVE 113
INTRODUCTION 113
7.1. THE CONSIDERATION OF OPENING BALANCES AND COMPARATIVES 113
7.2. SUBSEQUENT EVENTS REVIEW 118
7.3. GOING CONCERN REVIEW 122
7.4. OBTAINING WRITTEN REPRESENSTATION 127
7.5. CONSIDERATION OF MISSTATEMENTS 133
7.6. OVERALL REVIEW 133
7.7. AUDIT REPORT 134
7.8. MANAGEMENT LETTER 145
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Lecture note
SECTION 1: AUDIT AND ASSURANCE ENGAGEMENTS

1. THE CONCEPT OF AUDIT
WHAT IS OBJECTIVE OF AN EXTERNAL AUDIT?
The objective of an audit of financial statements is to enable the auditor to express an opinion
on whether the financial statements are prepared, in all material respects, in accordance with
an applicable financial reporting framework.
The phrases used to express the auditor’s opinion are “give a true and fair view” or “present
fairly, in all material respects”, which are equivalent terms.
Truth and fairness
True Information is factual and conforms to reality. In addition, the information

conforms to required standards and law. The financial statements have been
correctly extracted from the books and records.
Fair Information is free from discrimination and bias and in compliance with
expected standards and rules. The accounts should reflect the commercial
substance of the company's underlying transactions.
An audit gives the reader reasonable assurance on the truth and fairness of the financial
statements. The audit report does not guarantee that the financial statements are correct, but
that they are true and fair within a reasonable margin of error.
Audits give reasonable assurance that the accounts are free from material misstatement.
Definition of materiality
Materiality is an expression of the relative significance or importance of a particular matter
in the context of the financial statements as a whole.
A matter is material if its omission or misstatement would reasonably be expected to
influence the economic decisions of users taken on the basis of the financial statements.
Materiality depends on the size of the item or error judged in the particular circumstances of
its omission or misstatement.
WHAT ARE BENEFITS OF EXTERNAL AUDITS?

Under Company Act, most companies are required to have an audit.
The advantages (benefits) of statutory audit include:
Shareholders The impartial view provided by the auditors
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Companies Recommendations being made in relation to accounting and control

systems and the possibility that auditors might detect fraud and error
Other - More credibility for financial statements prepared by management

advantages - Reduce the risk of fraud and errors
- Other users like banks, government, creditors, employees can use
the audited accounts to help them in decision making.
ACCOUNTABILITY, STEWARDSHIP AND AGENCY
Accountability is the quality or state of being accountable; that is, being required or
expected to justify actions and decisions. It suggests an obligation or willingness to accept
responsibility for one's actions.
[Accountability means holding those in charge accountable for their actions. In the context
of a company, it means holding the directors who manage the company responsible for
explaining their actions to the shareholders who own the company.]
Stewardship means taking care of another person’s property or investment.
[Stewardship is when a person is responsible for taking care of something on behalf of
another. Directors are responsible for the management of the shareholders property.]
Agents are people employed or used to provide a particular service. In the case of a
company, the people being used to provide the service of managing the business also have
the second role of trying to maximize their personal wealth in their own right
[Agency is where an agent acts on behalf of a principle to perform tasks for them. In the
context of a company, the directors are the agents of the shareholders (principles) who
entrust them to manage the running of the business.]
This separation of ownership and management is often referred to as the ‘Agency Problem’
or “Agency Relationship Problem”
Applying these three terms together, we can say:
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Lecture note
Directors are accountable to shareholders. Directors act as stewards of the shareholders’

investments. They are agents of the shareholders.
Directors of all companies are required to produce financial statements annually which give
a true and fair view of the affairs of the company and its profit and loss for the period. They
are also encouraged to communicate with shareholders on matters relating to directors’ pay
and benefits, going concern and management of risks. An assurance engagement may help
to confirm that the information presents a fair picture.
An audit provides assurance to the shareholders and other stakeholders of a company on the
financial statements because it is independent and impartial.
2. ASSURANCE ENGAGEMENTS
An assurance engagement is one in which a practitioner expresses a conclusion designed to
enhance the degree of confidence of the intended users other than the responsible party about
the subject matter information (that is, the outcome of the evaluation or measurement of a
subject matter against criteria).
Assurance means the auditors’ satisfaction as to the reliability of the assertion made by one
party for use by another party.
An assurance engagement performed by a practitioner will consist of the following FIVE
elements:
(a) A three party relationship

Intended users are the person, persons or class of persons for whom the practitioner
prepares the assurance report.
The responsible party is the person (or persons) responsible for the subject matter (in a
direct reporting engagement) or subject matter information of the assurance engagement.
The practitioner is the individual providing professional services that will review the
subject matter and provide the assurance.
(b) A subject matter: for which the auditor is giving assurance on. For audit assurance, the
subject matter is the financial statements.
(c ) Suitable criteria: use by the auditor to measure the subject matter
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Lecture note
(d) Evidence collection: collected by auditor to support the assurance to be given

(e) A conclusion or an opinion
Reasonable vs. Limited Assurance
The level of assurance is determined by the nature of procedures performed and their results.
Reasonable assurance Limited Assurance
ISAE 3000 (Revised) Assurance engagements Limited assurance is a lower level of

other than audits or reviews of historical assurance. ISAE 3000 states that the
financial information states that the objective objective of a limited assurance
of a reasonable assurance engagement is a engagement is a reduction in assurance
reduction in assurance engagement risk to an engagement risk to a level that is
acceptably low level in the circumstances of acceptable in the circumstances of the
the engagement as the basis for the assurance engagement, but where that risk is greater
practitioner's conclusion. The conclusion than for a reasonable assurance
would usually be expressed in a positive engagement, as the basis for a negative
form. form of expression of the practitioner’s
conclusion.
REVIEW ENGAGEMENTS
(= a type of assurance engagement but not the same as audit)
The objective of a review engagement is to enable a practitioner to state whether, on the
basis of procedures which do not provide all the evidence that would be required in an audit,
anything has come to the practitioner’s attention that causes the auditor to believe that the
financial statements are not prepared, in all material respects, in accordance with an
applicable financial reporting framework.
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Lecture note
3. DEVELOPMENT AND STATUS OF IAS

RULES GOVERNING AUDITS
The International Standards on Auditing (ISAs) are produced by the International Auditing
and Assurance Standards Board (IAASB), a technical standing committee of IFAC.
An explanation of the workings of the IAASB and the authority of ISAs are laid out in the
Preface to the International Standards on Quality Control, Auditing, Review, Other
Assurance and Related Services.
- ISAs are to be paid in the audit of historical financial information
- In exceptional circumstances, an auditor may judge it necessary to depart from an ISA
in order to more effectively achieve the objective of an audit. When such a situation
arises, the auditor should be prepared to justify the departure.
- ISAs do not override the local regulations governing the audit of financial or other
information in a particular country, but:
When the ISAs conform with local The audit of financial or other information in that
regulations on a particular subject country in accordance with local regulations will
automatically comply with the ISA regarding that
subject.
When local regulations differ Member bodies should comply with the obligations
from, or conflict with, ISAs on a of members set forth in the IFAC Constitution as
particular subject regards these ISAs (ie encourage changes in local
regulations to comply with ISAs).
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Lecture note
THE WORKING PROCEDURES OF THE IAASB
Research and consultation

A project task force is established to develop a draft standard or practice statement.
Transparent debate
A proposed standard is discussed at a meeting, open to the public
Exposure for public comment

Exposure drafts are put on the IAASB's website and widely distributed for comment
for a minimum of 120 days.
Consideration of comments
Any comments as a result of the exposure draft are considered at an open meeting
of the IAASB, and it is revised as necessary for a minimum of 120 days.
Affirmative approval
Approval is made by the affirmative vote of at least 2/3 of IAASB members. of the
IAASB, and it is revised as necessary for a minimum of 120 days.
STATUS OF ISA
International Standards on Auditing (ISAs) are issued by the International Auditing and
Assurance Standards Board (IAASB) and provide guidance on the performance of an audit.
ISAs only apply to the audit of historical financial information. They are written in the
context of an audit of financial statements by an independent auditor.
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The ISAs contain basis principles and essential procedures together with related guidance in
the form of explanatory material and appendices. It is necessary to consider and understand
the entire text of an ISA to understand and apply the basic principles and essential
procedures.
The basic principles and essential procedures of an ISA are to be applied in all cases. If in
exceptional cases the auditor deems it necessary to depart from an ISA to achieve the overall
aim of the audit, then this departure must be justified.
CURRENT ISAs
(no need to remember, just be aware)
Preface to International Standards on Quality Control, Auditing Review, Other
Assurance and Related Services
Glossary of terms
International Standards on Quality Control
1 Quality control for firms that perform audits and reviews of historical
financial information, and other assurance and related services
engagements
Framework for Assurance Engagements
International Standards on Auditing
200 Overall objectives of the independent auditor and the conduct of an audit
in accordance with International Standards on Auditing
210 Agreeing the terms of audit engagements
220 Quality Control for an Audit of Historical Financial Statements
230 Audit documentation
240 The auditor's responsibilities relating to fraud in an audit of financial
statements
250 Consideration of laws and regulations in an audit of financial statements
260 Communication with those charged with governance
265 Communicating deficiencies in internal control to those charged with
governance and management
300 Planning an audit of financial statements
315 Identifying and assessing the risks of material misstatement through
understanding the entity and its environment
320 Materiality in planning and performing an audit
330 The auditor's responses to assessed risks
402 Audit considerations relating to an entity using a service organisation
450 Evaluation of misstatements identified during the audit
500 Audit evidence
501 Audit evidence – specific considerations for selected items
505 External confirmations
510 Initial audit engagements – opening balances
520 Analytical procedures
530 Audit sampling
540 Auditing accounting estimates, including fair value accounting estimates,
and related disclosures
550 Related parties
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560 Subsequent events

570 Going concern
580 Written representations
600 Special Considerations – Audits of Group Financial Statements
(Including the Work of Component Auditors)
610 Using the work of internal auditors
620 Using the work of an auditor's expert
700 Forming an opinion and reporting on financial statements
701 Communicating Key Audit Matters in the Auditor’s report
705 Modifications to the opinion in the independent auditor's report
706 Emphasis of matter paragraphs and other matter paragraphs in the
independent auditor's report
710 Comparative Information – Corresponding Figures and Comparative
Financial Statements
720 The Auditor’s Responsibility Relating to Other Information in Documents
Containing Audited Financial Statements
International Standards on Review Engagements
2400 Engagements to Review Financial Statements
2410 Review of Interim Financial Information Performed by the Independent
Auditor of the Entity
International Standards on Assurance Engagements
3000 Assurance Engagements Other than Audits or Reviews of Historical
Financial Information
International Standards on Related Services
4400 Engagements to Perform Agreed – Upon Procedures Regarding Financial
Information
4410 Engagements to Compile Financial Statements
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Lecture note
SECTION 2: CODE OF ETHICS AND CONDUCT

1. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF PROFESSIONAL ETHICS
The ACCA’s Code of ethics and conduct aligns with the IFAC’s Code of ethics for
professional accountants and sets out the 5 fundamental principles of principles of
professional ethics and provides a conceptual framework for applying them.
THE ACCA’s FUDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF PROFESSIONAL ETHICS
Integrity Members should be straightforward and honest in all professional

and business relationships.
Objectivity Members should not allow bias, conflicts of interest or undue

influence of others to override professional or business
judgements.
Professional Members have a continuing duty to maintain professional

competence and knowledge and skill at the level required to ensure that a client or
due care employer receives competent professional services based on current
developments in practice, legislation and techniques.
Members should act diligently and in accordance with applicable
technical and professional standards.
Confidentiality Members shall respect the confidentiality of information acquired

as a result of professional and business relationships and, should
not disclose any such information to third parties without proper
and specific authority, or unless there is a legal or professional
right or duty to disclose.
Confidential information acquired as a result of professional and
business relationships should not be used for the personal
advantage of members or third parties.
Professional Members should comply with relevant laws and regulations and
behaviour avoid any action that discredits the profession.
CONFIDENTIALITY
General rules
Information obtained during an audit is normally held to be confidential; that is it will not
be disclosed to a third party.
However, client information may be disclosed where:
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Lecture note
- Consent has been obtained from the client

- There is a public duty to disclose or
- There is a legal or professional right or duty to disclose
However, these rules are general principles only; more detailed guidance is also available to
accountants, as explained below.
SITUATIONS WHERE AN AUDITOR MAY DISCLOSE CONFIDENTIAL

INFORMATION ABOUT A CLIENT?
ACCA’s Code of ethics - obligatory disclosure

As noted above, ACCA’s Code of ethics confirms that when a member agrees to work for
a client in a professional capacity, it is an implied term of that agreement that the member
will not disclose a client’s affairs to any other person.
The recognised exceptions to this rule are where
- a member knows or suspects that his client has committed treason, or
- is involved in drug trafficking or terrorist offences.
In this situation, information must be disclosed to a competent authority. The actual
disclosure will depend on the laws of the jurisdiction where the auditor is located.
The auditor may also be obliged to provide information where a court demands disclosure.
Refusal to provide information is likely to be considered contempt of court with the
auditor being liable for this offence.
ACCA Code of ethics - voluntary disclosure

A member may also disclose client confidential information voluntarily, that is without
client permission, in a limited number of situations.
- To protect a member’s interest e.g. to allow a member to sue a client for unpaid
fees or defend an action for negligence.
- Where there is a public duty to disclose e.g. the client has committed an action
against the public interest such as unauthorised release of toxic chemicals.
CODE OF ETHICS DOES NOT INCLUDE “INDEPENDENCE”?
OBJECTIVITY AND INDEPENDENCE
Objectivity is a state of mind but in certain roles, the preservation of objectivity has to be
shown by the maintenance of independence from those influences which could impair
objectivity.
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The auditor is impartial and independent of management, so that he can give an objective
view on the financial statements of an entity. The onus is always on the auditor not only to
be ethical but also to be seen to be ethical.
WHAT IS INDEPENDENCE?
Independence of The state of mind that permits the provision of an opinion

mind without being affected by influences that compromise
professional judgement, allowing an individual to act with
integrity, and exercise objectivity and professional scepticism.
Independence in The avoidance of facts and circumstances that are so significant

appearance that a reasonable and informed third party, having knowledge of
all relevant information, including safeguards applied, would
reasonably conclude a firm's, or a member of the assurance
team's, integrity, objectivity or professional scepticism had been
compromised
2. THREATS TO INDEPENDENCE AND OBJECTIVITY
Self-interest The auditors’ own personal interest, e.g. the auditors may fear
the loss of fees.
Self-review When carrying out the audit, the auditors, review work that their
own firm has undertaken previously, e.g. preparing accounts or
making a valuation.
Advocacy If the auditors get involved in disputes concerning the client,

they may end up acting for or against the client, which
undermines the appearance of objectivity.
Familiarity If the auditors are involved with the client for a long time, they
may become unduly sympathetic towards directors and
management and thus too inclined to trust their unsupported
word.
Intimidation The auditors may be intimidated by a dominant or aggressive

atmosphere at the client.
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TYPES OF THREATS AND APPROPRIATE SAFEGUARDS
1. SELF-INTEREST THREAT SAFEGUARDS
a. FINANCIAL INTERESTS
[Key term]: A financial interest exists Appropriate safeguards:
where an audit firm has a financial interest - Disposing of the interest
in a client's affairs, for example, the audit - Removing the individual from the
firm owns shares in the client, or is a team if required
trustee of a trust that holds shares in the - Keeping the client's audit
client. committee informed of the
situation
- Using an independent partner to
The following parties are not allowed to
review work carried out if
own a direct financial interest or an
necessary
indirect material financial interest in a
client: Audit firms should have quality control
procedures requiring staff to disclose
- The assurance firm
relevant financial interests for themselves
- A member of the assurance team
and close family members. They should
- An immediate family member of a
also foster a culture of voluntary disclosure
member of the assurance team
on an ongoing basis so that any potential
problems are identified in a timely manner.
b. CLOSE BUSINESS RELATIONSHIPS

Examples of inappropriate close business Unless the interest is clearly
relationships: insignificant, an audit provider should
not participate in such a venture with an
- Having a financial interest in a
audit client.
joint venture with either the client
or a controlling owner, director,
officer or other individual who Appropriate safeguards are therefore to
performs senior managerial end the assurance provision or to terminate
activities for that client the (other) business relationship.
- Arrangements to combine one or
more services or products of the
firm with one or more services or If an individual member of an audit team
products of the audit client and to has such an interest, they should be
market the package with reference removed from the audit team.
to both parties
- Distribution or marketing
arrangements under which the firm Purchasing goods and services from an
acts as distributor or marketer of audit client on an arm's length basis does
the audit client's products or not constitute a threat to independence
services or vice versa
c. EMPLOYMENT WITH ASSURANCE

CLIENT
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Lecture note
Staff might transfer between an audit firm Appropriate safeguards:

and a client, or that negotiations or - Considering modifying the
interviews to facilitate such movement assurance plan
might take place. - Ensuring the audit is assigned to
someone of sufficient experience
as compared with the individual
Both situations are a threat to
who has left
independence:
- Involving an additional
(i) An audit staff member might be professional accountant not
motivated by a desire to impress a future involved with the engagement to
possible employer (objectivity is therefore review the work done
affected – self-interest threat). - Carrying out a quality control
(ii) A former audit partner turned Finance review of the engagement
Director has too much knowledge of the - In respect of audit clients, a partner
audit firm's systems and procedures. should not accept a key
management position at an audit
client until at least 2 years have
The extent of the threat depends on: elapsed since the conclusion of the
audit he was involved with.
- The role of the individual has taken - An individual who has moved from
up at the client the firm to a client should not be
- The extent of his influence on the entitled to any benefits or
audit previously payments form the firm unless
- The length of time that has passed these are made in accordance with
between the individual’s pre-determined arrangements.
connection with the audit and the - A firm should have quality control
new role at the client. procedures setting out that an
individual involved in serious
employment negotiations with an
audit client should notify the firm
and that this person would then be
removed from the engagement.
d. FAMILY AND PERSONAL

RELATIONSHIPS Appropriate safeguards:
Factors to consider are: - When an immediate family
- The individual's responsibilities on member of a member of the audit
the audit engagement team is a director, an officer or an
- The closeness of the relationship employee of the audit client in a
- The role of the other party at the position to exert direct and
audit client significant influence over the
subject matter information of the
audit engagement, the individual
should be removed from the audit
team.
- A firm should have quality control
policies and procedures under
which staff should disclose if a
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Lecture note
close family member employed by

the client is promoted within the
client
- Undertaking a quality control
review of the audit
- Discussing the matter with the
audit committee of the client
e. GIFTS AND HOSPITALITY

Unless the value of the gift/hospitality is trivial and inconsequential, a firm or a member
of an audit team should not accept
f. OVERDUE FEES
Where there are overdue fees, the auditor Audit firm should discuss with those
runs the risk of making a loan to client. charged with governance or the possibility
of resining if overdue fees is not paid.
g. PERCENTAGE OR CONTINGENT
FEES A firm should not enter into any fee
[Key term]: Contingent fees are fees arrangement for an audit or assurance
calculated on a predetermined basis engagement under which the amount of the
relating to the outcome or result of a fee is contingent on the result of the
transaction or the result of the work assurance work or on items that are the
performed subject matter of the assurance
engagement.
h. HIGH PERCENTAGE OF FEES

A firm should be alert to the situation Appropriate safeguards:
arising where the total fees generated by an - Discussing the issues with the audit
assurance client represent a large committee
proportion of a firm’s total fees. - Taking steps to reduce the
dependency on the lcient
- Obtaining external/ internal quality
control reivews
- Consulting a third party such as the
ACCA
The public may perceive that a member’s
objectivity is likely to be in jeopardy
where the fees for audit and recurring
work paid by one client or group of
connected clients exceed 15% of the firm’s
total fees. Where the entity is listed or a
public interest company, this figure should
be 10%.
i. LOWBALLING Appropriate safeguards:
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Lecture note
When a firm quotes a significantly lower - Maintaining records such that the
fee level for an audit service than would firm is able to demonstrate that
have been charged by the predecessor firm, appropriate staff and time are
there is a significant self-interest threat allocated to the engagement
- Complying with all applicable
auditing standards, guidelines and
quality control procedures
k. RECRUITMENT
Recruiting senior management for an audit Audit providers must not make
client, particularly those able to affect the management decisions for the client.
subject matter of an audit engagement, Their involvement could be limited to
creates a self-interest threat for the audit
reviewing a shortlist of candidates,
firm providing that the client has drawn up the
criteria by which they are to be selected.
l. LOAN AND GUARANTEES

The advice on loans and guarantees falls Client is a bank or other similar:
into two categories: - If the loan is material it will be
- The client is a bank or other similar necessary to apply appropriate
institution safeguards to bring the risk to an
- Other situations acceptable level.
- A suitable safeguard is likely to be
If a lending institution client (eg a bank)
an independent review (by a
lends an immaterial amount to an audit
partner from another office in the
firm or member of assurance team on
firm).
normal commercial terms, there is no
threat to independence.
An audit firm or individual on the audit Other situations:

engagement should not enter into any loan - The self-interest threat created by
or guarantee arrangement with a client entering into such an arrangement
that is not a bank or similar institution would be so significant that no
(unless immaterial to both parties which is safeguard would be able to reduce
unlikely). the threat to an acceptable level.
- In addition, loans should not be
made by an audit firm or an audit
team member to an audit client.
2. SELF-REVIEW THREAT SAFEGUARDS
a. RECENT SERVICE WITH AN

ASSURANCE CLIENT
Individuals who have been a director or Appropriate safeguards:
officer of the audit client, or an
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Lecture note
employee in a position to exert direct - Obtaining a quality control review

and significant influence over the of the individual's work on the
preparation of the accounting records or assignment
financial statements in the period covered - Discussing the issue with the audit
by the audit report, should not be assigned committee
to the audit team
b. PREPARING ACCOUNTING
RECORDS AND FINANCIAL Appropriate safeguards:
STATEMENTS
- Using staff members other than
Auditors may routinely assist management assurance team members to carry
with the preparation of financial out work
statements and give advice about - Obtaining client approval for work
accounting treatments and journal entries undertaken
Firms should not prepare accounts or
financial statements for listed or public
interest clients.
For any client, assurance firm are not
allowed to:
- Determine or change journal
entries without client approval
- Authorize or approve transactions
- Prepare source documents
c. VALUATION SERVICES Factors to consider when applying

safeguards for immaterial valuation:
[key term]: A valuation comprises the
making of assumptions with regard to - The extent of the audit client’s
future developments, the application of knowledge of the relevant matters
certain methodologies and techniques, and in making the valuation
the combination of both in order to - The degree of judgment involved
compute a certain value, or range of - How much use is made of
values, for an asset, a liability or for a established methodologies
business as a whole. - The degree of uncertainty in the
valuation
Appropriate safeguards:
Audit firm should not carry out
valuations on matters which are - Second partner review
subjective and material to the financial - Confirming that the client
statements. understands the valuation and the
assumptions used
- Ensuring that the client
acknowledges responsibility for the
valuation
- Using separate personnel for the
valuation and the audit
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Lecture note
d. CORPORATE FINANCE
Assurance firms are not allowed to Appropriate safeguards:
promote, deal in or underwrite an - using different teams of staff and
assurance client's shares. They are also not - ensuring that no management
allowed to commit an assurance client to decisions are taken on behalf of the
the terms of a transaction or consummate a client.
transaction on the client's behalf.
Other corporate finance services, such as
assisting a client in defining corporate
strategies, assisting in identifying possible
sources of capital and providing
structuring advice, may be acceptable
providing that safeguards are used.
3. ADVOCACY THREAT SAFEGUARDS
Advocacy threats arise in those situations

where the audit firm promotes a position Appropriate safeguards:
or opinion to the point that subsequent
objectivity is compromised. - using different departments to
carry out the work and
- making disclosures to the audit
Examples include committee
- Acting in an advocacy role for an
audit client in resolving a dispute
or litigation
- Promoting shares for a listed audit
client
4. FAMILIARITY THREAT SAFEGUARDS
Familiarity threat occurs when, because of

close relationship, members become too All firms should monitor the relationship
sympathetic to the interests of others. between staff and established clients and
use safeguards such as:
Examples include: - Rotating senior staff off the
assurance team
- Family and personal relationships
- Obtaining second partner reviews;
between the client and firm
and
- Long association with an assurance
- Independent quality control review
client
- Employment with an assurance
client
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Lecture note
- Recent service with an assurance

client
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Lecture note
5. INTIMIDATION THREAT SAFEGUARDS
An intimidation threat arises when

members of the assurance team may be Appropriate safeguards:
deterred from acting objectivity by threats,
actual or perceived. - Disclosing to the audit committee
the nature and extent of the
litigation
An intimidation threat arises when the - Removing specific affected
client threatens to sue, or does sue, the individuals from the engagement
audit firm for work that has been done team
previously. The firm is then faced with the - Involving an additional
risk of losing the client, bad publicity and professional accountant on the
the possibility that it will be found to have team to review work
been negligent, which will lead to further - If the litigation is at all serious, the
problems. auditor may resign from the
engagement
Factors to consider:
- The materiality of the litigation
- The nature of the assurance
engagement
- Whether the litigation relates to a
prior assurance engagement
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Lecture note
SECTION 3: RISK ASSESSMENT

1. MATERIALITY
ISA 320 Materiality in planning and performing an audit
The concept of materiality is applied by the auditor both in planning and performing the
audit, and in evaluating the effect of identified misstatements on the audit and of
uncorrected misstatements, if any, on the financial statements and in forming the opinion
in the auditor’s report.
ISA 320.5
EXPLAIN THE CONCEPTS OF MATERIALITY AND PERFORMANCE

MATERIALITY IN ACCORDANCE WITH ISA 320 MATERIALITY
Definition
Materiality: Misstatements, including omissions, are considered to be material if they,

individually or in the aggregate, could reasonably be expected to influence the economic
decisions of users taken on the basis of the financial statements.
Auditors often calculate the following values (benchmark) and take an average or weighted
average of all the figures as the materiality level:
Value Percentage
Profit before tax 5%
Revenue 0.5%
Total asset 1%
How to assess materiality?

In assessing the level of materiality, there are a number of areas that should be considered:
Amount and First the auditor must consider both the amount (quantity) and the nature
nature of (quality) of any misstatements, or a combination of both.
misstatements The quantity of the misstatement refers to the relative size of it and the
quality refers to an amount that might be low in value but due to its
prominence could influence the user’s decision, for example, directors’
transaction.
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Lecture note
Calculating As per ISA 320, materiality is often calculated using benchmarks such as
materiality 5% of profit before tax or 1% of total revenue or total expenses. These
value are useful as starting point for assessing materiality.
Assessment of The assessment of what is material is ultimately a matter of auditor’s

what is material professional judgement, and it is affected by the auditor’s perception of
the financial information needs of users of the financial statements and the
perceived level of risk; the higher risk, the lower level of overall
materiality
Not material In assessing materiality, the auditor must consider that a number of errors
individually but each with a low value may, when aggregated, amount to a material
material misstatement.
aggregated
Performance materiality
Performance materiality is the amount or amounts set by the auditor at less than
materiality for the financial statements as a whole to reduce to an appropriately low level
the probability that the aggregate of uncorrected and undetected misstatements exceeds
materiality for the financial statements as a whole.
Performance materiality also refers to the amount or amounts set by the auditor at less
than the materiality level or levels for particular classes of transactions, account balances
or disclosures.
Why does the auditor need to calculate performance materiality?
Performance materiality is normally set at a level lower than overall materiality. It is used
for testing individual transactions, account balances and disclosures.
The aim of performance materiality is to reduce the risk that the total of errors in balances,
transactions, and disclosures does not in total exceed overall materiality.
Why materiality is important for the auditor?

The materiality level will impact on the auditor's decisions relating to:
- How many items to examine
- Which items to examine
- Whether to use sampling techniques
- What level of misstatement is likely to result in a modified audit opinion?
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Lecture note
2. INTRODUCTION TO RISK
Audit risk
Audit risk is the risk that the auditor expresses an inappropriate audit opinion when the
financial statements are materially misstated.
Audit risk has 3 components:
Inherent risk Inherent risk is the susceptibility of an assertion to a misstatement that

could be material individually or when aggregated with other
misstatements, assuming there were no related internal controls.
Inherent risk is the risk that items will be misstated due to the
characteristics of those items, such as the fact they are estimates or that
they are important items in the accounts. The auditors must use their
professional judgment and all available knowledge to assess inherent
risk. If no such information or knowledge is available then the inherent
risk is high.
Inherent risk is affected by the nature of the entity; for example, the
industry it is in and the regulations it falls under, and also the nature of
the strategies it adopts
Control risk Control risk is the risk that a material misstatement that could occur in
an assertion and that could be material, individually or when aggregated
with other misstatements, will not be prevented or detected and
corrected on a timely basis by the entity's internal control.
Detection Detection risk is the risk that the procedures performed by the auditor
risk to reduce audit risk to an acceptably low level will not detect a
misstatement that exists and that could be material, either individually
or when aggregated with other misstatements.
The auditors have a degree of control over detection risk, because, if

audit risk is too high to be tolerated, the auditors can carry out more
work to reduce this aspect of audit risk, and therefore audit risk as a
whole.
What is risk of material misstatement (ROMM)?

Risk of material misstatement is risk that the financial statements are materially misstated
prior to audit. This consists of two components: inherent risk and control risk.
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Lecture note
WHAT ARE THE KEY DIFFERENT DIFFERENCES BETWEEN AUDIT RISK,

INHERENT RISK, CONTROL RISK
AUDIT RISK MODEL
AR = IR x CR x DR
Explain
IR x CR x DR = AR
High x High x ? = Acceptable (constant)
Medium x Low x ? = Acceptable (constant)
The AR must always be acceptable to the auditor. AR can be considered as a constant.
REMEMBER: An Auditor has control over DR but not IR and CR!
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Lecture note
3. UNDERSTANDING THE ENTITY AND ITS ENVIRONMENT

WHY? - REASON FOR OBTAINING AN UNDERSTANDING
- To identify and assess the risks of material misstatement in the financial statements
- To enable the auditor to design and perform further audit procedures
- To provide a frame of reference for exercising audit judgement, for example, when
setting audit materiality
WHAT? - MATTERS TO CONSIDER WHEN OBTAINING AN UNDERSTANDING

(a) Relevant industry, regulatory and other external factors, including the applicable
financial reporting framework (IRE)
Industry factors
- The market and competition, including demand, capacity, and price competition.
- Product technology relating to the entity’s products.
- Customer relationship
- Energy supply and cost
Regulatory Factors
- Accounting principles and industry-specific practices
- Legislation and regulation that significantly affect the entity’s operations,
including direct supervisory activities
- Government policies currently affecting the conduct of the entity’s business, such
as monetary, including foreign exchange controls, fiscal, financial incentives (for
example, government aid programs), and tariffs or trade restrictions policies
External factors
- General economic conditions
- Interest rates and availability of financing,
- Inflation or currency revaluation
(b) Nature of the entity: to enable the auditor to understand the classes of transaction,
account balances, and disclosures to be expected in financial statement
Its operations
- Nature of revenue sources, products or services, and markets, including
involvement in electronic commerce such as Internet sales and marketing
activities.
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Lecture note
- Location of production facilities, warehouses, and offices, and location and

quantities of inventories.
- Key customers and important suppliers of goods and services, employment
arrangements
The types of investments that the entity is making and plan to make, including
investments in special-purpose entities, e.g.
- Planned or recently executed acquisitions or divestitures.
- Investments and dispositions of securities and loans.
- Capital investment activities.
- Investments in non-consolidated entities, including partnerships, joint ventures
and special-purpose entities
The way that the entity is structured and how it is financed
- Major subsidiaries and associated entities, including consolidated and non-
consolidated structures.
- Debt structure and related terms, including off-balance-sheet financing
arrangements and leasing arrangements.
- Beneficial owners (local, foreign, business reputation and experience) and related
parties.
(c) The entity’s selection and application of accounting policies, including the reasons
for changes thereto.
The auditor shall evaluate whether the entity’s accounting policies are appropritate for its
business and consistent with the applicable financial reporting framework and accounting
policies used in the relevant industry.
Matters to consider include:
- The methods the entity uses to account for significant and unusual transactions
- Changes in the entity’s accounting policies
- Financial reporting standards and laws and regulations that are new to the entity and
when and how the entity will adopt such requirements.
(d) The entity’s objectives and strategies, and those related business risks that may
result in risks of material misstatement.
Matters to consider include:
- New products and services: a potential related business risk might be, for example,
that there is increased product liability
- Expansion of the business: a potential related business risk might be, for example,
that there the demand has not been accurately estimated
- Regulatory requirements: a potential related business risk might be, for example, that
there is increased legal exposure
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Lecture note
- Current and prospective financing requirements: a potential related business risk

might be, for example, the loss of financing due to the entity’s inability to meet the
requirements
(e) The measurement and review of the entity’s financial performance (KPIs)
Examples of internally-generated information used by management for measuring and
reviewing financial performance, and which the auditor may consider, include:
- Key performance indicators (financial and non-financial) and key ratios, trends and
operating statistic
- Budgets, forecasts, variance analyses, segment information and divisional,
department or other level performance reports
- Comparisons of an entity’s performance with that of competitors
External information such as analysts’ reports and credit rating agency reports may
represent useful information for the auditor.
HOW? - HOW TO OBTAIN AN UNDERSTANDING

(= Methods used to assess risk = Risk assessment procedures)
Inquiries (Enquiry) of Management and Others within the Entity
Apart from the accounts department, the auditors may need to make enquiries to:
- Those charged with governance: give insight to the environment in which the
financial statements are prepared.
- In-house legal counsel: Help with understanding matters such as outstanding
litigation or compliance with laws and regulation
- Sales and marketing: Give information about marketing strategies, sales trends
- Internal audit: Give information about the internal control system
- Production personnel: Give information about the production process
Analytical procedures
Analytical procedures consist of the analysis of significant ratios and trends including the
resulting investigations of fluctuations and relationships that are inconsistent with other
relevant information or which deviate from predictable amounts.
Analytical procedures is a mean of understanding the business and identifying audit risk. It
may be used as substantive procedures to obtain audit evidence.
Analytical procedures include:
(a) The consideration of comparisons with:
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Lecture note
- Similar information for prior periods

- Anticipated results of the entity, from budgets or forecasts
- Predictions prepared by the auditors
- Industry information, such as a comparison of the client’s ratio of sales to trade
debtors with industry averages, or with the ratios relating to other entities of
comparable size in the same industry
(b) The consideration of the relationship between elements of financial information that are
expected to conform to a predicted pattern based on the entity's experience, such as the
relationship of gross profit to sales.
(c) The consideration of the relationship between financial information and relevant non-
financial information, such as the relationship of payroll costs to number of employees.
Observation and inspection

It will help to confirm the answers made to inquiries from management
These will include:
- Observing the normal operations of a company
- Reading documents or manuals relating to the client's operations
- Reports prepared by management and those charge with governance
- Visiting premises and meeting staff.
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Lecture note
4. RESPONDING TO THE RISK ASSESSMENT

ISA330
The auditor's responses to assessed risks
Overall responses Responses to the risks of material

(FS level) misstatement at the assertion level
Substantive
Test of controls
- professional scepticism procedures
- additional or more
experienced staff
- Supervision
- general changes to the Substantive
analytical Test of
nature, timing or extent of
procedure detailed
audit procedures
TEST OF CONTROL
Definition
Tests of controls are an audit procedure designed to evaluate the operating effectiveness
of controls in preventing, or detecting and correcting, material misstatements at the
assertion level.
WHEN to carry out test of control?
- When the auditor’s assessment of risks of material misstatement at the assertion level
includes an expectation that the controls are operating effectively (that is, the auditor
intends to rely on the operating effectiveness of controls in determining the nature, timing
and extent of substantive procedures); or
- When the substantive procedures alone cannot provide sufficient appropriate audit
evidence at the assertion level
HOW to carry out test of control? (refer to Section 4 – 5. Audit procedures)
In carrying tests of control, the following audit technique should be used:

- Inquiries: must use
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Lecture note
- Re-performance: often be a helpful procedure

- Inspection: often be a helpful procedure
- Analytical procedures: CANNOT (You cannot use analytical procedures (AP) to test
controls, we use AP as a substantive test)
SUBSTANTIVE PROCEDURES
Definition
Substantive procedures are audit procedures designed to detect material misstatements

at the assertion level.
Substantive procedures fall into two categories:
(a) Substantive analytical procedures
(b) Tests of details (of classes of transactions, account balances, and disclosures)
WHEN to carry out substantive procedures?
The auditor must always carry out substantive procedures on material items
HOW to carry out substantive procedures? (refer to Section 4 – 5. Audit procedures)
A
E
I
O
U
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Lecture note
INTERIM AND FINAL AUDIT
The final audit is the main period of audit testing, when work is focused on the final
financial statements.
Interim audits are audits undertaken prior to the final audit, often during the period under
review. The auditor is likely to carry out tests of control at interim audits.
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Lecture note
5. FRAUDS
What is fraud?
Fraud is an intentional act by one or more individuals among management, those

charged with governance, employees, or third parties, involving the use of deception to
obtain an unjust or illegal advantage. Fraud may be perpetrated by an individual, or
colluded in, with people internal or external to the business.
What is error?
Error is a material misstatement cause by mistake.
What are types of frauds?

There are two types of fraud causing material misstatement in financial statements:
Fraudulent financial reporting

Fraudulent financial reporting involves intentional misstatements, including omissions
of amounts or disclosures in financial statements, to deceive financial statement users.
Examples include:
- Manipulation, falsification or alteration of accounting records / supporting
documents
- Misrepresentation (or omission) of events or transactions in the financial
statements
- Intentional misapplication of accounting principles
Misappropriation of assets
Misappropriation of assets involves the theft of an entity's assets and is often perpetrated
by employees in relatively small and immaterial amounts. However, it can also involve
management who are usually more capable of disguising or concealing
misappropriations in ways that are difficult to detect.
This is the theft of the entity's assets (for example, cash, and inventory). Employees may
be involved in such fraud in small and immaterial amounts, but it can also be carried out
on a larger scale by management who may then conceal the misappropriation, for
example, by:
- Embezzling receipts (for example, diverting them to private bank accounts)
- Stealing physical assets or intellectual property (inventory, selling data)
- Causing an entity to pay for goods not received (payments to fictitious vendors)
- Using assets for personal use
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Lecture note
What is MANAGEMENT’s responsibility to fraud?

The primary responsibility for the prevention and detection of fraud is with those charged
with governance and the management of an entity. This is effected by having a commitment
to creating a culture of honesty and ethical behaviour and active oversight by those
charged with governance
What is AUDITOR’s responsibility to fraud?
In summary, according to ISA240, auditor’s responsibilities for fraud are:

- An auditor conducting an audit in accordance with ISA 240 The auditor's
responsibilities relating to fraud in an audit of financial statements is
responsibilities for obtaining reasonable assurance that the financial statements
taken as a whole are free from material misstatement, whether caused by fraud or
error.
- In order to fulfill this responsibility, auditors are required to identify and assess
the risks of material misstatement of the financial statements due to fraud
- The auditor will need to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence regarding
the assessed risks of material misstatement due to fraud, through designing and
implementing appropriate responses
- In addition, auditor must respond appropriately to fraud or suspected fraud
identified during the audit
- When obtaining reasonable assurance, the auditor is responsible for maintaining
professional skepticism throughout the audit, considering the potential for
management override of controls and recognizing the fact that audit procedures
that are effective in detecting error may not be effective in detecting fraud.
- To ensure that the whole engagement team is aware of the risks and
responsibilities for fraud and error, ISAs, require that a discussion is held within
the team For members not present at the meeting the engagement partner should
determine which matters are to be communicated to them
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Lecture note
SECTION 4: AUDIT PLANNING AND DOCUMENTATION

1. AUDIT PLANNING
OVERALL OBJECTIVES AND GENERAL PRINCIPLES
The overall objectives of the auditor
In conducting an audit of financial statements, the overall objectives of the auditor are:
(a) To obtain reasonable assurance about whether the financial statements as a whole are
free from material misstatement, whether due to fraud or error, thereby enabling the
auditor to express an opinion on whether the financial statements are prepared, in all
material respects, in accordance with an applicable financial reporting framework; and
(b) To report on the financial statements, and communicate as required by the ISAs, in
accordance with the auditor’s findings.
(ISA 200.11)
In order to archive the overall objective, auditor need to plan and perform the audit with
professional skepticism and apply professional judgment.
What is Professional skepticism?
Professional skepticism is an attitude that includes a questioning mind,

being alert to conditions which may indicate possible misstatement due
to error or fraud, and a critical assessment of audit evidence.
What are general areas that you might want to be skeptical?
What is Professional judgment?
Professional judgment is the application of relevant training, knowledge and

experience, within the context provided by auditing, accounting and ethical standards,
in making informed decisions about the courses of action that are appropriate in the
circumstances of the audit engagement.
(IAS 200.16)
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Lecture note
THE IMPORTANCE OF PLANNING (WHY plan?)
ISA 300 Planning an audit of financial statements which states that the auditor shall plan
the audit so that the engagement is performed in an effective manner.
Audits are planned to:
- Help the auditor devote appropriate attention to important areas of the audit
- Help the auditor identify and resolve potential problems on a timely basis
- Help the auditor properly organize and manage the audit so it is performed in an
effective manner
- Assist in the selection of appropriate team members and assignment of work to them
- Facilitate the direction, supervision and review of work
formulate translate
Auditors Audit strategy Audit plan
AUDIT STRATEGY
The audit strategy sets the scope, timing and direction of the audit, and guides the
development of the more detailed audit plan.
Matter to consider in establishing an overall audit strategy
✓ Financial reporting framework

✓ Industry-specific reporting requirements
✓ Expected audit coverage
Characteristics of the ✓ Nature of business segments

engagement ✓ Availability of internal audit work
✓ Use of service organizations
✓ Effect of information technology on audit procedures
✓ Availability of client personnel and data
✓ Entity's timetable for reporting

Reporting objectives,
✓ Organization of meetings with management and those
timing of the audit and
charged with governance
nature of
communications ✓ Discussions with management and those charged with
governance
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Lecture note
✓ Expected communications with third
✓ Determination of materiality
✓ Areas identified with higher risk of material misstatement
✓ Results of previous audits
✓ Need to maintain professional skepticism
Significant factors,
preliminary engagement ✓ Evidence of management's commitment to design,
activities, and knowledge implementation and maintenance of sound internal control
gained on other ✓ Volume of transactions
engagements
✓ Significant business developments
✓ Significant industry developments
✓ Significant changes in financial reporting framework
✓ Other significant recent developments
✓ Selection of engagement team

Nature, timing and extent
✓ Assignment of work to team members
of resources
✓ Engagement budgeting
What are the items which should be included in overall audit strategy?
- Industry-specific financial reporting requirements

- Number of locations to be visited
- Audit client's timetable for reporting to its members
- Communication between the audit team and the client
AUDIT PLAN
The audit plan converts the audit strategy into a more detailed plan and includes the nature,
timing and extent of audit procedures to be performed by engagement team members in
order to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence to reduce audit risk to an acceptably
low level.
What are the items which should be included in the audit plan?
(a) A description of the nature, timing and extent of planned risk assessment procedures
sufficient to assesses the risk of material misstatement.
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Lecture note
This would include assessment of IR and CR at both the entity and assertion level. An
important element of the plan would be the understanding and assessment of the
control environment of the organisation
(b) A description of the nature, timing and extent of planned further audit procedures
at the assertion level for each material class of transactions, account balance and
disclosure
This would include an explanation of the decision whether to test the operating
effectiveness of controls (an important decision is whether reliance is to be placed on
controls) and on the nature, timing and extent of planned substantive procedures (this
would depend on the decision as to the level of control risk)
(c) Audit procedures required to be carried out for the engagement to comply with the
ISAs, for example, the use of external confirmations to obtain sufficient appropriate
evidence at the assertion level
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Lecture note
2. AUDIT DOCUMENTATION
ISA 230 Audit documentation
Audit documentation/'working papers'/'work papers' is the record of audit procedures

performed, relevant audit evidence obtained, and conclusions the auditor reached.
Why do auditors need to record their work? (Importance of working paper)
(a) It provides evidence of the auditor's basis for a conclusion about the achievement of
the overall objective.
(b) It provides evidence that the audit was planned and performed in accordance with
ISAs and other legal and regulatory requirements.
(c) It assists the engagement team to plan and perform the audit.
(d) It assists team members responsible for supervision to direct, supervise and review
audit work.
(e) It enables the team to be accountable for its work.
(f) It allows a record of matters of continuing significance to be retained.
(g) It enables the conduct of quality control reviews and inspections (both internal and
external)
What are the form and content of working papers?
The general rule of the content of working papers:

“ The auditor shall prepare audit documentation that is sufficient to enable an
experienced auditor, having no previous connection with the audit, to understand:
(a) The nature, timing, and extent of the audit procedures performed to comply with the
ISAs and applicable legal and regulatory requirements;
(b) The results of the audit procedures performed, and the audit evidence obtained; and
(c) Significant matters arising during the audit, the conclusions reached thereon, and
significant professional judgments made in reaching those conclusions”
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Lecture note
EXAMPLE OF WORKING PAPER

Name of Working paper
client reference
Client: XYZ Co. Ref: A.1.1
Balance Year-end: 31 December 20X7 Prepared by: Price Young Preparer
sheet date
Subject: NRV of inventory Date: 10 Feb 20X7
Subject Date prepared
Objective Aim:
of work
- Sample selection
- Work done
- Source of information
Work done: - Key to any audit risks
- Appropriate cross-referencing
- Results
- Analysis of errors or other significant
Results: observations
- Conclusions
- Key points Conclusions:
Reviewer
Reviewed by: T Cooper
Date: 15 Feb 20X7
Date reviewed
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Lecture note
HOW TO ORGANIZE WORKING PAPER?

For recurring audits, working papers may be split between Permanent audit files (PAF) and
Current audit files (CAF)
What is the different between PAF and CAF?
PAF contain information of continuing important to the audit

CAF contain information of relevance to the current year’s audit
PERMANENT AUDIT FILES
- Engagement letters
- New client questionnaires
- The memorandum and articles
- Other legal documents such as prospectuses, leases, leases and sales agreement
- Details of the history of the client’s business
- Board minutes of continuing relevance
- Previous years’ signed accounts, analytical review and management letters
- Accounting system notes, previous year’s control questionnaires
CURRENT AUDIT FILES
- Financial statements
- Accounts checklists
- Management accounts details
- Reconciliations of management and financial accounts
- A summary of unadjusted errors
- Report to partner including details of significant events and errors
- Review notes
- Audit planning memorandum
- Time budgets and summaries
- Letter of representation
- Management letter
- Notes of board minutes
- Communications with third parties such as experts or other auditors
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Lecture note
HOW LONG WORKING PAPERS RETAINED?
ACCA RECOMMENDATION: Auditors should retain their working papers for at least 7
years before destroying them.
Working papers are the property of the auditors
Auditors must follow ethical guidance on the confidentiality of audit working papers.
They may release the working papers to the entity, as long as disclosure does not
undermine “the independence or validity of the audit processes”.
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Lecture note
3. INTRODUCTION TO AUDIT EVIDENCE

The need of audit evidence
Audit evidence is all the information used by the auditor in arriving at the conclusions on
which the auditor's opinion is based.
WHAT ARE THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE AUDIT EVIDENCE?

“The objective of the auditor is to design and perform audit procedures in such a way as to
enable the auditor to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence to be able to draw
reasonable conclusion on which to base the auditor’s opinion.”
Sufficiency Appropriateness
• The measure of the quantity of • The measure of the quality of
audit evidence audit evidence;
• The quantity of audit evidence • That is, its relevance and its
required is affected by the auditor reliability in providing support for
assessment of the risks of material the conclusions on which the
and also by the quality of such auditor's opinion is based
audit evidence
WHAT FACTORS AFFECT SUFFICIENCY OF EVIDENCE?
- Assessment of risk at the financial statement level and/or the individual transaction
level. As risk increases then more evidence is required.
- The materiality of the item. More evidence will normally be collected on material
items whereas immaterial items may simply be reviewed to ensure they appear
correct.
- The nature of the accounting and internal control systems. The auditor will place
more reliance on good accounting and internal control systems limiting the amount
of audit evidence required.
- The auditor’s knowledge and experience of the business. Where the auditor has good
past knowledge of the business and trusts the integrity of staff then less evidence will
be required.
- The findings of audit procedures. Where findings from related audit procedures are
satisfactory (e.g. tests of controls over receivables) then substantive evidence will be
collected.
- The source and reliability of the information. Where evidence is obtained from
reliable sources (e.g. written evidence) then less evidence is required than if the
source was unreliable (e.g. verbal evidence).
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Lecture note
WHAT FACTORS AFFECT RELIABILITY OF EVIDENCE?

APPROPRIATENESS = relevance + reliability
Relevance: deals with the logical connection with the purpose of the audit procedure and
the assertion under consideration (we look at assertions in the next section).
The relevance of information may be affected by the direction of testing
Factor affecting the reliability of audit evidence:
External Audit evidence from external sources is more reliable than that obtained
from the entity's records because it is from an independent source.
Auditor Evidence obtained directly by auditors is more reliable than that obtained
indirectly or by inference.
Entity (ICS Evidence obtained from the entity's records is more reliable when the
strength) related control system operates effectively.
Written Evidence in the form of documents (paper or electronic) or written

representations are more reliable than oral representations, since oral
representations can be retracted.
Originals Original documents are more reliable than photocopies or facsimiles,

which can easily be altered by the client.
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Lecture note
4. ASSERTION
Financial statement assertions
Assertions are representations by management, explicit or otherwise, that are embodied in
the financial statements, as used by the auditor to consider the different types of potential
misstatements that may occur.
The use of assertions by auditor
Assertions used by the auditor when auditing the class of transactions or balance
WHAT ARE ASSERTIONS AND THEIR MEANINGS?

Table 1: Assertion for class of transactions or events for the year
Occurrence Transactions and events that have been recorded or disclosed have
occurred, and such transactions and events pertain to the entity
Completeness All transactions and events that should have been recorded have been
recorded
Accuracy Amounts and other data relating to recorded transactions and events
have been recorded appropriately
Cut-off Transactions and events have been recorded in the correct reporting
period
Classification Transactions and events have been recorded in the proper accounts
Table 2: Assertion for account balances as at year end
Existence Assets, liabilities and equity interests exist
Rights and The entity holds or controls the rights to assets, and liabilities are the
obligations obligations of the entity.
Completeness All assets, liabilities and equity interests that should have been
recorded have been recorded.
Valuation and Assets, liabilities and equity interests are included in the financial
allocation statements at appropriate amounts and any resulting valuation or
allocation adjustments are appropriately recorded.
Why need to split into table 1 and table 2?

You must use the correct assertion to do the audit.
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Lecture note
5. AUDIT PROCEDURES
What is purpose of audit procedures?
The auditor obtains audit evidence by undertaking audit procedures to do the following:
- Obtain an understanding of the entity and its environment to assess the risks of
material misstatement at the financial statement and assertion levels (risk assessment
procedures)
- Test the operating effectiveness of controls in preventing, or detecting and correcting,
material misstatements at the assertion level (tests of controls)
- - Detect material misstatements at the assertion level (substantive procedures).
What procedures auditors should use to obtain evidence?
Inspection of - Inspection of tangible assets that are recorded in the accounting

assets records confirms existence, but does not necessarily confirm rights
and obligations or valuation.
- Confirmation that assets seen are recorded in accounting records gives
evidence of completeness.
Inspection of - This is the examination of documents and records, both internal and
documentatio external, in paper, electronic or other forms.
n or records - This procedure provides evidence of varying reliability, depending on
the nature, source and effectiveness of controls over production (if
internal).
- Inspection can provide evidence of existence (e.g. a document
constituting a financial instrument), but not necessarily about
ownership or value.
Observation - This involves watching a procedure or process being performed (for

example, post opening).
- It is of limited use, as it only confirms the procedure took place when
the auditor was watching, and because the act of being observed could
affect how the procedure or process was performed.
Enquiry - This involves seeking information from client staff or external

(Inquiry) sources.
- Strength of evidence depends on the knowledge and integrity of
source of information.
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Lecture note
Confirmation - This is the process of obtaining a representation of information or of

an existing condition directly from a third party e.g. confirmation
from bank of bank balances.
Recalculation - Checking the mathematical accuracy of client’s record
Re- - This involves the auditor's independent execution of procedures or

performance controls that were originally performed as part of the entity's internal
control.
Analytical - This consists of evaluations of financial information through analysis

procedures of plausible relationships amount both financial and non-financial
data.
- It also encompasses such investigation as is necessary of identified
fluctuations and relationships that are inconsistent with other relevant
information or that differ from expected values by a significant
amount.
48
Lecture note
SECTION 5: INTERNAL CONTROLS

The auditors must understand the accounting system and control environment in order
to determine their audit approach.
1. INTERNAL CONTROL SYSTEMS
WHAT IS INTERNAL CONTROL
Internal control is the process designed, implemented and maintained by those charged
with governance, management, and other personnel to provide reasonable assurance about
the achievement of the entity's objectives with regard to:
(1) Reliability of financial reporting
(2) Effectiveness and efficiency of operations, and
(3) Compliance with applicable laws and regulations.
ELEMENT OF INTERNAL CONTROL

ISA 315 – Understanding the entity and its environment and assessing the risks of material
misstatement identified 5 elements of internal control
49
Lecture note
CONTROL ENVIRONMENT
What is control environment?
Control environment includes the governance and management functions and the attitudes,
awareness and actions of those charged with governance and management concerning the
entity's internal control and its importance in the entity.
What should the auditor consider when obtaining understanding of the control
environment?
Communication
and enforcement ✓ Essential elements which influence the effectiveness of the design,
of integrity and administration and monitoring of controls
ethical values
✓ Management's consideration of the competence levels for

Commitment to
particular jobs and how those levels translate into requisite skills and
competence
knowledge
✓ Independence from management
Participation by ✓ Experience and stature

those charged ✓ Extent of involvement and scrutiny of activities
with governance
✓ Appropriateness of actions and interaction with internal and
external auditors
✓ Approach to taking and managing business risks

Management's
✓ Attitudes and actions towards financial reporting
philosophy and
operating style ✓ Attitudes towards information processing and accounting
functions and personnel
Organizational ✓ The framework within which an entity's activities for achieving its
structure objectives are planned, executed, controlled and reviewed
Assignment of ✓ How authority and responsibility for operating activities are

authority and assigned and how reporting relationships and authorization
responsibility hierarchies are established
Human resource
✓ Recruitment, orientation, training, evaluating, counselling,
policies and
promoting, compensation and remedial actions
practices
50
Lecture note
ENTITY’S RISK ASSESSMENT PROCESS
The auditor shall obtain an understanding of whether the entity has a process for:
- Identifying business risks relevant to financial reporting objectives
- Estimating the significance of the risk
- Assessing the likelihood of their occurrence
- Deciding on actions to address those risk
If the entity has established such a process, the auditor shall obtain an understanding of it.
If there is not a process, the auditor shall discuss with management whether relevant
business risks have been identified and how they have been addressed.
ISA 315.15
Entity should have a process for:
- Identifying business risks that impact financial reporting objectives
- Estimating the significance of the risks identifies
- Assessing the likelihood of occurrence
- Deciding relevant actions to address the risks
INFORMATION SYSTEMS (IS)
The information system relevant to financial reporting is a component of internal control

that includes the financial reporting system, and consists of the procedures and records
established to initiate, record, process and report entity transactions (as well as events and
conditions) and to maintain accountability for the related assets, liabilities and equity.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Control activities are those policies and procedures in addition to the control environment
which are established to achieve the entity’s specific objectives.
Control activities include those activities designed to prevent or to detect and correct
errors.
Specific control activities can be summarized into the following 5 types:
- Authorization
- Performance review
- Information processing
- Physical controls
- Segregation of duties
Examples of specific control activities
51
Lecture note
Example Explanation Category
Approval and Transactions should be approved by an appropriate

control of person. For example, overtime should be approved by Authorization
documents departmental managers.
Controls over
We shall look at computer controls later in this Information
computerized
chapter. processing
applications
Checking the
arithmetical For example, checking to see if individual invoices Information
accuracy of have been added up correctly. processing
records
Maintaining and Control accounts bring together transactions in

reviewing individual ledgers. Trial balances bring together
Performance
control accounts transactions for the organization as a whole.
review
and trial Preparing these can highlight unusual transactions or
balances accounts.
Reconciliations involve comparison of a specific

balance in the accounting records with what another
source says the balance should be; for example, a bank Information
Reconciliations
reconciliation. Differences between the two figures processing
should only be reconciling items (resulting from e.g.
timing differences).
Comparing the
results of cash,
For example, in a physical count of petty cash, the
security and Performance
balance shown in the cash book should be the same as
inventory counts review
the amount held.
with accounting
records
Comparing
internal data For example, comparing records of goods dispatched
Performance
with external to customers with customers' acknowledgement of
review
sources of goods that have been received.
information
Limiting Only authorized personnel should have access to Physical

physical access certain assets (particularly valuable or portable ones), control
52
Lecture note
to assets and e.g. ensuring that the inventory stores locked are
records unless store personnel are there.
Assigning different people the responsibility of

Segregation of Segregation of
authorizing transactions, recording transactions and
duties duties
maintaining custody of assets
MONITORING OF CONTROLS
Monitoring of controls is a process to assess the effectiveness of internal control
performance over time. It includes assessing the design and operation of controls on a timely
basis and taking necessary corrective actions modified for changes in conditions.
If the entity has an internal audit function, the auditor shall obtain an understanding of the
nature of its responsibilities and how it fits in the organizational structure and the activities
performed / to be performed.
LIMITATIONS OF ACCOUNTING AND CONTROL SYSTEMS
Any internal control system can only provide the directors with reasonable assurance
that their objectives are reached, because of inherent limitations. These include:
(1) The costs of control not outweighing their benefits
(2) The potential for human error
(3) Collusion between employees
(4) The possibility of controls being bypassed or overridden by management
(5) Controls being designed to cope with routine and not non-routine transactions
These factors demonstrate why auditors cannot obtain all their evidence from tests of the
systems of internal control. The key factors in the limitations of control systems are human
error and potential for fraud. The safeguard of segregation of duties can help deter fraud.
However, if employees decide to perpetrate frauds by collusion, or management commits
fraud by overriding systems, the accounting system will not be able to prevent such frauds.
53
Lecture note
2. THE USE OF INTERNAL CONTROL SYSTEMS BY AUDITORS

WHY DO THE AUDITOR NEED TO UNDERSTAND INTERNAL CONTROL?
In obtaining an understanding of internal control, the auditor must understand the design
of the internal control and the implementation of that control.
There may be occasions where substantive procedures alone are not sufficient to address
the risks arising. Where such risks exist, auditors shall evaluate the design and determine
the implementation of the controls; that is, by controls testing. This is most likely to be
the case in a system which is highly computerized and which does not require much
manual intervention.
HOW DO WE DOCUMENT THE INTERNAL CONTROL?

NARRATIVE NOTES
The purpose of narrative notes is to describe and explain the system, at the same time as
making any comments or criticisms which will help to demonstrate an intelligent
understanding of the system.
What are advantages and disadvantages of narrative note?
Advantages Disadvantages
They are relatively simple to record Describing something in narrative notes can be a lot
and can facilitate understanding by more time consuming than, say, representing it as a
all audit team members. simple flowchart, particularly where the system
follows a logical flow.
They can be used for any system They are awkward to update if written manually.
due to the method's flexibility.
Editing in future years can be It can be difficult to identify missing internal controls
relatively easy if they are because notes record the detail of systems but may not
computerized. identify control exceptions clearly.
FLOW CHARTS
Flowcharts can take many forms, but in general are graphic illustrations of the physical flow
of information through the accounting system. Flowlines represent the sequences of
processes, and other symbols represent the inputs and outputs to a process.
54
Lecture note
What are advantages and disadvantages of flowchart?
After a little experience they can be prepared They are most suitable for describing
quickly. standard systems. Procedures for dealing
with unusual transactions will normally have
to be recorded using narrative notes.
As the information is presented in a standard Major amendment is difficult without

form, they are fairly easy to follow and redrawing.
review.
They generally ensure that the system is Time can sometimes be wasted by charting
recorded in its entirety, as all document flows areas that are of no audit significance.
have to be traced from beginning to end. Any
'loose ends' will be apparent from a cursory
examination.
They eliminate the need for extensive

narrative and can be of considerable help in
highlighting the salient points of control and
any deficiencies in the system.
55
Lecture note
QUESIONAIRE
What are advantages and disadvantages of questionnaires?
56
Lecture note
3. EVALUATION OF INTERNAL CONTROL COMPONENTS

WALK-THROUGH TEST
Definition
In order to confirm their understanding of the control systems, auditors will often carry out
walk-through tests.
How to carry out walk-through test
This is where they pick up a transaction and follow it through the system to see whether all
the controls they anticipate should be in existence were in operation with regard to that
transaction.
TEST OF CONTROL
Definition
Tests of control are tests performed to obtain audit evidence about the effectiveness of
the:
- Design of the accounting and internal control systems, ie whether they are suitably
designed to prevent, or detect and correct, material misstatement at the assertion level;
and
- Operation of the internal controls throughout the period.
How to carry out test of control?
(a) Inspection of documents supporting controls or events to gain audit evidence that
internal controls have operated properly, e.g. verifying that a transaction has been
authorized
(b) Enquiries about internal controls which leave no audit trail, e.g. determining who
actually performs each function, not merely who is supposed to perform it
(c) Re-performance of control procedures, e.g. reconciliation of bank accounts, to
ensure they were correctly performed by the entity
(d) Examination of evidence of management views, e.g. minutes of management
meetings
(e) Observation of controls to consider the manner in which the control is being operated
Auditors should consider:

- How controls were applied
- The consistency with which they were applied during the period
- By whom they were applied
57
Lecture note
58
Lecture note
4. CONTROL OBJECTIVES, CONTROL PROCEDURES AND TEST OF CONTROL

FOR MAIN CYCLE
1. The sale system
2. The purchase system
3. The payroll system
4. The cash system
5. The inventory system
6. Non-current assets systems
Risks
identified/ Controls Controls Test of
Assertion objective procedures control
related
59
Lecture note
THE SALE SYSTEM
Control objectives Controls procedures Tests of controls

• To ensure that • The tasks of taking • Observe the processing of
recorded sales orders, recording sales orders through the sales cycle
transactions and receiving payment and inspect sign-offs to
represent goods or are allocated to three evaluate whether proper
services provided. different staff members. segregation of duties is
operating.
• Sales are only recorded • For a sample of sales
if there is an approved invoices, ensure there is a
sales order form and related sales order form that
shipping/despatch has been authorised and
documentation. shipping documentation.
• Accounting for • Examine application controls
numerical sequences of for authorisation.
invoices. • Inspect invoices to confirm
• Monthly customer whether they are sequentially
statements sent out and numbered.
customer queries and • Review entity's procedures
complaints handled for sending out monthly
independently. statements and dealing with
60
Lecture note
customer queries and

complaints.
• To ensure that • Authorisation of credit • Review entity's procedures

goods and terms to customers for granting credit to
services are only (senior staff customers.
supplied to authorisation, • Examine a sample of sales
customers with references/credit checks orders for evidence of proper
good credit for new customers, credit approval by the
ratings. regular review of credit appropriate senior staff
limits). member.
• Authorisation by senior • Examine application controls
staff required for for credit limits.
changes in other • Review all new customer
customer data such as files to ensure satisfactory
address etc. credit references have been
• Orders not accepted obtained.
unless credit limits
reviewed first.
• To ensure that • Authorised price lists • Verify that price lists and
goods and and specified terms of terms of trade are properly
services are trade in place. documented, authorised and
provided at communicated.
authorised prices • Examine application controls
and on authorised for authorised prices and
terms. terms.
• To ensure that
customers are
encouraged to pay
promptly.
• To ensure that all • Accounting for • Review and test entity's
revenue relating to numerical sequences of procedures for accounting for
goods despatched invoices. numerical sequences of
is recorded. invoices, and inspect invoices
to confirm whether they are
sequentially numbered.
• To ensure that all • Shipping/despatch • For a sample of
goods and documentation is shipping/despatch
services sold are matched to sales documents, ensure each has
correctly invoiced. invoices. been matched to a related
61
Lecture note
sales invoice that was

subsequently recorded.
• • Sales invoices are • Review a sample of

reconciled to the daily reconciliations performed.
sales report. Reperform a sample of
• An open-order file is reconciliations.
maintained and reviewed • Inspect the open-order file for
regularly. unfilled orders.
• To ensure that all • Sales invoices and • Review supporting
sales and matching documents documents for a sample of
adjustments are required for all entries sales entries to ensure they
correctly and the date and contain the written details
journalised, reference of the entry are that indicate they were
summarised and written on each referred to when entered.
posted to the document.
correct accounts.
• To ensure that • All shipping • Compare dates on sales
transactions have documentation is invoices with dates of
been recorded in forwarded to the corresponding shipping
the correct period. invoicing section on a documentation.
daily basis. • Compare dates on sales
• Daily invoicing of goods invoices with dates recorded
shipped. in the sales ledger.
• To ensure that all • Chart of accounts • Inspect any documentary
transactions are (COA) in place and is evidence of review (such as
properly classified regularly reviewed for emails requesting update to
in accounts. appropriateness and COA as a result of review).
updated where • Test application controls for
necessary. proper codes.
• Codes in place for
different types of
products or services.
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Lecture note
PURCHASE SYSTEM
Control objectives Controls procedures Tests of controls

• To ensure that • Authorisation • Inspect policies and procedures
recorded procedures and policies and enquire about them.
purchases in place for ordering • Observe the processing of
represent goods and services. purchase orders throughout the
goods and purchasing cycle and evaluate
services whether proper segregation of
received. duties is operating.
• The responsibility for • Examine a sample of purchase
placing the orders, orders to ensure they have been
recording the purchase appropriately authorised.
order and making the • Review the delegated list of
payment is carried out authority for purchases.
by three different staff • For a sample of goods received
members. notes (GRNs), ensure there is a
• Purchase orders raised related purchase order that has
for each purchase and been properly approved.
authorised by
appropriate senior
personnel.
63
Lecture note
• Approved purchase
order for each receipt of
goods.
• • Staff receiving goods • Observe receipt of goods by
check them to the staff to confirm whether the
purchase order. check is done.
• Stores clerks sign for • Inspect a sample to confirm
goods received. whether stores staff undertake
• Purchase orders and this check.
GRNs are matched with • Examine supporting
the suppliers' invoices. documentation to ensure it has
• Supplier statements been matched for a sample of
independently reviewed invoices.
and reconciled to trade • Review procedures for
payable records. reconciling supplier statements
and re-perform a sample of
reconciliations.
• To ensure that • Purchase orders and • For a sample of purchase orders
all purchase GRNs are matched with in the year ensure each has been
transactions the suppliers' invoices. matched to a related invoice that
that occurred was subsequently recorded.
have been
recorded. • Periodic accounting for • Review entity's procedures for
pre-numbered GRNs accounting for pre- numbered
and purchase orders. documents and inspect a sample
• Independent check of of GRNs for sequential
amount recorded in the numbering.
purchase journal. • Examine application controls.
• Supplier statements • Examine documentation for
independently reviewed evidence of this check.
and reconciled to trade • Review procedures for
payable records. reconciling supplier statements
and reperform a sample of
reconciliations.
• To ensure that • Purchase orders and • Examine supporting
recorded GRNs are matched with documentation to ensure it has
purchases the suppliers' invoices. been matched for a sample of
represent the invoices.
liabilities of
the entity.
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Lecture note
• To ensure that • Purchase orders and • Examine supporting

purchase GRNs are matched with documentation for a sample of
transactions the suppliers' invoices. invoices.
are correctly • Mathematical accuracy • Review a sample of invoices for
recorded in the of the supplier's invoice evidence the accuracy has been
accounting is verified. verified (eg signature or initials)
system. • Amount posted to and re-perform the check.
general ledger is • Review reconciliations for
reconciled to the evidence of this check.
purchases ledger. • Review purchases journal and
• Chart of accounts in general ledger for
place. reasonableness.
• To ensure that • All goods received • Compare dates on reports to
purchase reports forwarded to dates on relevant vouchers.
transactions accounts payable • Compare dates on vouchers with
are recorded in department daily. dates they were recorded in the
the correct • Procedures in place that purchases journal.
accounting require recording of
period. purchases as soon as
possible after
goods/services received.
65
Lecture note
INVENTORY SYSTEM
Inventory controls are designed to ensure safe custody. Such controls include restriction of
access, documentation and authorisation of movements, regular independent inventory
counting and review of inventory.
Assertion Control objectives Controls procedures Tests of controls

Occurrence • To ensure that all • Pre-numbered • Review documentation
and existence inventory documentation in use.
movements are such as GDNs and • Review a sample of
authorised and GRNs in use. reconciliations to
recorded. • Reconciliations of confirm they are
inventory records performed and then
with general reviewed by an
ledger. independent person.
• Separate • Observe the recording
responsibilities for of inventory and
maintenance of discuss inventory
records and procedures with
custodianship. relevant staff to ensure
that proper segregation
of duties is operating.
• To ensure that • Physical • Review security
inventory safeguards in place systems in place (eg
included on the to ensure inventory locked warehouses,
statement of is not stolen. CCTV).
financial position • Separate • Review policies and
physically exists. responsibilities for procedures in place;
maintenance of discuss procedures with
records and relevant staff.
custodianship. • Review procedures for
• Inventory counted counting inventory.
regularly. • Attend inventory count.
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Lecture note
Completeness • To ensure that all • Procedures in place • Review entity's

purchases and to include procedures relating to
sales of inventory held at consignment inventory.
inventory have third parties and • Review reconciliations
been recorded in exclude inventory performed and inspect
the accounting held on them for evidence of
system. consignment for review. Re-perform a
third parties. sample of
• Reconciliations of reconciliations.
accounting records
with physical
inventory.
Rights and • To ensure that • Procedures in place • Review entity's
obligations inventory to include procedures relating to
records only inventory held at consignment inventory.
include items third parties and
that belong to the exclude inventory
entity. held on
consignment for
third parties.
Accuracy, • To ensure that • Periodic or annual • Review and test entity's
valuation and inventory comparison of procedures for taking
allocation and quantities have inventory with physical inventory.
classification been accurately amounts shown in
determined. continuous
(perpetual)
inventory records.
• To ensure that • Standard costs • Review and test entity's
inventory is reviewed by procedures for
properly stated at management. developing standard
the lower of cost • Review of cost costs.
and net accumulation and • Inspect variance reports
realizable value. variance reports. produced.
• Inventory • Discuss with inventory
managers review managers how this is
inventory regularly done.
to identify slow- • Observe the procedure
moving, obsolete being performed.
and excess
inventory.
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Lecture note
Cut-off • To ensure that all • All despatch • Inspect documentation

purchases and documents to confirm daily
sales of processed daily to processing.
inventory are record the despatch • Inspect documentation
recorded in the of finished goods. to confirm daily
correct • All goods inward processing.
accounting reports processed • Review reconciliations
period. daily to record the performed.
receipt of
inventory.
• Reconciliations of
inventory records
with general
ledger.
Presentation • To ensure that • Orders for • Review entity's
inventory materials and procedures and
transactions and production data documentation used to
balances are forms used to classify inventory.
properly process goods
identified and through
classified in the manufacturing.
financial
statements.
• To ensure that • Approval by • Review entity's
disclosures Finance Director. working papers for
relating to evidence of review.
classification and
valuation are
sufficient.
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Lecture note
CASH SYSTEM
Cash payments
Occurrence • To ensure that • Separate • Observe the processing of

only valid cash responsibilities for cash and review the
payments are the recording, entity's policies to
made. payment and evaluate whether proper
reconciliation of segregation of duties is
cash. operating.
• Supplier statements • Review procedures for
independently reconciling supplier
reviewed and statements.
reconciled to trade • Review reconciliations to
payable records. confirm whether
• Monthly bank undertaken and reviewed.
reconciliations • Review delegated list of
prepared and authority for cash
reviewed. payments.
• Only authorised • Inspect relevant
staff can make documentation for
electronic cash evidence of approval by
payments and issue senior personnel.
cheques.
• Electronic cash
payments and
cheques prepared
only after all source
documents
• Have been
independently
approved.
Completeness • To ensure that all • Separate • Observe the processing of

cash payments responsibilities for cash and review the
that occurred are the recording, entity's policies to
recorded. handling and evaluate whether proper
reconciliation of segregation of duties is
cash. operating.
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Lecture note
Completeness • • Supplier statements • Review procedures for

independently reconciling supplier
reviewed and statements.
reconciled to trade • Review reconciliations to
payable records. confirm whether
• Monthly bank undertaken and
reconciliations independently reviewed.
prepared and • Inspect sample of listings
reviewed. for evidence of senior
• Review of cash review.
payments by • Review a sample of
manager before reconciliations for
release. evidence that they have
• Daily cash been done.
payments reconciled • Examine evidence of use
to posting to of pre- numbered cheques.
payable accounts.
• Use of pre-
numbered cheques.
Accuracy, • To ensure that • Reconciliation of • Review reconciliation, to

valuation and cash payments daily payments ensure performed,
allocation are recorded report to electronic reviewed and any
and correctly in the cash payment discrepancies followed up
classification ledger. transfers and on a timely basis.
cheques issued. • Review reconciliations for
• Supplier statements a sample of accounts.
reconciled to • Review bank
payable accounts reconciliation for evidence
regularly. it was done and
• Monthly bank independently reviewed.
reconciliations of Reperform a sample of
bank statements to bank reconciliations.
ledger account.
• To ensure that • Supplier statements • Review reconciliations for
cash payments reconciled to a sample of accounts.
are posted to the payable accounts • Review postings from
correct payable regularly. journal to general ledger.
accounts and to • Agreement of
the general monthly cash
ledger. payments journal to
general ledger
posting.
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Lecture note
• Payable accounts • Review reconciliation, to

reconciled to ensure performed,
general ledger reviewed and any
control account. discrepancies followed up
on a timely basis.
Cut-off • To ensure that • Reconciliation of • Review reconciliation and

cash payments electronic funds check it is carried out
are recorded in transfers and regularly.
the correct cheques issued with
accounting postings to cash
period. payments journal
and payable
accounts.
Presentation • To ensure that • Chart of accounts. • Review cash payments

cash payments • Independent journal to assess
are charged to the approval and review reasonableness of
correct accounts. of general ledger charging of accounts.
account assignment. • Review assignment of
general ledger account.
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Lecture note
Cash receipts
Occurrence • To ensure that all • Separate • Observe the processing of

valid cash responsibilities for cash and review the
receipts are the recording, receipt entity's policies to
received and and reconciliation of evaluate whether proper
deposited. cash. segregation of duties is
• Use of electronic operating.
cash receipts transfer • Examine application
not received or controls for electronic
deposited. cash receipts transfer.
• Monthly bank • Review monthly bank
reconciliations reconciliations to confirm
performed and performed and reviewed.
independently • Observe cash sales
reviewed. procedures.
• Use of cash registers
or point-of-sale
devices.
Occurrence • • Periodic inspections • Enquire of managers

of cash sales about results of
procedures. inspections.
• Restrictive • Observe mail opening,
endorsement of including endorsement of
cheques immediately cheques.
on receipt. • Observe mail opening
• Mail opened by two procedures.
staff members. • Observe preparation of
• Immediate cash receipts' records.
preparation of cash • Review documentation
book or list of mail for evidence of
receipts. independent check.
• Independent check of • Review documentation
agreement of for evidence of
cash/cheques to be independent check.
deposited at bank
with register totals
and receipts listing.
• Independent check of
agreement of bank
72
Lecture note
deposit slip with

daily cash summary.
Completeness • To ensure that all • Separate • Observe the processing of

cash receipts are responsibilities for cash and review the
recorded. the recording, receipt entity's policies to
and reconciliation of evaluate whether proper
cash. segregation of duties is
• Use of electronic operating.
cash receipts transfer • Examine application
not received or controls for electronic
deposited. cash receipts transfer.
• Monthly bank • Review monthly bank
reconciliations reconciliations to confirm
performed and performed and reviewed.
independently • Re- perform a sample of
reviewed. the reconciliations.
• Daily cash receipts • Review reconciliation.
listing reconciled
with posting to
customer accounts.
Completeness • • Customer statements • Enquire of management

prepared and sent out about handling of
on a regular basis. customer statements.
• Examine a sample of
customers and note
frequency of statements.
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Lecture note
Accuracy, • To ensure that • Daily remittance • Review reconciliations.

valuation and cash receipts are report reconciled to • Review reconciliations
allocation recorded at control listing of for evidence they were
and correct amounts. remittance advices. performed and
classification • Monthly bank independently reviewed.
statement performed
and reviewed
independently.
• To ensure that • Daily remittance • Review reconciliations.
cash receipts are report reconciled • Review entity's
posted to correct daily with postings procedures for sending
receivables to cash receipts out statements.
accounts and to journal and customer • Review journal and
the general accounts. posting to general ledger.
ledger. • Monthly customer • Review reconciliations.
statements sent out.
• Monthly cash
receipts journal
agreed to general
ledger posting.
• Receivables' ledger
reconciled to control
account.
Cut-off • To ensure that • Bank reconciliation • Review and test

cash receipts are at period end. reconciliation.
recorded in the
correct
accounting
period.
Presentation • To ensure that • Chart of accounts • Inspect any documentary

cash receipts are (COA) in place and evidence of review (such
charged to the is regularly reviewed as emails requesting
correct accounts. for appropriateness update to COA as a result
and updated where of review).
necessary. • Test application controls
• Codes in place for for proper codes.
different types of
receipt.
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Lecture note
PAYROLL SYSTEM
Occurrence • To ensure that • Segregation of duties • Review payroll and HR

and existence payment is between HR and job descriptions and
made only to payroll functions. company policies on
bona fide • Personnel files held payroll process, to
employees of for all employees. evaluate whether proper
the entity. • Authorisation segregation of duties is in
procedures for place.
hiring, terminating, • Review a sample of
time worked, wage starters and leavers in the
rates, overtime, year to ensure correct
benefits etc. documentation is in place.
• Any changes in • Review and test
employment status of authorisation procedures
employees (eg in place.
maternity, special • Review policies and
leave) informed to procedures in place for
HR department. changing status and
• Use of time clocks to consider whether
record time worked. adequate.
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Lecture note
• Clock cards • Review personnel files for

approved by a sample of employees
supervisor. whose status changed in
the year.
• Observe employees' use
of time clocks.
• Inspect a sample of clock
cards for evidence of
approval by appropriate
level of management.
Occurrence • • Employee numbers • Review and test
and existence assigned to each procedures for entering
employee in the and removing employee
payroll master file. numbers from the payroll
Only employees with master file.
valid employee • Review budgeting
numbers are paid. procedures.
• Payroll budgets in
place and reviewed
by management.
Completeness • To ensure that • Pre-numbered clock • Review numerical
all payroll costs cards in use. sequence of clock cards.
are recorded for • Regular • Review a sample of
work done by reconciliations reconciliations to ensure
employees. carried out of payroll they are properly carried
records and out. Reperform a sample
employee costs of reconciliations.
recorded in the • Enquire whether
general ledger. comparisons are being
• Comparison of made between payment
cheques and bank records and payroll and
transfer list with inspect any documentary
payroll to ensure all evidence of the review.
employees paid have • Examine paid cheques or
been recorded via a certified copy of the
payroll. bank list for employees
• Preparation and paid by cheque or bank
authorization of transfer to ensure proper
cheques and bank authorization.
transfer lists.
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Lecture note
Accuracy, • To ensure that • Re-performance of a • Review documentary

valuation and all benefits and sample of payroll evidence that
allocation and deductions (tax, benefit and deduction recalculation occurred
classification pension etc.) calculations. (e.g. spreadsheet
are computed • Payroll budgets in printout).
correctly. place and reviewed • Review budgeting
by management. procedures.
• Agreement of gross • Inspect documentation for
earnings and total tax evidence of management's
deducted with review.
taxation returns.
• To ensure that • Changes to master • Review reconciliation
payroll payroll file verified 'before and after' reports
transactions are through 'before and to payroll master file.
correctly after' reports. • Review reconciliation
recorded in the • Payroll master file payroll master file to
accounting reconciled to general general ledger. Confirm
system. ledger. whether discrepancies are
followed up promptly and
resolved.
Cut-off • To ensure that • All starters, leavers, • Review entity's
payroll changes to salaries procedures for reporting
transactions are and deductions are changes to the payroll
recorded in the reported promptly to department.
correct payroll department • Verify sample of starters
accounting and changes are and leavers.
period. updated in the
payroll master file
promptly.
Presentation • To ensure that • Chart of accounts. • Review chart of accounts.
payroll • Independent • Review procedures for
transactions are approval and review classifying payroll costs.
properly of accounts charged • Review budgeting
classified in the to payroll. procedures.
financial • Payroll budgets in
statements. place and reviewed
by management.
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Lecture note
CAPITAL EXPENDITURE (FIXED ASSETS)
Assertion Control objectives Controls procedures Tests of control
Authorization • To ensure that • Orders for capital items • Review policies and
expenditure is should be authorized by procedures in place.
properly appropriate levels of
authorized. management.
• Orders should be • Examine a sample of
requisitioned on orders for appropriate
appropriate (different to authorisation.
revenue) documentation.
• Invoices should be • Inspect invoices to
approved by the person verify the invoice has
who authorised the been appropriately
order. approved.
• Invoices should be • Inspect invoices to
marked with the verify the invoice has
appropriate general the correct general
ledger code. ledger code marked
on it.
Classification • To ensure that • All the standard controls •

expenditure is over purchases are
classified relevant here
correctly in the
financial
statements as
capital or
revenue
expenditure.
Completeness • To ensure that • Capital items should be • Review reconciliation

all non-current written up in the non- to ensure it is
assets are current asset register. regularly carried out,
correctly • The non-current asset reviewed by a more
recorded in the register should be senior person, and
accounting reconciled regularly to that all discrepancies
system. the general ledger and are followed up and
any differences resolved on a timely
investigated and basis.
resolved promptly.
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Lecture note
SECTION 6: AUDIT SUBSTANTIVE PROCEDURES

1. AUDIT PROCEDURES
Recall
Audit procedures comprise of:
- Test of control
- Substantive procedures, in which:
+ Substantive analytical procedures
+ Tests of detail (of transaction, account balance and disclosures)
SUBSTANTIVE ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES

What are AP?
‘Analytical procedures’ actually means the evaluation of financial and other information,
and the review of plausible relationships in that information. The review also includes
identifying fluctuations and relationships that do not appear consistent with other relevant
information or results.
Different types of AP?
Analytical procedures can be used as:

- Comparison of comparable information to prior periods to identify unusual changes
or fluctuations in amounts.
- Comparison of actual or anticipated results of the entity with budgets and/or forecasts,
or the expectations of the auditor in order to determine the potential accuracy of those
results.
- Comparison to industry information either for the industry as a whole or by
comparison to entities of similar size to the client to determine whether receivable
days, for example, are reasonable.
Where do we use AP in the audit?

AP can be used in 3 different stages/ways
Risk assessment procedures
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Lecture note
Analytical procedures are used at the beginning of the audit to help the auditor obtain an
understanding of the entity and assess the risk of material misstatement. Audit procedures
can then be directed to these ‘risky’ areas.
Analytical procedures as substantive procedures
Analytical procedures can be used as substantive procedures in determining the risk of
material misstatement at the assertion level during work on the income statement and
statement of financial position (balance sheet).
Analytical procedures in the overall review at the end of the audit
Analytical procedures help the auditor at the end of the audit in forming an overall
conclusion as to whether the financial statements as a whole are consistent with the
auditor’s understanding of the entity.
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Lecture note
TYPICAL SUBSTANTIVE PROCEDURES FOR ASSERTIONS
Audit assertion Substantive procedures
Completeness (a) Review of post year end items

(b) Cut-off testing
(c) Analytical review
(d) Confirmations
(e) Reconciliations to control accounts
Rights and obligations (a) Reviewing invoices for proof that item belongs to the company
(b) Confirmations with third parties
Valuation and (a) Matching amounts to invoices

allocation
(b) Recalculation
(c) Confirming accounting policy is consistent and reasonable
(d) Review of post year end payments and invoices
(e) Expert valuation
Existence (a) Physical verification

(b) Third-party confirmations
(c) Cut-off testing
Occurrence (a) Inspection of supporting documentation

(b) Confirmation from directors that transactions relate to business
(c) Inspection of items purchased
Accuracy (a) Recalculation of correct amounts

(b) Third-party confirmation
(c) Analytical review
Classification and (a) Confirming compliance with law and accounting standards
understandability (b) Reviewing notes for understandability
Cut-off (a) Cut-off testing

(b) Analytical review
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Lecture note
2. SALES AND RECEIVABLES

What are main documents used in auditing receivable and sale?
RECEIVABLES
What are key ASSERTIONS relating to the audit of RECEIVABLES?
Existence: Recorded receivables exist

Completeness: All receivables that should have been recorded have been recorded
Valuation: Receivables are included in the accounts at the correct amounts
Rights and obligations: the entity controls the rights to receivables and related accounts
What are substantive procedures to confirm EXISTENCE OF RECEIVABLES?
1. Perform a receivables circularisation on a sample of year-end trade receivables

(Confirmation: Send and follow up )
2. Perform alternative procedures:
- Review after-date cash receipts by inspecting bank statements and cash receipts
documentation.
- Examine the customer's account and customer correspondence to assess whether
the balance outstanding represents specific invoices and confirm their validity.
- Examine the underlying documentation (purchase order, dispatch documentation,
duplicate sales invoice etc).
- Enquire from management explanations for invoices remaining unpaid after
subsequent ones have been paid.
- Observe whether the balance on the account is growing and, if so, find out why by
discussing with management.
Confirmation of receivables
➢ Objectives of confirmation
ISA 505 External confirmations
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Lecture note
External confirmations are audit evidence obtained as a direct written response to the
auditor from a third party in paper form or by electronic or other medium.
The verification of trade receivables by direct confirmation is the normal means of
providing audit evidence to satisfy the objective of testing whether customers exist and
owe bona fide amounts to the company (existence and rights and obligations)
➢ Positive vs. negative confirmation

When confirmation is undertaken, the method of requesting information from the customer
may be either positive or negative
Positive The customer is requested to confirm the accuracy of the balance shown or
state in what respect they are in disagreement.
It is preferable as it is designed to encourage definite replies from those
customer.
Negative The customer is requested to reply only if the amount stated is disputed.
➢ When the auditor use negative confirmation letter?

The negative method provides less persuasive audit evidence and shall not be used as the
sole substantive procedure to audit receivables unless all of the following are present:
(a) The risk of material misstatement has been assessed as low.
(b) The auditor has obtained sufficient appropriate audit evidence on the operating
effectiveness of relevant controls.
(c) The population consists of a large number of small, homogeneous account balances.
(d) A very low exception rate is expected.
(e) The auditor is not aware of circumstances or conditions that would cause customers to
disregard the requests.
➢ Steps for confirmation:
▪ Statements prepared by the client

▪ Confirmation letter on the client’s paper and signed by the client
▪ Sent out physically by auditor
▪ Replied directly to auditors’ own office in a pre-paid envelope
Auditors remained in control through these steps in sending out confirmation.
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Lecture note
➢ Sample of confirmation letter
➢ Sample selection – which debtor to select for sending confirmation?

When constructing the sample, the following classes of account should receive special
attention:
- Large debtors amount
- Old, unpaid accounts
- Accounts with credit balances
- Accounts settled by round sum payments.
➢ Follow-up procedures
What should auditor do after sending confirmation?
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Lecture note
• An exception is a response that shows a difference between the information

requested to be confirmed, or contained in the entity’s records, and information
provided by the confirming party.
A non-responses is a failure of the confirming party to respond, or fully respond,
to a positive confirmation request, or a confirmation request returned undelivered.
• Exception
For disagreement with the balance stated (both positive and negative confirmation)
where specific amounts should have identified
(a) There is a dispute between the client and the customer. The reasons for the dispute
would have to be identified, and provision made if appropriate against the debt.
(b) Cut-off problems exist, because the client records the following year’s sales in
the current year or because goods returned by the customer in the current year are
not recorded in the current year. Cut-off testing may have to be extended.
(c) The customer may have sent the monies before the year-end, but the monies were
not recorded by the client as receipts until after the year-end. Detailed cut-off work
may be required on receipts.
(d) Monies received may have been posted to the wrong account or a cash-in-transit
account. Auditors should check if there is evidence of other mis-posting. If the
monies have been posted to a cash-in-transit account, auditors should ensure this
account has been cleared promptly.
• Non-response
The auditor shall perform alternative audit procedures to obtain relevant and
reliable audit evidence. These could include reviewing subsequent cash receipts,
shipping documentation and sales near the period-end.
What are audit procedures to confirm VALUATION OF RECEIVABLE?

➢ Substantive analytical procedures:
1. Compare receivables turnover and receivables days with the previous year and/or
with industry data.
2. Compare the aged analysis of receivables from the aged trial balance with the
previous year.
3. Review the adequacy of the allowance for uncollectable accounts through discussion
with management.
4. Compare the irrecoverable debt expense as a % of sales with the previous year and/or
with industry data.
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Lecture note
5. Compare the allowance for irrecoverable debts as a % of receivables or credit sales

with the previous year and/or with industry data.
➢ Test of detailed
1. Confirm adequacy of allowance by reviewing correspondence with customers and

solicitors.
2. Examine credit notes issued after year-end for allowances that should be made
against current period balances.
3. Examine large customer accounts individually and compare with the previous year's
balances.
4. For a sample of old debts on the aged trial balance, obtain further information
regarding their recoverability by discussions with management and review of
customer correspondence.
What are audit procedures to confirm COMPLETENESS OF RECEIVABLE?

1. Agree the balance from the individual sales ledger accounts to the aged
receivables' listing and vice versa.
2. Match the total of the aged receivables' listing to the sales ledger control
account.
3. Cast and cross-cast the aged trial balance before selecting any samples to test.
4. Trace a sample of shipping documentation to sales invoices and into the sales
and receivables ledger.
What are audit procedures to confirm RIGHT AND OBLIGATION OF

RECEIVABLE?
1. Review bank confirmation for any liens on receivables.

2. Make enquiries of management, review loan agreements and review board
minutes for any evidence of receivables being sold (eg to factors).
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Lecture note
SALES
What are key ASSERTIONS relating to the audit of SALES?
Occurrence: All sales transactions recorded have occurred and relate to the entity
Completeness: All sales transactions that should have been recorded have been recorded
Accuracy: Amounts relating to transactions have been recorded appropriately
Cut-off: All transactions have been recorded in the correct period
Classification: All transactions are recorded properly
What are audit procedures to audit SALE?

➢ Occurrence
- For a sample of sales transactions recorded in the ledger, vouch the sales invoice back
to customer orders and despatch documentation.
➢ Completeness
- Compare the gross profit percentage by product line with the previous year and
industry data.
- Trace a sample of shipping documentation to sales invoices and into the sales ledger.
➢ Accuracy
- For a sample of sales invoices, compare the prices and terms to the authorised price
list and terms of trade documentation.
- Test whether discounts have been properly applied by recalculating them for a sample
of invoices.
- Test the correct calculation of tax on a sample of invoices.
➢ Cut-off
- Perform analytical procedures on sales returns, comparing the ratio of sales returns to
sales.
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Lecture note
- For a sample of sales invoices around the year end, inspect the dates and compare with
the dates of despatch and the dates recorded in the ledger for application of correct
cut-off.
- For sales returns, select a sample of returns documentation around the year end and
trace to the related credit entries.
- Review material after-date invoices, credit notes and adjustments and ensure that they
are recorded correctly in the relevant financial period.
➢ Classification
- Take a sample of sales invoices and examine for proper classification into revenue
accounts.
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Lecture note
3. INVENTORY
What are the key ASSERTIONS relating to INVENTORY?
Existence: Inventory on the statement of financial position physically exists.

Completeness: All inventory at year end is included on the statement of financial
position.
Rights and obligations: The entity has rights to inventory recorded in the period and at
the year-end.
Valuation: Costs are accurately determined in accordance with accounting standards;
inventory is recorded at year end at the lower of cost and net realizable value (NRV).
Cut-off: All purchases and sales of inventories are recorded in the correct period.
Presentation and disclosure: Inventory is properly classified in the accounts. ;
Disclosures relating to classification and valuation are adequate and in accordance with
accounting standards.
What is the main accounting requirements related to inventory?
Cost is defined by IAS 2 as comprising all costs of purchase and other costs incurred in
bringing inventory to its present location and condition.
Net realisable value is the estimated selling price in the ordinary course of business, less
the estimated costs of completion and the estimated costs necessary to make the sale.
We need to value inventory at the lower of cost or NRV. So if the NRV is less than cost, we
will have to adjust the inventory from cost to write it down to NRV (lower figure), and the
difference we charge to P&L as a loss.
What are audit procedures for inventory?

➢ Completeness
- Complete the disclosure checklist to ensure that all the disclosures relevant to
inventory have been made.
- Trace test counts to the detailed inventory listing.
- Where inventory is held in third-party locations, physically inspect this inventory
or review confirmations received from the third party and match to the general
ledger.
- Compare the gross profit percentage to the previous year or industry data.
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Lecture note
➢ Existence
- Observe the physical inventory count (see more in section “attendance at the
inventory count”)
➢ Rights and obligations
- Verify that any inventory held for third parties is not included in the year-end
inventory figure by being appropriately segregated during the inventory count.
- For any 'bill and hold' inventory (ie where the inventory has been sold but is being
held by the entity until the customer requires it), identify such inventory and ensure
that it is segregated during the inventory count so that it is not included in the year-
end inventory figure.
- Confirm that any inventory held at third-party locations is included in the yearend
inventory figure by reviewing the inventory listing.
➢ Valuation and Allocation
- Obtain a copy of the inventory listing and agree the totals to the general ledger.
- Cast the inventory listing to ensure it is mathematically correct.
- Vouch a sample of inventory items to suppliers' invoices to ensure it is correctly
valued.
- Manufactured goods (RM + DL + OH)
- For materials, agree the valuation of raw materials to invoices and price lists.
- For labour costs, agree costs to wage records.
- Compare the actual manufacturing overhead costs with budgeted or standard
manufacturing overhead costs
- Testing for NRV
- Make enquiries of management to ascertain any slow-moving or obsolete
inventory that should be written down.
- Examine prices at which finished goods have been sold after the year end to
ascertain whether any finished goods need to be written down.
- If significant levels of finished goods remain unsold for an unusual period of time,
discuss with management and consider the need to make allowance.
- Compare the gross profit % to the previous year or industry data.
- Compare inventory days to the previous year and industry average
➢ Cut-off
- Note the numbers of the last GDNs and GRNs before the year end and the first
GDNs and GRNs after the year end and check that these have been included in the
correct financial year.
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Lecture note
What are the most important audit procedures related to inventory?
THE PHYSICAL INVENTORY COUNT (STOCKTAKE)

Why do the auditor need to attend stocktake?
The objective of the auditor is to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence regarding the
existence and condition of inventory.
ISA 501.4:
“If inventory is material to the financial statement, the auditor shall obtain sufficient
appropriate audit evidence regarding the existence and condition of inventory by:
(a) Attendance at physical inventory counting, unless impracticable, to:
i. Evaluate management's instructions and procedures for recording and controlling the
result of the entity’s physical inventory counting;
ii. Observe the performance of management’s count procedures
iii. Inspect the inventory; and
iv. Perform test counts; and
(b) perform audit procedures over the entity's final inventory records to determine
whether they accurately reflect actual inventory count results”
The inventory count (2 difference system)

A business may count inventory by one or a combination of the following methods:
Physical inventory From the viewpoint of the auditor, this is often the best method.
counts at the year end
Continuous (or The management has a program of inventory counting

perpetual) inventory throughout the year
AUDIT PROCEDURES FOR CONTINUOUS INVENTORY COUNT:
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Lecture note
• Attend one of the inventory counts (to observe and confirm that instructions are being
adhered to).
• Follow up the inventory counts attended to compare quantities counted by the auditors
with the inventory records, obtaining and verifying explanations for any differences, and
checking that the client has reconciled count records with book inventory records.
• Review the year's inventory counts to confirm the extent of counting, the treatment of
discrepancies and the overall accuracy of records (if matters are not satisfactory, auditors
will only be able to gain sufficient assurance by a full count at the year-end).
• Assuming a full count is not necessary at the year end, compare the listing of inventory
with the detailed inventory records, and carry out other procedures (cut-off,
analytical review) to gain further comfort.
• The audit work when continuous inventory counting is used focuses on tests of controls
rather than substantive audit work. Nevertheless, the auditor will also need to do some
further substantive audit work on completeness and existence at the year end.
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Lecture note
AUDIT PROCEDURES FOR YEAR END INVENTORY COUNT:

For year-end physical stock take, we will divide the exercise into 3 difference stages:
➢ Step 1: Planning attendance at inventory count (BEFORE THE COUNT)
Before the physical inventory count, the auditors should ensure audit coverage of the
count is appropriate, and that the client’s count instructions have been reviewed
Procedures
- Planning inventory count

- Get the client to send over their stock take instruction and review the instruction
Planning inventory count
Gain - Review previous year's arrangements

knowledge
- Discuss with management the inventory count arrangements and
significant changes
Assess key - The nature and volume of the inventory

factors - Risks relating to inventory
- Identification of high value items
- Method of accounting for inventory
- Location of inventory and how it affects inventory control and
recording
- Internal control and accounting systems to identify potential areas
of difficulty
Plan - Ensure a representative selection of locations, inventory and

procedures procedures are covered
- Ensure sufficient attention is given to high value items
- Arrange to obtain from any third parties confirmation of inventory
they hold
- Consider the need for expert help
Get the client to send over their stock take instruction (or inventory count instructions)
and we need to review the instruction to ensure:
Organisation - Supervision by senior staff including senior staff not normally

of count involved with inventory
- Tidying and marking inventory to help counting
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Lecture note
- Restriction and control of the production process and inventory

movements during the count
- Identification of damaged, obsolete, slow-moving, third-party and
returnable inventory
Counting - Systematic counting to ensure all inventory is counted

- Teams of two counters, with one counting and the other checking or
two independent counts
Recording - Serial numbering, control and return of all inventory sheets

- Inventory sheets being completed in ink and signed
- Information to be recorded on the count records (location and
identity, count units, quantity counted, conditions of items, stage
reached in production process)
- Recording of quantity, conditions and stage of production of work-
in-progress
- Recording of last numbers of goods inwards and outwards records
and of internal transfer records
- Reconciliation with inventory records and investigation and
correction of any differences
➢ Step 2: Attendance at inventory count (DURING THE COUNT)
Attendance at an inventory count gives evidence of the existence and apparent

ownership of inventory. It also gives evidence of the completeness of inventory, as do
the follow-up tests to ensure all inventory sheets were included in the final count.
Procedures:
- Observe whether the client's staffs are following instructions, as this will help to
ensure the count is complete and accurate.
- Perform test counts to ensure procedures and internal controls are working
properly, and to gain evidence over existence and completeness of inventory.
- Ensure that the procedures for identifying damaged, obsolete and slow-moving
inventory operate properly; the auditors should obtain information about the
inventory's condition, age, usage and, in the case of work-in-progress, its stage of
completion to ensure that it is later valued appropriately.
- Confirm that inventory held on behalf of third parties is separately identified and
accounted for so that inventory is not overstated.
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Lecture note
- Conclude whether the count has been properly carried out and is sufficiently
reliable as a basis for determining the existence of inventories.
- Consider whether any amendment is necessary to subsequent audit procedures.
- Gain an overall impression of the levels and values of inventories held so that the
auditors may, in due course, judge whether the figure for inventory appearing in the
financial statements is reasonable.
• When carrying out test counts the auditors should select items from the count records
and from the physical inventory and check one to the other, to confirm the accuracy of
the count records.
• The auditors should concentrate on high value inventory. If the results of the test counts
are not satisfactory, the auditors may request that inventory be recounted.
➢ After the inventory count (AFTER)
After the count, the auditor should check that final inventory sheets have been properly
compiled from count records and that book inventory has been appropriately adjusted.
After the count, the matters recorded in the auditors' working papers at the time of the
count or measurement should be followed up.
Procedures:
- Trace items that were test counted to final inventory sheets.

- Observe whether all count records have been included in final inventory sheets.
- Inspect final inventory sheets to ensure they are supported by count records.
- Ensure that continuous inventory records have been adjusted to the amounts
physically counted or measured, and that differences have been investigated.
- Confirm cut-off by using details of the last serial number of goods inward and
outward notes and details of movements during the count.
- Review replies from third parties about inventory held by or for them.
- Confirm the client's final valuation of inventory has been calculated correctly.
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Lecture note
What are audit procedures to audit INVENTORY HELD BY THIRD PARTIES or in

public warehouse (SPECIAL CASE)
ISA 501.8
“If inventory under the custody and control of a third party is material to the financial
statements, the auditor shall obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence regarding the
existence and condition of that inventory by performing one or both of the following:
(a) Request confirmation from the third party as to the quantities and condition of
inventory held on behalf of the entity.
(b) Perform inspection or other audit procedures appropriate in the circumstances.”
Other procedures:
- Attending, or arranging for another auditor to attend, the third party's inventory count
- Obtaining another auditor's report on the adequacy of the third party's internal control
for ensuring that inventory is properly counted and adequately safeguarded
- Inspecting documentation in respect of third-party inventory (eg warehouse receipts)
- Requesting confirmation from other parties when inventory has been pledged as
collateral
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Lecture note
VALUATION (Importance assertion to audit)

Auditors must ensure that the company is applying the method consistently and that
each year the method used gives a fair approximation to cost.
Additional audit procedures:
- Reviewing price changes near the year end
- Ageing the inventory held
- Checking gross profit margins to reliable management accounts
Checking NRV
Auditor should compare cost and net realisable value for each item of inventory. Where this
is impracticable, the comparison may be done by group or category.
NRV is likely to be less than cost when there has been:
- An increase in costs or a fall in selling price
- Physical deterioration
- Obsolescence of products
- A marketing decision to manufacture and sell products at a loss
- Errors in production or purchasing
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Lecture note
4. LIABILITIES AND CAPTIAL

4.1. Trade payables, other payables and Accruals
What are key ASSERTIONS relating to the audit of Trade payables, other payables
and Accruals?
Existence: Trade payables and accrued expenses are valid liabilities.

Rights and obligations: Trade payables and accrued expenses are the obligations of the
entity
Completeness: All liabilities have been recorded
Valuation and allocation: All liabilities are included in the accounts at appropriate
amounts
What are audit procedures to audit Trade payables, other payables and Accruals?
Auditor should be aware of the possibility of understatement of liabilities to improve

liquidity and profits.
The objective will be to ascertain whether liabilities existing at the year-end balance have
been completely and accurately recorded
➢ Completeness
Payables (Creditors)
- Obtain a listing of trade accounts payables and agree the total to the general ledger by
casting and cross-casting.
- Test for unrecorded liabilities by enquiries of management on how unrecorded
liabilities and accruals are identified and examining post year end transactions
- Obtain selected suppliers' statements and reconcile these to the relevant suppliers'
accounts.
- Perform a confirmation of accounts payables choosing the low or zero balance
suppliers
- Compare the current year balances for trade accounts payables and accruals with the
previous year
- Compare the payables turnover and payables days to the previous year and industry
data.
- complete the disclosure checklist to ensure that all the disclosures relevant to liabilities
have been made
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Lecture note
➢ Accuracy
- Recalculate the mathematical accuracy of a sample of suppliers' invoices to confirm

the amounts are correct.
- Recast calculation of remuneration.
- Re-perform calculation of statutory deductions to confirm whether correct.
- Confirm validity of other deductions by agreeing to supporting documentation.
- Recast calculation of other deductions.
➢ Other assertions related to Trade payables, other payables and Accruals

Existence:
- Vouch selected amounts from the trade accounts payables listing and accruals listing
to supporting documentation, such as purchase orders and suppliers' invoices.
accounts.
- Perform a confirmation of accounts payables for a sample.
- Perform analytical procedures comparing current year balances with the previous year
to confirm reasonableness, and also calculating payables' turnover and comparing with
the previous year
Rights and obligations:
- Vouch a sample of balances to supporting documentation, such as purchase orders and

suppliers' invoices, to obtain audit evidence regarding rights and obligations
Valuation and allocation:
- Trace selected samples from the trade accounts payables listing and accruals listing to
the supporting documentation (purchase orders, minutes authorising expenditure,
suppliers' invoices etc).
accounts.
- Compare the current year balances for trade accounts payables and accruals with the
previous year.
- Compare the amounts owed to a sample of individual suppliers in the trade accounts
payables listing with amounts owed to these suppliers in the previous year.
Cut-off:
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Lecture note
- For a sample of vouchers, compare the dates with the dates they were recorded in the
ledger for application of correct cut-off.
- Test transactions around the year end to determine whether amounts have been
recognised in the correct financial period.
➢ Reconciliations of accounts payables with suppliers’ statements

Because suppliers’ statements are a source of documentary evidence originating outside of
the entity, they are reliable source of evidence to support suppliers’ balances and provide
evidence as to the existence, completeness and valuation of balances.
• Selection of only large balances or those with many transactions will not yield an
appropriate sample as understatement of liabilities is being tested for. The auditor
should consider the volume of business (look for active suppliers to audit) during the
year. Low or zero balances will be included in the sample.
• If the balance agrees exactly, no further work needs to be carried out.
• Where the differences arise, these need to be categorised as either in transit items or
other items. In-transit items will be either goods or cash
- If the difference relates to goods-in-transit, ascertain whether the goods were received
before the year end by reference to the GRN and that they are included in year-end
inventory and purchase accruals. If not, a cut-off error has occurred and should be
investigated. If the goods were received after the year end, the difference with the
suppliers' accounts is correct.
- Similarly, cash-in-transit would arise where the payment to the supplier was made by
cheque before the year end but was not received by them until after the year end. The
date the cheque was raised and its subsequent clearing through the bank account after
the year end should be verified by inspecting the cash book and the post year end bank
statements
However, if the cheque clears after the year-end date, it may indicate that the cheque,
though raised before the year end, was not sent to the supplier until after the year end.
The relevant amount should be added back to year-end accounts payable and to the
end of year bank balance.
Differences which do not arise from in-transit items need to be investigated and
appropriate adjustments made where necessary. These differences may have arisen
due to disputed invoices or invoices have been held back in order to reduce the level
of year-end account payables.
100
Lecture note
4.2. Provisions and contingencies

➢ Under IAS 37 Provisions, contingent liabilities and contingent assets, an entity
should not recognize a contingent asset or a contingent liability unless:
• When provisions and contingent liabilities are recognised:
Where, as a result of past events, there may be an outflow of resources embodying future
economic benefits in settlement of (a) a present obligation or (b) a possible obligation
whose existence will be confirmed by the occurrence or non-occurrence of one or more
uncertain future events not wholly within the entity’s control, and
there is a present obligation there is a possible there is a possible

that probably requires an obligation or a present obligation where the
outflow of resources, obligation that may, but likelihood of an outflow of
probably will not, require resources is remote.
an outflow of resources,
A provision is recognised No provision is recognised No provision is recognised

and disclosures are required but disclosures are and no disclosure is
for the provision required for the contingent required.
liability
• When contingent assets are recognised:
Where, as a result of past events, there is a possible asset whose existence will be
confirmed by the occurrence or non-occurrence of one or more uncertain future events
not wholly within the entity’s control, and
the inflow of economic the inflow of economic the inflow is not probable,
benefits is virtually certain, benefits is probable but
not virtually certain,
The asset is not contingent. It No asset is recognised but No asset is recognised and
is a normal asset that we can disclosures are required. no disclosure is required.
recognised.
➢ Audit procedures for provisions/contingencies:

• Obtain details of all provisions which have been included in the accounts and all
contingencies that have been disclosed.
• Obtain a detailed analysis of all provisions showing opening balances, movements and
closing balances.
101
Lecture note
• Determine for each material provision whether the company has a present obligation
as a result of past events by:
– Review of correspondence relating to the item
– Discussion with the directors. Have they created a valid expectation in other parties that
they will discharge the obligation?
• Determine for each material provision whether it is probable that a transfer of economic
benefits will be required to settle the obligation by:
– Checking whether any payments have been made in the post year end period in respect of
the item by reviewing after-date cash
– Review of correspondence with solicitors, banks, customers, insurance company and
suppliers both pre and post year end
– Sending a letter to the solicitor to obtain their views (where relevant)
– Discussing the position of similar past provisions with the directors. Were these
provisions eventually settled?
– Considering the likelihood of reimbursement
• Recalculate all provisions made.
• Compare the amount provided with any post year end payments and with any amount
paid in the past for similar items.
• In the event that it is not possible to estimate the amount of the provision, check that a
contingent liability is disclosed in the accounts.
• Consider the nature of the client's business. Would you expect to see any other
provisions eg warranties?
• Consider the adequacy of disclosure of provisions, contingent assets and contingent
liabilities in accordance with IAS 37.
102
Lecture note
4.3. PURCHASE, OTHER EXPENSES

➢ What are the key ASSERTIONS relating to PURCHASES?
Occurrence: All purchase transactions recorded have occurred and relate to the entity.
Completeness: All purchase transactions that should have been recorded have been
recorded
Accuracy: Amounts relating to transactions have been recorded appropriately
Cut-off: Purchase transactions have been recorded in the correct period
Classification: Purchase transactions are recorded properly
➢ Audit procedures
- Inspect a sample of purchase invoices to ensure they agree to the amount posted
to the general ledger.
- Compare expenses making up administrative expenses to the prior year charge and
to expectations on a line by line basis. Where differences from expectations are
discovered they should be investigated.
- Enquire of management whether there are any unsettled claims or obligations
arising before the year end and ensure these are provided for (to give evidence
over the completeness of the charge in the related expense category in the
statement of profit or loss)
- Recalculate accruals and prepayments to gain evidence that other expenses are not
over- or understated.
- Compare gross profit margin with the previous year, the gross margin per the
budget and expectations. Investigate any unexpected fluctuations.
103
Lecture note
4.4. Auditing payroll expenses

➢ What are the key ASSERTIONS relating to payroll expenses?
- Completeness
- Accuracy
Procedures:
• Reperform casts of payroll records to confirm completeness and accuracy

• Confirm payment of net pay per payroll records to cheque or bank transfer summary
• Agree net pay per cash book to payroll
• Inspect payroll for unusual items and investigate them further by discussion with
management
• Perform proof-in-total (analytical procedures) on payroll by multiplying estimated
average wage (using last year's figures plus expected increases) by average number
of employees (therefore incorporating starters and leavers) and compare to figure in
draft financial statements to assess reasonableness
• Reperform calculations of statutory deductions to confirm whether correct
• Confirm validity of other deductions by agreeing to supporting documentation
• Recast calculation of other deductions
• Agree individual remuneration per payroll to personnel records, records of hours
worked, salary agreement
• Confirm existence of employees on payroll by meeting them, attending wages
payout, inspecting personnel and tax records, and confirmation from managers.
• Agree benefits on payroll to supporting correspondence
104
Lecture note
4.5. Auditing Directors’ emoluments

The area of directors’ emoluments is said to be material by nature.
The requirement to disclose directors' emoluments can also be linked to International
Financial Reporting Standards because they require compensation payments to key
management personnel to be disclosed.
➢ Audit procedures (for directors emoluments)
• For each director, obtain a schedule of emoluments for the year, split between wages,
bonuses, benefits, pension contributions and other emoluments.
• Check the addition of the schedule and ensure the totals are in agreement with the
disclosure in the financial statements.
• Ask each individual director to confirm the emoluments listed are complete and in
line with their expectations.
• Compare the emoluments with both the previous year's emoluments and with
expectations, taking into account the knowledge obtained during the audit (for
example, if you know a director has left during the year, is there any compensation
for loss of office expected?).
• Agree salaries, fees, bonuses and pension contributions to payroll records for the
individual directors and check the amounts paid on the bank statements agree with
the payroll records.
• Review the directors' contracts and ensure emoluments are consistent with the terms
of these contracts.
• Review board meeting minutes and meetings of any remuneration committee for
evidence of any bonuses, fees or other emoluments not disclosed.
• Review the cash book for any unusual transactions which suggest undisclosed
directors' emoluments.
• Obtain and review returns to tax authorities made by the company on behalf of the
directors which detail non-cash benefits. Ensure these are consistent with the benefits
disclosed in the financial statements.
• Consider the adequacy of disclosure of directors' emoluments in accordance with
applicable accounting standards and local legislation, including the separate
disclosure of amounts due to or from directors in respect of directors' emoluments.
105
Lecture note
5. CASH AND BANK

What are key ASSERTIONS relating to audit of cash and bank?
Existence: Recorded cash balances exist at the period end

Completeness: Recorded cash balances include the effects of all transactions that have
occurred
Rights and obligations: The entity has legal title to all cash balances shown at the period
end
Valuation: Recorded cash balances are realizable at the amounts stated
presentation and disclosure: Disclosures relating to cash are adequate and in accordance
with accounting standards and legislation
Audit procedures: Audit of Bank

➢ Bank confirmation procedures
• The audit of bank balances will need to cover completeness, existence, rights and
obligations and valuation. All of these assertions can be audited directly by obtaining
third-party confirmations from the client's banks and reconciling these with the
accounting records, having regard to cut-off.
• The audit objectives linking these assertions are as follows
- Recorded cash balances exist at the year-end (existence).
- Recorded cash balances include the effects of all transactions that occurred
(completeness).
- Year-end transfers are recorded in the correct period (cut-off).
- Recorded balances are realizable at the amounts stated (valuation and allocation).
- The entity has legal title to all cash balances shown at the year-end (rights and
obligations)
• This audit evidence is valuable because it comes directly from an independent
source.
ISA 505 External confirmations:
• Prepare and dispatch of requests and receipt of replies
- Control over the content and dispatch of confirmation requests is the responsibility of
the auditors.
- However, it will be necessary for the request to be authorized by the client entity
106
Lecture note
- Replies should be returned directly to the auditors and to facilitate such a reply, a pre-
addressed envelope should be enclosed with the request
• Content of a bank confirmation request:
The information to be requested:
- Balances due to or from the client entity on current, deposit, loan and other accounts
- Nil balances on accounts, and accounts which were closed in the 12 months prior to
the chosen confirmation date
- other information, such as the maturity and interest terms on loans and overdrafts,
unused facilities, lines of credit/standby facilities, any offset or other rights or
encumbrances, and details of any collateral given or received.
- contingent liabilities, such as those arising on guarantees, comfort letters and bills
- any securities and other items in safe custody on behalf of the client
➢ Substantive procedures for bank (=cash at bank) balance
• Obtain company’s current bank account reconciliation and check the additions to
ensure arithmetical accuracy.
• Obtain a bank confirmation letter from company’s bankers for all of its accounts.
• For the current account, agree the balance per bank statement to an original year-end
bank statement and also to the bank confirmation letter.
• Agree the reconciliation’s balance per the cash book to the year-end cash book.
• Trace all of the outstanding deposits (uncredited deposits) to the pre year-end cash
book, post year-end bank statement and also to paying-in-book pre year end.
• Trace all unpresented cheques through to a pre year-end cash book and post year-end
statement. For any unusual amounts or significant delays obtain explanations from
management.
• Examine any old unpresented cheques to assess if they need to be written bank into
the purchase ledger as they are no longer valid to be presented.
• Agree all balances listed on the bank confirmation letter to company’s bank
reconciliations or the trial balance to ensure completeness of bank balances.
• Review the cash book and bankstatements for any unusual items or large transfers
around the year end, as this could be evidence of window dressing.
• Examine the bank confirmation letter for details of any security provided by Fox or
any legal right of set-off as this may require disclosure.
107
Lecture note
• Review the financial statements to ensure that the disclosure of cash and bank balances
are complete and accurate.
Audit of cash
➢ Auditors will be concerned that the cash exists, is complete, and belongs to the
company (rights and obligations) and is stated at the correct value.
➢ Where the auditors determine that cash balances are potentially material they
may conduct a cash count, ideally at the period end.
Things to look out for when counting cash:
• insist that the cash custodian be present thoughout the count;

• control all cash held by the client until all funds have been counted;
• ascertain that all undeposited checks are payable to the order of the client; &
• obtain a signed receipt from the custodian on return of the cash to the client.
• Ensure that at no time should the auditors be left alone with the cash
108
Lecture note
6. NON-CURRENT ASSETS (FIXED ASSETS)

What are key ASSERTIONS relating to audit of NON-CURRENT ASSETS?
Existence Recorded assets represent those physically exist and in use at the year
end
Completeness All additions and disposals that occurred in the year have been recorded
Balances represent assets in use at the year end
Rights and The entity has rights to the assets purchased and those recorded at the
obligations year end
Valuation Non-current assets are correctly stated at cost less accumulated

depreciation
Additions and disposals are correctly recorded
Any assets that have impairment will have to be written down
Presentation Disclosures relating to cost, additions and disposals, depreciation

and policies, useful lives and assets held under finance leases are adequate
disclosure and in accordance with accounting standards
➢ Key internal controls over fixed assets include:
• The non-current asset register enables assets to be identified, and comparisons

between the general ledger, non-current assets register and the assets themselves
provide evidence that the assets are completely recorded.
• The procedures over acquisitions and disposals are another significant control. It
should ensure acquisitions are properly authorized, disposals are authorized and
proceeds accounted for.
• Security arrangements over non-current assets are sufficient.
• Non-current assets are maintained properly.
• Depreciation is reviewed every year.
➢ Audit procedures
Completeness - Obtain or prepare a summary of tangible non-current assets showing

how the following reconcile with the opening position.
+ Gross book value
109
Lecture note
+ Accumulated depreciation
+ Net book value
- Compare non-current assets in the general ledger with the non-current
assets register and obtain explanations for differences.
- For a sample of assets which physically exist, agree that they are
recorded in the non-current asset register.
Existence - Confirm that the company physically inspects all items in the non-
current asset register each year.
- Inspect assets, concentrating on high value items and additions in-
year. Confirm that items inspected:
+ Exist
+ Are in use
+ Are in good condition
+ Have correct serial numbers
Valuation - Verify valuation to valuation certificate.

- Consider reasonableness of valuation, reviewing:
+ Experience of valuer
+ Scope of work
+ Methods and assumptions used
+ Valuation bases are in line with accounting standards
Valuation - Review depreciation rates applied in relation to:

(Depreciation) + Asset lives
+ Residual values
+ Replacement policy
+ Past experience of gains and losses on disposal
+ Consistency with prior years and accounting policy
+ Possible obsolescence
- Review non-current assets register to ensure that depreciation has
been charged on all assets with a limited useful life.
- Reperform calculation of depreciation rates to ensure it is correct.
- Compare ratios of depreciation to non-current assets (by category)
with:
110
Lecture note
+ Previous years
+ Depreciation policy rates
Rights and - Verify title to land and buildings by inspection of:

obligations + Title deeds
(Charges and + Land registry certificates
commitments)
+ Leases
- Inspect registration documents for vehicles held, confirming that they
are in client's name.
- Examine documents of title for other assets
Addition - Verify additions by inspection of architects' certificates, solicitors'

completion statements, suppliers' invoices etc.
- Review capitalization of expenditure by examining for non-current
assets additions and items in relevant expense categories (repairs,
motor expenses, sundry expenses) to ensure that:
+ Capital/revenue distinction is correctly drawn
+ Capitalization is in line with consistently applied company policy
- Inspect non-current asset accounts for a sample of purchases to ensure
they have been properly allocated.
- Check purchases have been authorized by directors/senior
management by reviewing board minutes
- Ensure that appropriate claims have been made for grants, and grants
received and receivable have been received, by inspecting claims
documentations and bank statements
- Check that additions have been recorded by scrutinizing the non-
current asset register and general ledger
Disposals - These tests are to confirm rights and obligations, completeness,

occurrence and accuracy.
- Verify disposals with supporting documentation, checking transfer of
title, sales price and dates of completion and payment.
- Recalculate profit or loss on disposal.
- Check that disposals have been authorized by reviewing boards
minutes
- Consider whether proceeds are reasonable
111
Lecture note
Classification - Review non-current asset disclosures in the financial statements to

and ensure they meet IAS 16 criteria.
understandabil
ity
112
Lecture note
SECTION 7: REPORTING
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
Objectives of lecture
By the end of this lecture you should be able to:
• Explain the purpose of, auditor's responsibilities regarding, and procedures
involved in a subsequent events review.
• Explain the responsibilities of auditors and management regarding going concern,
and the procedures to be applied in performing going concern reviews.
• Discuss the purpose of, quality of and procedure for obtaining written
representations.
• Explain the auditor's responsibilities in relation to opening balances and
comparative information.
• Understand the appropriate actions in respect of misstatements.
• Explain the significance of uncorrected misstatements, and describe auditor's
procedures in the overall review of the financial statements.
• Describe and analyse the format and content of unmodified audit reports.
• Describe and analyse the format and content of modified audit reports.
• Describe the format and content of emphasis of matter and other matter
paragraphs.
• Explain when each audit opinion is appropriate.
• Explain the different audit reports in respect of issues surrounding going concern.
INTRODUCTION
After the auditor has completed their substantive testing there are still many procedures that
need to be performed before they can sign the audit report.
The completion phase normally includes the following tasks: the consideration of opening
balances and comparatives; a subsequent event reviews; a going concern reviews; obtaining
written representations from management; consideration of misstatements; overall review;
Auditor will issue their audit report which is containing audit opinion; Auditor will issue
management letter, which communicating with those charge with governance regarding
internal control weaknesses.
The audit report is the final product of the audit process.
7.1. THE CONSIDERATION OF OPENING BALANCES AND COMPARATIVES
7.1.1. Auditing opening balances
If the audit engagement continuing from previous years, there is no problem. But if this is
the fist-year audit client, auditor will concern about the reliablity of the previous year’s
financial statements and quality of previous auditors (predecessor auditor).
ISA 510 Initial Engagements – Opening Balances requires that when auditors take on a new
client, they must ensure that:
- opening balances do not contain material misstatements
113
Lecture note
- prior period closing balances have been correctly brought forward or, where
appropriate, restated
- appropriate accounting policies have been consistently applied, or changes
adequately disclosed.
There are several considerations to be made:
- Were the previous financial statements audited?
- If the previous financial statements were audited, was the opinion modified?
- If the previous opinion was modified, has the matter been resolved since then?
- Were any adjustments made as a result of the audit? If so, has the client adjusted
their accounting ledgers as well as the financial statements?
- Where the prior period was audited by another auditor or unaudited, the auditors will
need to perform additional work in order to satisfy themselves regarding the opening
position. Such work would include:
+ Consulting the client’s management.
+ Reviewing records and accounting and control procedures in the preceding
period.
+ Consulting with the previous auditor and reviewing (with their permission) their
working papers and relevant representation letters.
+ Substantive testing of any opening balances where the above procedures are
unsatisfactory.
+ Some evidence of the opening position will also usually be gained from the audit
work performed in the current period.
In order to have the information necessary, the auditor should request that management
authorize the predecessor auditor to respond fully to inquiries from the auditor, and allow a
review of the prior year’s documentation.
The predecessor auditor may request a consent and acknowledgment letter from the entity
to document this authorization.
ILLUSTRATION 1. ENTITY CONSENT AND ACKNOWLEDGMENT LETTER

The following letter is presented for illustrative purposes only and is not required by professional
standards.
[Date]
ABC Enterprises
[Address]
You have given your consent to allow [name of successor CPA firm], as independent auditors for ABC
Enterprises (ABC), access to our audit documentation for our audit of the December 31, 20X1 fi nancial
statements of ABC. You also have given your consent to us to respond fully to [name of successor CPA
firm] inquiries. You understand and agree that the review of our audit documentation is undertaken solely
for the purpose of obtaining an understanding about ABC and certain information about our audit to assist
[name of successor CPA firm] in planning and performing the audit of the December 31, 20X2 fi nancial
statements of ABC.
Please confirm your agreement with the foregoing by signing and dating a copy of this letter and returning
it to us.
114
Lecture note
Attached is the form of the letter we will furnish [name of successor CPA firm] regarding the use of the
audit documentation.
Very truly yours,
[Predecessor Auditor]
By: ______________________
Accepted:
ABC Enterprises
By: ______________________
Date: ____________
[Joanne M.Flood, 2016, Practitioner’s guide to GAAS]
The predecessor auditor may also request written confirmation of the auditor’s agreement
regarding the use of the audit documentation.
ILLUSTRATION 2. ILLUSTRATIVE SUCCESSOR AUDITOR ACKNOWLEDGMENT LETTER

The following letter is presented for illustrative purposes only and is not required by professional standards.
[Date]
[Successor Auditor]
[Address]
We have previously audited, in accordance with auditing standards generally accepted in the United States
of America, the December 31, 20X1 fi nancial statements of ABC Enterprises (ABC). We rendered a report
on those financial statements and have not performed any audit procedures subsequent to the audit report
date. In connection with your audit of ABC’s 20X2 financial statements, you have requested access to our
audit documentation prepared in connection with that audit. ABC has authorized our firm to allow you to
review that audit documentation.
Our audit, and the audit documentation prepared in connection therewith, of ABC’s financial statements
were not planned or conducted in contemplation of your review. Therefore, items of possible interest to you
may not have been speci fi cally addressed. Our use of professional judgment and the assessment of audit
risk and materiality for the purpose of our audit mean that matters may have existed that would have been
assessed differently by you. We make no representation about the suf fi ciency or appropriateness of the
information in our audit documentation for your purposes.
We understand that the purpose of your review is to obtain information about ABC and our 20X1 audit
results to assist you in planning and performing your 20X2 audit of ABC. For that purpose only, we will
provide you access to our audit documentation that relates to that objective.
Upon request, we will provide copies of audit documentation that provides factual information about ABC.
You agree to subject any such copies or information otherwise derived from our audit documentation to
your normal policy for retention of audit documentation and protection of confidential entity information.
Furthermore, in the event of a third-party request for access to your audit documentation prepared in
connection with your audits of ABC, you agree to obtain our permission before voluntarily allowing any
such access to our audit documentation or information otherwise derived from our audit documentation, and
to obtain on our behalf any releases that you obtain from such third party. You agree to advise us promptly
and provide us a copy of any subpoena, summons, or other court order for access to your audit
documentation that includes copies of our audit documentation or information otherwise derived therefrom.
Please con fi rm your agreement with the foregoing by signing and dating a copy of this letter and returning
it to us.
Very truly yours,
115
Lecture note
[Predecessor Auditor]
By: __________________
Accepted:
[Successor Auditor]
By: __________________
Date: ___________
The predecessor’s report should not reference as the basis, in part, for the auditor’s opinion.
If there is a material misstatements regarding prior financial statements, auditors should:
- correct to prior financial statemements: the auditor should ask management to inform
the predecessor auditor and arrange for a meeting of the three parties to try to resolve
the matter.
- Consider withdrawal or disclaim an opinion : if management refuse to inform the
processor auditor that the financial statements may need revision, or the auditor may
not be satisfied with the resolution
If auditors are unable to to obtain sufficient evidence regarding opening balances, the auditor
should disclaim an opinion or express a qualified opinion.
ILLUSTRATION 3: REPORT WITH DISCLAIMER OF OPINION ON RESULTS OF

OPERATIONS AND CASH FLOWS AND UNMODIFIED OPINION ON FINANCIAL POSITION
Circumstances include the following:
• The auditor did not observe the counting of the physical inventory at the beginning of the current period
and was unable to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence regarding the opening balances of inventory.
• The possible effects of the inability to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence regarding opening
balances of inventory are deemed to be material and pervasive to the entity’s results of operations and cash
flows.
• The financial position at year-end is fairly presented.
• A disclaimer of opinion regarding the results of operations and cash flows and an unmodified opinion
regarding financial position are considered appropriate in the circumstances.
Independent Auditor’s Report (extracted)

….
Basis for Disclaimer of Opinion on the Results of Operations and Cash Flows
We were not engaged as auditors of the Company until after December 31, 20X0, and, therefore, did not
observe the counting of physical inventories at the beginning of the year. We were unable to satisfy
ourselves by performing other auditing procedures concerning the inventory held at December 31, 20X0.
Since opening inventories enter into the determination of net income and cash fl ows, we were unable to
determine whether any adjustments might have been necessary in respect of the pro fi t for the year reported
in the income statement and the net cash fl ows from operating activities reported in the cash flow statement.
Disclaimer of Opinion on the Results of Operations and Cash Flows
116
Lecture note
Because of the significance of the matter described in the Basis for Disclaimer of Opinion paragraph, we
have not been able to obtain suf fi cient appropriate audit evidence to provide a basis for an audit opinion
on the results of operations and cash fl ows for the year ended December 31, 20X1.
Accordingly, we do not express an opinion on the results of operations and cash fl ows for the year ended
December 31, 20X1.
Opinion on the Financial Position
In our opinion, the balance sheet presents fairly, in all material respects, the financial position of ABC
Company as of December 31, 20X1, in accordance with accounting principles generally accepted in the
United States of America.
….
The auditor should express a qualified or adverse opinion if the auditor concludes:
- That the opening balances contain a material misstatement that affects the current
statements and the effect is not appropriately accounted for or adequately disclosed
- That a change in accounting policies is not consistently applied or accounted for or
adequately presented or disclosed as to opening balances
If the prior period opinion included a modi fi cation relevant and material to the current
financial statements, the auditor should modify the current opinion in accordance with
Section
7.1.2. Auditing comprehensive data
ISA 710 Comparative Information – Corresponding Figures and Comparative Financial
Statements requires that comparative figures comply with the identified financial reporting
framework and that they are free from material misstatement.
IAS 1 Presentation of financial statements requires that financial statements show
comparatives.
Two categories of comparatives exist:
- corresponding figures where preceding period figures are included as an integral part
of the current period financial statements; and
- comparative financial statements where preceding period amounts are included for
comparison with the current period.
Audit procedures in respect of corresponding figures should be significantly less than for
the current period and are limited to ensuring that corresponding figures have been correctly
reported and appropriately classified. This involves evaluating whether:
- accounting policies are consistently applied; and
- corresponding figures agree to the prior period financial statements
Sufficient appropriate evidence should be gathered to ensure that comparative financial
statements meet the requirements of an applicable financial reporting framework. This
involves evaluating whether:
- accounting policies are consistently applied; and
117
Lecture note
- comparative figures agree to the prior period financial statements.
7.2. SUBSEQUENT EVENTS REVIEW

7.2.1. Recall: Financial reporting treatment of subsequent events
IAS 10 Events after the reporting period: An event after the reporting period can be defined
as a material event occurring between the reporting date and the date on which the financial
statements are approved.
Company’s year end Financial statements

(reporting date) approved and published
Events after reporting date
Events after the reporting date are categorised as either being an adjusting event and a non-
adjusting event. Adjusting events are incorporated into the financial statements as if they
existed at the reported date. Non-adjusting events are not incorporated into the financial
statements, although they may be disclosed.
Adjusting events: An adjusting event provides evidence of conditions that existed at the
reporting date. Examples: Resolution of a court case; Bankruptcy of a major customer;
Evidence of the NRV of inventories; Dicovery of fraud or errors
Non-adjusting event: A non-adjusting event provides evidence of conditions that arose
after the reporting date. For examples: Destruction of major assets after the reporting date
by fire or flood; Major share transactions; Announcing a plan to discontinue an operation;
Major purchases of assets.; Dividends proposed/ declared after the end of reporting period;
Entering into significant commitments or contingent liabilities; Commencing a court case
arising out of events after the reporting period.
7.2.2. The auditor and subsequent events
There will be a gap of time between the auditor finishing the audit and the financial
statements being published and issued to shareholders. Subsequent events are events
occurring between the company’s reporting date and the date of the auditor’s report, and
facts that become known to the auditor after the date of the audit report.
118
Lecture note
Reporting Audit report

FSs issued AGM
date signed
Active duty Passive duty
Must obtain sufficient

appropriate evidence that No requirement to perform
all subsequent events that audit procedures. If fact
require adjustment or becomes known, must take
disclosure have been the necessary action
identified
7.2.3. Auditing subsequent events

ISA 560 Subsequent Events details the responsibilities of the auditors with respect to
subsequent events and suggests audit procedures to perform. The nature of procedures
performed in a subsequent events review depends on many variables, such as the nature of
transactions and events and the availability of data and reports. However, the following
procedures are typical:
- Enquiring of directors if they are aware of any subsequent events that require
adjustment in the financial statements.
- Enquiring into management's procedures/systems for the identification of
subsequent events.
- Inspection of minutes of members’ and directors’ meetings.
- Reviewing accounting records including budgets, forecasts and interim information.
- Obtaining, from management, a letter of representation that all subsequent events
have been considered in the preparation of the financial statements.
- Inspection of correspondence with legal advisors.
- Enquiring of the progress with regards to reported provisions and contingencies.
- ‘Normal’ post reporting period work performed in order to verify year end balances:
checking after date receipts from receivables; inspecting the cash book for
payments/receipts that were not accrued for at the yearend; checking the sales price
of inventories.
7.2.4. Necessary action
If as part of their passive duty, the auditor becomes aware of an event that requires
adjustment / disclosure, they should:
- Discuss the matter with management and requesting an amendment to the financial
statements if necessary.
119
Lecture note
- If the directors do not amend the financial statements accordingly then the auditor
should consider withdrawing the audit report.
- If management do not allow this (e.g. continue to distribute the financial statements
with the original audit report) then the auditor should take action to prevent
reliance on the audit report which could include the following:
+ Seek legal advice
+ Use the right to speak at the AGM
+ Consider resignation and call an EGM
ILLUSTRATION. SUBSEQUENT EVENTS CHECKLIST

____________ ______________ ____________
(Client) (Prepared by) (Date)
____________ ______________ ____________
(Period ended) (Reviewed by) (Date)
Instructions
This checklist is designed to assist in complying with the requirement that a review be made of transactions
and events occurring between the date of fi nancial statements being audited and the date of the auditor’s
report. The purpose of the review is to determine whether transactions or events occurred that require
adjustment of the fi nancial statements or disclosure in the notes to the fi nancial statements. If this checklist
is not used, the audit program should include appropriate procedures concerning subsequent events. This
checklist may be modified to fit the needs of a specific audit.
Subsequent events are classified as follows:
1. Events that provide additional evidence about conditions that existed at the balance sheet date and affect
estimates in the financial statements. The fi nancial statements should be adjusted for changes in estimates
resulting from the use of this evidence.
2. Events that provide evidence about conditions that did not exist at the balance sheet date but arose
subsequent to that date. These events, except for stock dividends, stock splits, or reverse stock splits, do not
result in adjustment of the fi nancial statements. Some, however, may require disclosure to keep the fi nancial
statements from being misleading.
Ordinarily, the review of subsequent events is limited to transactions and events occurring betweenthe date
of the audited fi nancial statements and the auditor’s report date. If there are circumstances in which signi fi
cant time lags exist between those dates, however, the subsequent events review may have to be extended.
This checklist includes procedures to be performed before the release of the fi nancial statements. These
procedures should be coordinated with other auditing procedures, such as cutoff tests, con fi rma-tion
follow-up, review of subsequent cash collections, and so on. In some circumstances, this checklist might be
supplemented by supporting audit documentation.
For all procedures listed below, the “Completed by” and “Date” columns should be completed. The
“Inquiry of” and “W/P reference” columns should include the name of the client personnel queried or
reference to supporting audit documentation. If a procedure is not applicable, “N/A” should be entered in
the “Inquiry of” and “W/P reference” columns.
Procedure Completed Date Inquiry W/P

by of reference
120
Lecture note
1 Read minutes of meetings of those charged with

governance up to the date of the auditor’s report.
2 Read the most recent interim fi nancial statements

prepared after the balance sheet date and compare them
with the fi nancial statements being reported on, budgets
and forecasts, if available, and interim fi nancial
statements for the same period of the prior year.
3 Review accounting records—general ledger, general

journal, other books of original entry—for unusual
material transactions from the balance sheet date to the
date of the auditor’s report.
4 Review reports of internal auditors prepared after the

balance sheet date. If reports have not been prepared,
inquire about the fi ndings of the internal auditors
4 Inquire of appropriate executives about matters and

events such as the following:
a. The most recent interim fi nancial statements
(1) Accounting practices that differ from those in the
financial statements being reported on
(2) Components of operating results
(3) Significant changes in working capital
b. Property, plant, and equipment
(1) Commitments for major additions or
dispositions
(2) New or modified leases
(3) New or modi fi ed mortgages or other liens
(4) Fire or other casualty losses
c. Long-term debt and capital stock
(1) New borrowings or modifications of
existing debt
(2) Early extinguishment of debt
(3) Compliance with debt covenants
(4) Stock conversions or conversions of debt to stock
(5) Transactions involving equity securities, such as
stock splits, stock options, and warrants
(6) Declaration of dividends
d. Personnel
(1) Labor disputes
(2) Adoption of new or amended employee benefit plans
e. Contingencies
(1) Status of contingencies existing at the balance sheet
date
121
Lecture note
(2) New contingencies

(3) Notice of de fi ciencies from regulatory agencies
f. Other
(1) Signi fi cant sales, purchases, or other commitments
(2) Unusual adjustments made subsequent to the balance
sheet date
(3) Negotiations or agreements involving business
combinations or dispositions of corporate assets
(4) Status of transactions with related parties entered
into before or after the balance sheet date
(5) New information about items in the fi nancial
statements being reported on that were accounted for on
the basis of tentative or inconclusive data
(6) Decisions that may affect carrying value or classi fi
cation of assets or liabilities
(7) Changes in lines of credit or compensating balances
(8) Changes in fi nancial policies
6 Review letters received from entity lawyers in response

to inquiries on litigation, claims, and assessments. If
these letters are not dated close to the report date,
consider whether it is necessary to obtain an updated
letter.
7 Review documents and fi nancial statements provided to

regulatory agencies, credit agencies, fi nancial
institutions, potential investors, and others subsequent to
the balance sheet date.
8 For documents prepared by the client that include

audited fi nancial statements and other information, read
the other information.
9 Review the written representations to determine that

they include matters pertaining to subsequent events.
7.3. GOING CONCERN REVIEW

7.3.1. Recall: The going concern concept and financial reporting treatment
According to IAS1 financial statements should be prepared on the basis that the company is
a going concern unless it is inappropriate to do so. Going concern is defined in IAS1 as the
assumption that the enterprise will continue in operational existence for the foreseeable
future. Generally the period is a minimum of twelve months from the year-end; in some
jurisdictions (e.g. the United Kingdom) the period is a minimum of twelve months from the
date the financial statements are approved.
122
Lecture note
IAS1 states that an entity should prepare its financial statements on a going concern basis,
unless management intends to liquidate the entity or to cease trading or the directors have
no realistic alternative but to do so.
Where the assumption is made that the company will cease trading, the financial statements
are prepared using the breakup basis under which:
- The basis of preparation and the reason why the entity is not regarded as a going
concern are disclosed
- There are no long term assets or liabilities
- Assets are recorded at likely sale values
- Inventory and receivables are likely to require more provisions
- Additional liabilities may arise (severance costs for staff, the costs of closing down
facilities, etc.).
Where there is any significant doubt over the future of a company, the directors should
include disclosures in the financial statements explaining:
- the nature of and circumstances surrounding the doubts
- the possible effect on the company
Where the directors have been unable to assess going concern in the usual way (e.g. for less
than one year beyond the date on which they sign the financial statements), this fact should
be disclosed.
Where the financial statements are prepared on a basis other than the going concern basis,
the basis used should be disclosed.
7.3..2. Responsibilities of directors re GC
It is the directors’ responsibility to assess the company’s ability to continue as a going
concern when they are preparing the financial statements.
If they are aware of any material uncertainties which may affect this assessment, then IAS
1 requires them to disclose such uncertainties in the financial statements.
When the directors are performing their assessment they should take into account a number
of relevant factors such as:
- current and expected profitability
- debt repayment
- sources (and potential sources) of financing.
7.3..3. Problems with auditing going concern
When auditing going concern, the following is significant matters that the auditor should
pay attention:
- Consideration of the ‘foreseeable future’ involves making a judgement about future
events, which are inherently uncertain.
- Uncertainty increases with time and judgements can only be made on the basis of
information available at any point – subsequent events can overturn that judgement.
123
Lecture note
- There may be circumstances in which it is appropriate to look further ahead. This

depends on the nature of the business and their associated risks.
7.3.4. Responsibilities of auditor re GC
ISA 570 Going Concern states that the auditor needs to consider the appropriateness of
management’s use of the going concern assumption. The auditors need to assess the risk that
the company may not be a going concern. The auditor will also need to obtain sufficient
appropriate evidence that the company is a going concern. The auditor must conclude
whether there are any material uncertainties regarding going concern. Where there are
material uncertainties, the auditor must ensure that the directors have made sufficient
disclosure of such matters in the notes to the financial statements.
7.3.5. Audit procedures to test GC
Auditor normally carry the following audit procedures:
- Assess the state of the industry in which the client operates.
- Compare results with any loan covenants that exist.
- Consult management about future intentions (and obtain representations if required)
- Review correspondence with major customers, suppliers and banks for evidence of
disputes.
- Review post year end management accounts to analyse trend in performance.
- Consider whether directors have taken relevant factors into consideration in their GC
review.
- Review cash flow forecasts produced by management for evidence or expensed
improvement / deterioration in the coming year.
ILLUSTRATION. GOING CONCERN CHECKLIST

__________________
[Client]
__________________
[Audit Date]
Instructions
This checklist should be used in every audit of financial statements to assess whether there is significant
doubt about the “going concern” assumption. It is divided into two parts. Part I should always be completed.
Part II should be completed only when, as a result of completing Part I, the auditor concludes that signi fi
cant doubt may exist.
If an item is not applicable, insert “N/A” in the Yes/No column.
PART 1 Yes/No Date Comment
1 Have audit procedures identi fi ed any of the following conditions

or events that may raise a question about the client’s continued
existence?
a. Recurring operating losses
124
Lecture note
b. Working capital de fi ciencies

c. Negative cash fl ows from operations
d. Adverse key fi nancial ratios, such as the current ratio and the
quick asset ratio
e. Default on loan or similar agreements
f. Dividend arrearages
g. Denial of usual trade credit from suppliers
h. Noncompliance with statutory capital requirements
i. Necessity of seeking new sources or methods of fi nancing
j. Loss of key management or operations personnel
k. Work stoppages or other labor dif fi culties
l. Substantial dependence on the success of a particular project
m. Uneconomic long-term commitments
n. Legal proceedings, legislation, or similar matters that might
jeopardize entity’s ability to operate
o. Loss of key franchise, license, or patent
p. Loss of a principal customer or supplier
q. Uninsured catastrophe
r. Other factors that create an uncertainty about going concern status
2 Analyze the conditions or events identi fi ed in question 1 and

conclude whether they raise a question about ability to continue as a
going concern. (If the conclusion is “Yes,” complete the procedures
described in Part II.)
PART 2
Consideration of Management Plans
1 Discuss situation with management and determine plans for

correcting conditions. Is management planning to:
a. Dispose of assets?
b. Borrow money or restructure debt?
c. Reduce or delay expenditures?
d. Increase ownership equity?
2 Fill out appropriate section or sections below.
Liquidate assets
3 Inquire about marketability of assets.
4 Inquire about restrictions on the disposal of assets.
5 Inquire about effects on operations of disposal.
125
Lecture note
Borrow money or restructure debt
6 Inquire about the availability of new debt.
7 Inquire about the availability of collateral to support new debt.
8 Inquire about restrictions on additional debt.
9 Read management’s plans for:

a. Debt restructuring
b. Subordination of existing debt
c. Obtaining loan guarantees
Reduce or delay expenditures
10 Read management’s plans for reducing or delaying expenditures for

the following:
a. Repairs and maintenance
b. Advertising
c. Research and development
d. Property, plant, and equipment
e. Other
11 Discuss with management the effect on operations of

the reduction or delay
12 Read management’s plan to sell equity securities.
13 Discuss tax consequences of plan with our tax

department
14 Inquire about plan’s impact on existing shareholders.
15 Discuss with management the adequacy of the

investment.
Management Forecasts
1 Read management’s assumptions about the following:

a. General economic conditions
b. Industry economic conditions
c. Sales
d. Cost of sales
e. Cost of labor
f. Capital expenditures
g. Selling, general, and administrative expenses
h. Interest expenses
126
Lecture note
i. New borrowings
j. Income taxes
2 Recompute mathematical calculations.
3 Consider the internal consistency of the forecasts.
Adequacy of Disclosure and Auditor’s Report
1 Consider the need to disclose the following:

a. Conditions and events that created the doubt about
continued existence
b. Possible effects of signi fi cant conditions and events
c. Management’s evaluation of conditions and events
d. Possible disposal of a component of an entity
e. Management’s plans, including relevant prospective
fi nancial information
f. Information about recoverability or classi fi cation of
recorded asset amounts or the amounts or
classi fi cation of liabilities
2 Consider the need to modify report.

a. Add emphasis-of-matter paragraph.
b. Disclaim an opinion (discretionary).
7.4. OBTAINING WRITTEN REPRESENSTATION

7.4.1. ISA 580 Written Representations
A written representation is: a written statement by management provided to the auditor to
confirm certain matters or to support other audit evidence.
Auditors gather written representations from management for:
- General Matters
- Other matters
General matters: this is required by ISA 580. The written representation provides the
auditor with: Confirmation fulfilled responsibility for preparation of financial statements in
accordance with Financial Reporting framework; Confirmation that all relevant information
has been provided to auditor; Confirmation that all transactions have been recorded and
reflected in financial statements.
Other matters: For other matters, the written representation provides the auditor with:
Confirmation that appropriate a/c policies have been selected; Confirmation of adherence to
127
Lecture note
reporting framework on specific matters e.g. assets pledged as collateral; Confirmation that
any internal control deficiencies communicated to auditors.
7.4.2. Reliability of written representations
Representations from management are a source of audit evidence. They cannot be used
instead of other (better) evidence which the assurance providers expect to exist. But, they
may be the only available form of evidence in certain circumstances. They are relatively
unreliable as evidence (client generated). Together with represenation from management,
corroborative evidence will always be sought, but may not always be available. If a
representation appears to be contradicted by other evidence: the circumstances should be
investigated, and the reliability of other representations made by management should be
reconsidered.
7.4.3. If management won’t provide a written representation
In some situations, management might outright refuse to produce a written representation or
they do not provide representation on one or more areas requested by the auditor. Then, the
auditor should discuss the matters with management; re-consider the integrity of the
company management – this may have an impact on the reliability of other audit evidence
given. The auditor may consider the impact on the auditor report (more detail next lecture).
If the representation is inconsistent with other evidence obtained or if management refuse to
sign the written representation. The auditor should modify the audit opinion due to an
inability to obtain sufficient appropriate evidence.
ILLUSTRATION 1. ILLUSTRATIVE REPRESENTATION LETTER
[Entity Letterhead]
[To Auditor]
[Date]
This representation letter is provided in connection with your audit of the fi nancial statements of
ABC Company, which comprise the balance sheet as of December 31, 20XX, and the related statements of
income, changes in stockholders’ equity, and cash fl ows for the year then ended, and the related notes to
the financial statements, for the purpose of expressing an opinion on whether the fi nancial statements are
presented fairly, in all material respects, in accordance with accounting principles generally accepted in the
United States (US GAAP).
Certain representations in this letter are described as being limited to matters that are material. Items are
considered material, regardless of size, if they involve an omission or misstatement of accounting
information that, in the light of surrounding circumstances, makes it probable that the judgment of a
reasonable person relying on the information would be changed or influenced by the omission or
misstatement.
Except where otherwise stated below, immaterial matters less than $[insert amount] collectively are not
considered to be exceptions that require disclosure for the purpose of the following representa-tions. This
amount is not necessarily indicative of amounts that would require adjustment to or disclosure in the fi
nancial statements.
We con fi rm that, [to the best of our knowledge and belief, having made such inquiries as we considered
necessary for the purpose of appropriately informing ourselves] [as of (date of auditor’s report)]:
Financial Statements
128
Lecture note
• We have ful fi lled our responsibilities, as set out in the terms of the audit engagement dated [insert date],
for the preparation and fair presentation of the fi nancial statements in accordance with US GAAP.
• We acknowledge our responsibility for the design, implementation, and maintenance of internal control
relevant to the preparation and fair presentation of fi nancial statements that are free from material
misstatement, whether due to fraud or error.
• We acknowledge our responsibility for the design, implementation, and maintenance of internal control to
prevent and detect fraud.
• Signifi cant assumptions used by us in making accounting estimates, including those measured at fair
value, are reasonable.
• Related-party relationships and transactions have been appropriately accounted for and disclosed in
accordance with the requirements of US GAAP.
• All events subsequent to the date of the fi nancial statements and for which US GAAP requires adjustment
or disclosure have been adjusted or disclosed.
• The effects of uncorrected misstatements are immaterial, both individually and in the aggregate, to the fi
nancial statements as a whole. A list of the uncorrected misstatements is attached to the representation letter.
• The effects of all known actual or possible litigation and claims have been accounted for and disclosed in
accordance with US GAAP.
[Any other matters that the auditor may consider appropriate.]
Information Provided
• We have provided you with:
• Access to all information of which we are aware that is relevant to the preparation and fair presentation of
the fi nancial statements such as records, documentation, and other matters;
• Additional information that you have requested from us for the purpose of the audit; and
• Unrestricted access to persons within the entity from whom you determined it necessary to obtain audit
evidence.
• All transactions have been recorded in the accounting records and are re fl ected in the fi nancial statements.
• We have disclosed to you the results of our assessment of the risk that the fi nancial statements may be
materially misstated as a result of fraud.
• We have [no knowledge of any] [disclosed to you all information that we are aware of regarding] fraud or
suspected fraud that affects the entity and involves:
• Management;
• Employees who have signi fi cant roles in internal control; or
• Others when the fraud could have a material effect on the fi nancial statements.
• We have [no knowledge of any] [disclosed to you all information that we are aware of regarding]
allegations of fraud, or suspected fraud, affecting the entity’s fi nancial statements communicated by
employees, former employees, analysts, regulators or others.
• We have disclosed to you all known instances of noncompliance or suspected noncompliance with laws
and regulations whose effects should be considered when preparing fi nancial statements.
• We [have disclosed to you all known actual or possible] [are not aware of any pending or threatened]
litigation, claims, and assessments whose effects should be considered when preparing the fi nancial
statements [and we have not consulted legal counsel concerning litigation, claims, or assessments].
• We have disclosed to you the identity of the entity’s related parties and all the related-party relationships
and transactions of which we are aware.
[Any other matters that the auditor may consider necessary.]
____________________________________
[Name of Chief Executive Officer and Title]
129
Lecture note
____________________________________
[Name of Chief Financial Officer and Title]
ILLUSTRATION 2. ILLUSTRATIVE SPECIFIC WRITTEN REPRESENTATIONS
Condition Illustrative Specific Written Representation
General
Unaudited interim The unaudited interim financial information accompanying [presented in

information accompanies Note X to] the financial statements for the [identify all related periods] has
the fi nancial statements. been prepared and fairly presented in conformity with generally accepted
accounting principles (GAAP) applicable to interim financial information.
The accounting principles used to prepare the unaudited interim fi nancial
information are consistent with those used to prepare the audited fi nancial
statements.
The effect of a new We have not completed the process of evaluating the effect that will result
accounting principle is from adopting the guidance in Financial Accounting Standards Board
not known. (FASB) Accounting Standards Update 20YY-XX, as discussed in Note [X].
The company is therefore unable to disclose the effect that adopting the
guidance in FASB Accounting Standards Update 20YY-XX will have on its
fi nancial position and the results of operations when such guidance is
adopted.
Financial circumstances Note [X] to the fi nancial statements discloses all of the matters of which we
are strained, with are aware that are relevant to the company’s ability to continue as a going
disclosure of concern, including signi fi cant conditions and events and management’s
management’s intentions plans.
and the entity’s ability to
continue as a going
concern.
The possibility exists that We have reviewed long-lived assets and certain identi fi able intangibles to
the value of specific signi be held and used for impairment whenever events or changes in
fi cant long-lived assets circumstances have indicated that the carrying amount of the assets might
or certain identifiable not be recoverable and have appropriately recorded the adjustment.
intangibles may be
impaired.
The entity has a variable Variable interest entities (VIEs) and potential VIEs and transactions with
interest in another entity. VIEs and potential VIEs have been properly recorded and disclosed in the
financial statements in accordance with GAAP.
We have considered both implicit and explicit variable interests in (1)
determining whether potential VIEs should be considered VIEs, (2)
calculating expected losses and residual returns, and (3) determining which
party, if any, is the primary beneficiary.
We have provided you with lists of all identified variable interests in (1)
VIEs, (2) potential VIEs that we considered but judged not to be VIEs, and
(3) entities that were afforded the scope exceptions of Financial Accounting
Standards Board (FASB) Accounting Standards Codification TM (ASC)
810, Consolidation.
130
Lecture note
We have advised you of all transactions with identified VIEs, potential VIEs,
or entities afforded the scope exceptions of FASB ASC 810.
We have made available all relevant information about fi nancial interests
and contractual arrangements with related parties, de facto agents, and other
entities, including but not limited to their governing documents, equity and
debt instruments, contracts, leases, guarantee arrangements, and other fi
nancial contracts and arrangements.
The information we provided about fi nancial interests and contractual
arrangements with related parties, de facto agents and other entities includes
information about all transactions, unwritten understandings, agreement
modi fi cations, and written and oral side agreements.
Our computations of expected losses and expected residual returns of entities
that are VIEs and potential VIEs are based on the best information available
and include all reasonably possible outcomes.
Regarding entities in which the company has variable interests (implicit and
explicit), we have provided all information about events and changes in
circumstances that could potentially cause reconsideration about whether the
entities are VIEs or whether the company is the primary beneficiary or has a
significant variable interest in the entity.
We have made and continue to make exhaustive efforts to obtain information
about entities in which the company has an implicit or explicit interest but
that were excluded from complete analysis under FASB ASC 810 due to
lack of essential information to determine one or more of the following:
whether the entity is a VIE, whether the company is the primary beneficiary,
or the accounting required to consolidate the entity.
The work of a specialist We agree with the findings of specialists in evaluating the [describe
has been used by the assertion] and have adequately considered the quali fi cations of the
entity. specialist in determining the amounts and disclosures used in the fi nancial
statements and underlying accounting records. We did not give or cause any
instructions to be given to specialists with respect to the values or amounts
derived in an attempt to bias their work, and we are not otherwise aware of
any matters that have had an effect on the independence or objectivity of the
specialists.
Assets Arrangements with fi nancial institutions involving compensating balances

or other arrangements involving restrictions on cash balances, line of credit,
Cash
or similar arrangements have been properly disclosed.
Disclosure is required of
compensating balances or
other arrangements
involving restrictions on
cash balances, lines of
credit, or similar
arrangements.
Financial Instruments Debt securities that have been classi fi ed as held-to-maturity have been so
Management intends to classi fi ed due to the company’s intent to hold such securities to maturity
and has the ability to hold and the company’s ability to do so. All other debt securities have been classi
to maturity debt securities fi ed as available-for-sale or trading.
classi fi ed as held-to-
maturity.
Management considers We consider the decline in value of debt or equity securities classi fi ed as
the decline in value of either available-for-sale or held-to-maturity to be temporary.
131
Lecture note
debt or equity securities

to be temporary.
Management has The methods and signi fi cant assumptions used to determine fair values of
determined the fair value fi nancial instruments are as follows: [describe methods and significant
of signi fi cant fi nancial assumptions used to determine fair values of financial instruments]. The
instruments that do not methods and signi ficant assumptions used result in a measure of fair value
have readily appropriate for fi nancial statement measurement and disclosure purposes.
determinable market
values.
Financial instruments The following information about financial instruments with off-balance-
with off-balance-sheet sheet risk and financial instruments with concentrations of credit risk has
risk and financial been properly disclosed in the fi nancial statements:
instruments with
1. The extent, nature, and terms of financial instruments with off-balance-
concentrations of credit
sheet risk
risk exist.
2. The amount of credit risk of fi nancial instru-ments with off-balance-sheet
risk and infor-mation about the collateral supporting such fi nancial
instruments
3. Signi fi cant concentrations of credit risk aris-ing from all fi nancial
instruments and infor-mation about the collateral supporting such fi nancial
instruments
Investments [For investments in common stock that are either nonmarketable or of which
the entity has a 20% or greater ownership interest, select the appropriate
Unusual considerations
representation from the following:]
are involved in
determining the The equity method is used to account for the company’s investment in the
application of equity common stock of [investee] because the company has the ability to exercise
accounting. signi fi cant in fl uence over the investee’s operating and fi nancial policies.
The cost method is used to account for the company’s investment in the
common stock of [investee] because the company does not have the ability
to exercise signi fi cant in fl uence over the investee’s operating and fi nancial
policies.
The entity had loans to Loans to executive of fi cers have been properly accounted for and disclosed.
executive of fi cers,
nonaccrued loans or zero
interest rate loans.
Liabilities The company has excluded short-term obligations totaling $[amount] from
current liabilities because it intends to re fi nance the obligations on a long-
Debt
term basis. [Complete with appropriate wording detailing how amounts will
Short-term debt could be be refinanced as follows:]
re fi nanced on a long-
The company has issued a long-term obligation [debt security] after the date
term basis and
of the balance sheet but prior to the issuance of the financial statements for
management intends to
the purpose of re fi nancing the short-term obligations on a long-term basis.
do so.
The company has the ability to consummate there financing, by using the fi
nancing agreement referred to in Note [X] to the fi nancial statements.
……
132
Lecture note
7.5. CONSIDERATION OF MISSTATEMENTS

7.5.1. Misstatements
A misstatement is a difference between the client’s treatment of an item within the FSs and
what the auditor believes the correct treatment of that item to be. Differences that the client
accepts and changes are called ‘corrected misstatements’ – these don’t cause any problems.
However, if the client does not correct for the difference, this is called an ‘uncorrected
misstatement’ – these require further consideration.
7.5.2. Uncorrected misstatements
All uncorrected misstatements must be documented within the audit file, and at the end of
the audit they must be communicated to the client (required by ISA 540). In management’s
representation letter, management must acknowledge these uncorrected misstatements and
state that they do not believe their impact to be material to the FSs. If the auditor perceives
the differences to be material, this may impact the audit opinion.
7.6. OVERALL REVIEW
Financial Audit evidence Other completion

statements review review procedures
The overall review should be performed by the Engagement Partner –s/he will sign the audit
opinion and takes ultimate responsibility for the audit.
Reviews are also significant for a firm's appraisal system and development of staff.
Additionally they are an important element of any monitoring system, implemented to
identify and rectify deficiencies that could lead to poor quality work.
7.6.1. Financial statements review
To do this review, the auditor consider the important questions: Do the Financial statements
comply with the relevant framework, Law, GAAP, Other relevant regulations; is information
within annual report consistent with FSs; Do the financial statements make senses.
7.6.2. Audit evidence review
The audit evidence gathered must support the opinion given. The following questions are
significant to be considered: Was sufficient and appropriate evidence gathered; Was the
audit work performed in accordance with relevant laws / standards; What issues were there;
Were these resolved; Have matters been noted that may impact future year audits; Was the
original audit plan followed; Was is changed to allow for changing circumstances; Has the
file been reviewed appropriately.
7.6.3. Other completion procedures
133
Lecture note
Those work include: Final analytical review performed; Auditor independence assessed;
May require second partner review (only if required); Subsequent events review; Going
concern review; Obtain management representations
7.7. AUDIT REPORT
At the end of the audit, there are lots of reports to be signed.
- Management will sign the final management representation letter.
- The auditor will issue their audit report, containing the audit opinion.
Audit report is very important. If someone can demonstrate that the auditor owed them a
duty of care and they suffered loss by relying on the financial statements, they could sue
the auditor. Or as a member of the association (ACCA, ICAEW or VACPA), the auditor
could also face disciplinary proceedings, fines and penalties.
7.7.1. Elements of audit reports
Title The title should indicate that the report is by an independent auditor
to confirm all the relevant ethical standards regarding
independence have been met. These help readers to identify the
auditor’s report and to easily distinguish it from reports that might
be issued by others.
Addressee The auditor’s report shall be addressed as required by the

circumstances of the engagement, but is likely to be the
shareholders or board of directors.
Auditor’s opinion The auditor’s report shall include a section with the heading
“Opinion”
If the auditor concludes that the financial statement give a true and
fair view, the auditor shall express an unmodified opinion which
states that the financial statements give true and fair view or present
fairly, in all material aspects, in accordance with the applicable
financial reporting framework.
Basis for opinion The basis for opinion section will (i) state that the audit was
conducted in accordance with the ISAs, (ii) includes a statement
that the auditor has fulfilled their ethical responsibilities and (iii)
states whether the auditor believes that the audit evidence obtained
is sufficient and appropriate to provide a basis for the audit opinion.
Going concern Where the auditor considers a material uncertainty related to going
concern exists, this should be described in a separate paragraph
headed ‘Material uncertainty related to going concern’. (ISA 570)
Key audit matters For the audit of listed entities, or where required by law and
regulation, the auditor should include a ‘Key audit matter’ section.
This section describes the matters that, in the auditor’s professional
judgment, are the most significant to the audit. (ISA 701)
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Lecture note
Other For the audit of listed entities or any other entity where the auditor
information has obtained other information, an ‘Other information’ section
(ISA 720) section should include:
• A statement that management is responsible for the other
information
• An identification of the other information obtained before
the date of the auditor’s report
• A statement that the auditor’s opinion does not cover the
other information
• A description of the auditor’s responsibilities for reading,
considering and reporting on other information, and
• Where other information has been obtained, either a
statement that the auditor has nothing to report, or a
description of any uncorrected material misstatement.
Responsibilities There must be a heading ‘Responsibilities of management for the

for the financial financial statements’.
statements This section describes management’s responsibility including the
following:
• The preparation of the financial statements in accordance
with the applicable financial reporting framework
• The implementation of such internal control as a necessary
to enable the preparation of financial statements that are
free from material misstatement, whether due to fraud or
error
• The assessment of the entity’s ability to continue as a going
concern, the appropriateness of the going concern basis of
accounting and adequacy of related disclosures.
Auditor’s The auditor’s report shall include a section with the heading
responsibilities ‘Auditor’s responsibilities for the audit of financial statements’.
for the audit of The report shall state that the objectives of the auditor are to obtain
the financial reasonable assurance whether the financial statements as a whole
statements
are free from material misstatement, whether due to fraud or error,
and to issue an auditor’s report that includes the auditor’s opinion.
The report should state that the auditor’s responsibilities are:
• To exercise professional judgment and maintains
professional skepticism throughout the audit.
• To identify and assess the risks of material misstatement of
the financial statements and design and perform procedures
in response to those risks
• To obtain an understanding of internal control relevant to
the audit in order to design audit procedures but not to
135
Lecture note
enable the auditor to express an opinion on the effectiveness

of the entity’s internal control
• To evaluate the appropriateness of the accounting policies
used, the reasonableness of estimates and the related
disclosures in the financial statements
• To conclude on the appropriateness of management’s use
of the going concern basis of accounting and whether any
material uncertainties exist
• To evaluate if the overall presentation, structure and content
of the financial statements, including disclosures, are
prepared in accordance with the fair presentation
framework (where applicable)
• To describe responsibilities in a group audit engagement
(where applicable e.g. obtaining sufficient appropriate audit
evidence within the group and express an opinion on the
group financial statements)
In circumstances when the auditor also has a responsibility to
express an opinion on the effectiveness of internal control in
conjunction with the audit of the financial statements, the auditor
shall omit the phrase that the auditor’s consideration of internal
control is not for the purpose of expressing an opinion on the
effectiveness of the entity’s internal control
To communicate applicable matters (e.g. planned scope and timing
of the audit and significant audit findings, a statement that the
auditor has complied with relevant ethical requirements regarding
independence and where relevant, related safeguards and key audit
matters) with those charged with governance
Other reporting If the auditor is required by law to report on any other matters, this
responsibilities must be done in an additional paragraph below the opinion
paragraph which is titled 'Report on other legal and regulatory
requirements' or otherwise as appropriate.
Name of the The name of the audit engagement partner is included in the
engagement auditor’s report for audits of complete sets of general purpose
partner financial statements of listed entities.
Auditor’s The report shall contain the auditor’s signature, whether this is the
signature auditor’s own name or the audit firm’s name.
An auditor’s report shall state the auditor’s name.
Auditor’s address The location where the auditor practices must be included. This is
usually the city where the auditor has his office.
Date of the report The report shall be dated. This informs the reader that the auditor
has considered the effect on the financial statements and on his
report of events or transactions about which he became aware that
136
Lecture note
occurred up to that date. The date should not be earlier than the date
on which the auditor has obtained sufficient appropriate audit
evidence on which to base the opinion on the financial statements.
7.7.2. Key audit matters (KAMs)

KAMs are matters that were of most significance in the audit of the FSs for the current
period. KAMs are selected from matters communicated to those charged with governance
and applied to audit reports for listed companies. Objective of KAMs is to improve
transparency by helping users understand the most significant issues the auditor faced.
KAMs does not mean a modification to the audit report or opinion.
To decide what a KAM is, the auditor should base on the main factors (including: Areas of
higher risk of material misstatement; Areas where management have made significant
judgements; Significant events or transaction) and Other factors (including: Complexity /
subjectivity of item; How an item impacts user understanding (including materiality);
Misstatements related to the item; Control deficiencies, The amount of audit effort to
address the matter)
For each KAM included in audit report, the auditors should include the following: Why the
matter was considered to be a KAM; How the matter was addressed in the audit; Which
may include a description of the auditor’s approach, a brief overview of procedures
performed with an indication of their outcome and any other key observations in respect of
the matter.
ILLUSTRATION 1: SAMPLE DRAFT PARAGRAPH OF KAM
Key Audit Matters

Key audit matters are those matters that, in our professional judgement, were of most significance in our
audit of the financial statements of the current period. These matters were addressed in the context of our
audit of the financial statements as a whole, and in forming our opinion thereon, and we do not provide a
separate opinion on these matters.
Goodwill
Under HKFRSs, the Group is required to annually test the amount of goodwill for impairment. This
annual impairment test was significant to our audit because the balance of XX as of December 31, 20X1 is
material to the financial statements. In addition, management’s assessment process is complex and highly
judgmental and is based on assumptions, specially [described certain assumptions], which are affected by
expected future market or economic conditions, particularly those in [name of country or geographical
area].
Our audit procedures included, among others, using a valuation expert to assist us in evaluating the
assumptions and methodologies used by the Group, in particular those relating to the forecasted revenue
growth and profit margins for [name of business line]. We also focused on the adequacy of the Group’s
disclosures about those assumptions to which the outcome of the impairment test is most sensitive, that is,
those that have the most significant effect on the determination of the recoverable amount of goodwill.
The Company’s disclosures about goodwill are included in Note 3, which specially explains that small
changes in the key assumptions used could give rise to an impairment of the goodwill balance in the
future.
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Lecture note
7.7.3. Types of audit reports

There are two (02) types of audit report and four (04) types of audit opinion:
1. Unmodified report:
• Unmodified opinion
2. Modified report:
(a) A modified report with an unmodified opinion (Matters that do not affect the auditor’s
opinion):
• Emphasis of matter
• Other matter
(b) A modified report with a modified opinion (Matters that do affect the auditor’s
opinion)
• Qualified (Except for) opinion
• Disclaimer of opinion
• Adverse opinion
7.7.4. Unmodified audit reports
The report still says that the Financial Statements give a true and fair view.
ILLUSTRATION 2. AN UNMODIFIED AUDITOR’S REPORT
title
INDEPENDENT AUDITOR’S REPORT
addressee
To the shareholders of ABC Company [or Other Appropriate Address]
Report on the Audit of the Financial Statements
audit opinion
Opinion
We have audited the financial statements of ABC Company (the Company) set out on pages 10 to 40, which
comprise the statement of financial position as at December 31, 20X1, and the statement of profit or loss
and other comprehensive income, statement of changes in equity and statement of cash flows for the year
then ended, and notes to the financial statements, including a summary of significant accounting policies.
In our opinion, the financial statements give a true and fair view of the financial position of the Company
as at 31 December, 20X1, and of its financial performance and its cash flows for the year then ended in
accordance with International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRSs) issued by the International
Accounting Standards Board and have been properly prepared in compliance with the Companies Act.
Basis for Opinion basic for opinion
We conducted out audit in accordance with International Standards on Auditing (ISAs) issued by the IFAC.
Our responsibilities under those standards are further described in the Auditor’s Responsibilities for the
Audit of the Financial Statements section of our report. We are independent of the Company in accordance
with the IFAC’s Code of Ethics for Professional Accountants (the Code), and we have fulfilled our other
138
Lecture note
ethical responsibilities in accordance with the Code. We believe that the audit evidence we have obtained
is sufficient and appropriate to provide a basis for our opinion.
Key Audit Matters listed => key risk
of material
Key audit matters are those matters that, in our professional judgment, were of most significant in our audit
of the financial statements ofmisstatement
the current period. These matters were addressed in the context of our audit
of the financial statements as & how to
a whole, andrespond
in forming our opinion thereon, and we do not provide a separate
opinion on these matters. to risk assessed
[Description of each key audit matter in accordance with ISA 701, which applies to audits of the financial
statements of listed entities.]
Other information
The directors are responsible for the other information. The other information comprises the [information
included in the X report, but does not include the financial statements and our auditor’s report thereon.]
Our opinion on the financial statements does not cover the other information and we do not express any
form of assurance conclusion thereon.
In connection with our audit of the financial statements, our responsibilities is to read the other information
and, in doing so, consider whether the other information is materially inconsistent with the financial
statements or our knowledge obtained in the audit or otherwise appears to be materially misstated. If, based
on the work we have performed, we conclude that there is a material misstatement of this other information;
we are required to report that fact. We have nothing to report in this regard.
Responsibilities of Management and Those Charged with Governance for the Financial Statements
The directors are responsible for the preparation of the financial statements that give a true and fair view in
accordance with IFRSs issued by the IASB and the (Country’s) Companies Act, and for such internal control
as the directors determine is necessary to enable the preparation of financial statements that are free from
material misstatement, whether due to fraud or error.
In preparing the financial statements, the directors are responsible for assessing the Company’s ability to
continue as a going concern, disclosing, as applicable, matters related to going concern and using the going
concern basis of accounting unless management either intends to liquidate the Company or to cease
operations, or has no realistic alternative but to do so.
Those charged with governance are responsible for overseeing the Company’s financial reporting process.
Auditor’s Responsibilities for the Audit of the Financial Statements
Our objectives are to obtain reasonable assurance about whether the financial statements as a whole are free
from material misstatement, whether due to fraud or error, and to issue an auditor’s report that includes our
opinion. Reasonable assurance is a high level of assurance, but is not a guarantee that an audit conducted in
accordance with ISAs will always detect a material misstatement when it exists. Misstatements can arise
from fraud or error and are considered material if, individually or in the aggregate, they could reasonably
be expected to influence the economic decisions of users taken on the basis of these financial statements.
As part of an audit in accordance with ISAs, we exercise professional judgment and maintain professional
skepticism throughout the audit. We also:
Identify and assess the risks of material misstatement of the financial statements, whether due to fraud or
error, design and perform audit procedures responsive to those risks, and obtain audit evidence that is
sufficient and appropriate to provide a basis for our opinion. The risk of not detecting a material
misstatement resulting from fraud is higher than for one resulting from error, as fraud may involve collusion,
forgery, international omissions, misrepresentations, or the override of internal control.
Obtain an understanding of internal control relevant to the audit in order to design audit procedures that are
appropriate in the circumstances, but not for the purpose of expressing an opinion on the effectiveness of
the Company’s internal control.
Evaluate the appropriateness of accounting policies used and the reasonableness of accounting estimates
and related disclosures made by management.
Conclude on the appropriateness of management’s use of the going concern basis of accounting and, based
on the audit evidence obtained, whether a material uncertainty exists related to events or conditions that
139
Lecture note
may cast significant doubt on the Company’s ability to continue as a going concern. If we conclude that a
material uncertainty exists, we are required to draw attention in our auditor’s report to the related disclosures
in the financial statements or, if such disclosures are inadequate, to modify our opinion. Our conclusions
are based on the audit evidence obtained up to the date of our auditor’s report. However, future events or
conditions may cause the Company to cease to continue as a going concern.
Evaluate the overall presentation, structure and content of the financial statements, including the disclosures,
and whether the financial statements represent the underlying transactions and events in a manner that
achieves fair presentation.
We communicate with those charged with governance regarding, among other matters, the planned scope
and timing of the audit and significant audit findings, including any significant deficiencies in internal
control that we identify during our audit.
We also provide those charged with governance with a statement that we have complied with relevant ethical
requirement regarding independence, and to communicate with them all relationships and other matters
that may reasonably be thought to bear on our independence, and where applicable, related safeguards.
From the matters communicated with those charged with governance, we determine those matters that were
of most significance in the audit of the financial statements of the current period and are therefore the key
audit matters. We describe these matters in our auditor’s report unless law or regulation precludes public
disclosure about the matter or when, in extremely rare circumstances, we determine that a matter should not
be communicated in our report because the adverse consequences of doing so would reasonably be expected
to outweigh the public interest benefits of such communication.
Report on Other Legal and Regulatory Requirements
[The form and content of this section of the auditor’s report would vary depending on the nature of the
auditor’s other reporting responsibilities prescribed by local law or regulation. The matters addressed by
other law or regulation (referred to as “other reporting responsibilities”) shall be addressed within this
section.
The engagement partner on the audit resulting in this independent auditor’s report is [name].
XYZ & Co
Certified Public Accountants (Practicing) or Certified Public Accountants
[Auditor Address]
[Date]
7.7.5. Modified audit report with an unmodified opinion

The report still says that the Financial Statements give a true and fair view. However, where
a matter has arisen which is fundamental to the understanding of the financial statements or
audit opinion, the auditor should include an additional paragraph in the audit report:
- Emphasis of matter paragraph
- Other matter paragraph
- Material uncertainty relating to going concern
Emphasis of matter paragraph (“EOM”)
140
Lecture note
This paragraph is used to highlight a matter included in the financial statements which has
been correctly disclosed but which is fundamental to the understanding of the users of the
financial statements. This should be included in the audit report after the opinion (T&F),
headed up ‘Emphasis of Matter’. EOM should describes the matter, and states that the audit
opinion is not modified in this respect. For example: An item of significant uncertainty such
as the outcome of a major legal claim that has been adequately disclosed in the financial
statements. The auditor should not use EOM for for going concern (material uncertainty
over GC paragraph used instead – see later).
ILLUSTRATION 3:
Emphasis of Matter
We draw attention to Note X to the financial statements which describes the uncertainty related to the
outcome of the lawsuit filed against the company by XYZ Company. Our opinion is not qualified in
respect of this matter.
Other matter paragraph (“OM”

This paragraph is used to highlight a matter not included in the financial statements. This is
included in the audit report after the opinion, headed up ‘Other Matter’. OM describes the
matter, for example: A material inconsistency between the financial statements and other
information published with the financial statements
ILLUSTRATION 3:
Other Matter
In our report dated March 1, 20X1, we expressed an opinion that the 20X0 financial statements did not
fairly present the fi nancial position, results of operations, and cash fl ows of ABC Company in
accordance with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America because of two
departures from such principles: (1) ABC Company carried its property, plant, and equipment at appraisal
values, and provided for depreciation on the basis of such values, and (2) ABC Company did not provide
for deferred income taxes with respect to differences between income for financial reporting purposes and
taxable income. As described in Note X, the Company has changed its method of accounting for these
items and restated its 20X0 fi nancial statements to conform with accounting principles generally accepted
in the United States of America. Accordingly, our present opinion on the restated 20X0 fi nancial
statements, as presented herein, is different from that expressed in our previous report.
7.7.6. Modified report with a modified opinion

A modified audit report means that the standard ISA 700 audit report has changed. A
modified opinion means that don’t just say “FSs give a true and fair view” – but we can
modify in differing ways dependent on how material the misstatement is considered to be
and what type of error there is.
Modified opinion could be one of the following:
- Modified “except for” opinion: “In our opinion, except for the effects of the matter
described in the Basis for Qualified Opinion paragraph, the financial statements give a
true and fair view...”
141
Lecture note
- Adverse opinion: “In our opinion, because of the significance of the matter described
in the Basis for Adverse Opinion paragraph, the financial statements do not give a true
and fair view...”
- Disclaimer of opinion: “Because of the significance of the possible impact of the
uncertainties, described in the Basis for Disclaimer of Opinion paragraph, we do not
express an opinion on the financial statements...”
ILLUSTRATION 4:
Qualified Opinion
In our opinion, except for the effects of the matter described in the Basis for Qualified Opinion paragraph,
the financial statements give a true and fair view of the state of the Company’s affairs as at 31 December
31 20X1, and of its [profit][loss] and its cash flows for the year then ended in accordance with
International Financial Reporting Standards and have been properly prepared in accordance with the
Company Act.
Basis for Qualified Opinion
The Company’s inventories are carried in the statement of financial position at xxx. Management has not
stated inventories at the lower of cost and net realisable value but has stated them solely at cost, which
constitutes a departure from International Financial Reporting Standards. The company's records indicate
that, had management stated the inventories at the lower of cost and net realisable value, an amount of xxx
would have been required to write the inventories down to their net realisable value. Accordingly, cost of
sales would have been increased by xxx, and income tax, net income and shareholders' equity would have
been reduced by xxx, xxx and xxx, respectively.
ILLUSTRATION 5:
Qualified Opinion
In our opinion, except for the possible effects of the matter described in the Basis for Qualified Opinion
paragraph, the financial statements give a true and fair view of the state of the Company’s affairs as at 31
December 20X1, and of its [profit][loss] and cash flows for the year then ended in accordance with
International Financial Reporting Standards and have been properly prepared in accordance with the
Companies Act.
Basis for Qualified Opinion
ABC Limited’s investment in DEF Limited, a foreign associate acquired during the year and accounted
for by the equity method, is carried at xxx on the [balance sheet] [statement of financial position] as at 31
December 20X1, and ABC’s share of DEF’s net income of xxx is included in ABC’s income for the year
then ended. We were unable to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence about the carrying amount of
ABC’s investment in DEF as at 31 December 20X1 and ABC’s share of DEF’s net income for the year
because we were denied access to the financial information, management, and the auditors of DEF.
Consequently, we were unable to determine whether any adjustments to these amounts were necessary.
ILLUSTRATION 6:
Adverse Opinion
In our opinion, because of the significance of the matter discussed in the Basis for Adverse Opinion
paragraph, the consolidated financial statements do not give a true and fair view of the state of affairs of the
Company and of the Group as at 31 December 20X1, and of the Group’s [profit][loss] and cash flows for
142
Lecture note
the year then ended in accordance with International Financial Reporting Standards. In all other respects, in
our opinion the consolidated financial statements have been properly prepared in accordance with the
Companies Act.
Basis for Adverse Opinion
As explained in Note X, the Company has not consolidated the financial statements of subsidiary DEF
Limited it acquired during 20X1 because it has not yet been able to ascertain the fair values of certain of
the subsidiary’s material assets and liabilities at the acquisition date. This investment is therefore
accounted for on cost basis. Under the International Financial Reporting Standards, the subsidiary should
have been consolidated because it is controlled by the Company. Had DEF been consolidated, many
elements in the financial statements would have been materially affected. The effects on the consolidated
financial statements of the failure to consolidate have not been determined.
ILLUSTRATION 7:
Disclaimer of Opinion
Because of the significance of the matter described in the Basis for Disclaimer of Opinion paragraph, we
have not been able to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence to provide a basis for an audit opinion.
Accordingly, we do not express an opinion on the financial statements. In all other respects, in our opinion
the financial statements have been properly prepared in accordance with the Company Act.
Basis for Disclaimer of Opinion
The Company’s investment in its joint venture DEF (Country X) Limited is carried at xxx on the
Company’s [balance sheet][statement of financial position], which represents over 90% of the Company’s
net assets as at 31 December 20X1. We were not allowed access to the management and the auditors of
DEF, including DEF’s auditors’ audit documentation. As a result, we were unable to determine whether
any adjustments were necessary in respect of the Company’s proportional share of DEF’s assets that it
controls jointly, its proportional share of DEF’s liabilities for which it is jointly responsible, its
proportional share of DEF’s income and expenses for the year, and the elements making up the statement
of changes in equity and [cash flow statement][statement of cash flow].
7.7.7. How to determine the appropriate audit opinion
Step 1: Step 2: Step 3:
Consider the nature of the Consider the seriousness of Determine appropriate

problem. the problem. opinion.
What kind of opinion? What

Either disagreement or Is it immaterial, material, or
is the wording of that
limitation of scope. material and pervasive?
opinion?
What additional paragraphs

are required?
Step 1: Consider the nature of the problem:
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Lecture note
Different types of errors result in different opinions being given. When considering the
errors, auditor should refer to the accounting standards to make assessment. There are 2
types of error.
- Disagreement: The auditor disagrees with the directors over accounting treatment or
disclosure resulting in the financial statements being misstated. For example, A
customer has gone into liquidation and cannot pay, so receivables are overstated.
- Limitation of scope: The auditor is unable to obtain sufficient appropriate audit
evidence over a balance/(s) in the financial statements. For example, A military coup
overseas means the auditor cannot attend the inventory account at the location where
the client holds most of its stock.
Step 2: Consider the seriousness of the problem: The seriousness of the problem can be
divided into 3 types
- Immaterial: Something that is below the materiality threshold would not impact the
users of the financial statements.
- Material: Something that is material would impact the users of the financial
statements. Things are material by nature (e.g. director’s transactions) or by size ( ½–
1% of revenue, 1–2% of gross assets, 5–10% of profit before tax)
- Pervasive or not: ISA 705 defines a pervasive matter as one which is not isolated; or
represents a substantial proportion of the financial statements; or is fundamental to the
users’ understanding.
Step 3: Determine appropriate opinion
The audit opinion that the auditor gives will depend on the type of error, and the
seriousness of the matter. The auditor can follow this decision rule to determine the
appropriate audit opinion.
Determine appropriate opinion
Limitation of
Disagreement
Scope
Material and Material and

Immaterial Material Immaterial Material
pervasive pervasive
Unmodified Modified “except Unmodified Modified “except Disclaimer of

Adverse opinion
opinion for” (qualified) opinion for” (qualified) opinion
7.7.8. Special cases: Reporting on going concern

Financial reporting treatment
According to conceptual framework, if a company is a going concern, then it prepares its
financial statements on the going concern basis. If the company is not a going concern, then
it should prepare its financial statements on the break-up basis. If the company’s going
144
Lecture note
concern is not certain and there are doubts over the GC status, the company must disclose
that fact clearly in the financial statements.
Material uncertainty related to going concern
- Under ISA 570 (Revised), if the use of the going concern basis of accounting is
appropriate but a material uncertainty exists and management have included adequate
disclosures relating to the material uncertainties the auditor will continue to express an
unmodified opinion, but the auditor must include a separate section under the heading
‘Material Uncertainty Related to Going Concern’
- This draws attention to the note in the financial statements that discloses the matters
giving rise to the material uncertainty, and
- States that these events or conditions indicate that a material uncertainty exists which
may cast significant doubt on the entity’s ability to continue as a going concern and that
the auditor’s opinion is not modified in respect of the matter.
The following issues may raise regarding going concern (“GC”)
Scenario 1: Company is a GC and has used GC basis: In this case, the auditor should
give unmodified opinion that financial statements give a true and fair view.
Scenario 2: Company is not a GC and the financial statements have been prepared on
the break-up basis: The auditor will issue an unmodified opinion. A goig concern issue is
important the understanding of the users of the financial statements and therefore the auditor
will include a material uncertainty related to going concern paragraph
Scenario 3: Company is not a GC and the financial statements have NOT been
prepared on the break-up basis: This is a disagreement. It is considered material by nature
and is pervasive to the users understanding of the financial statements. The auditor will issue
an adverse opinion.
Scenario 5: Company may not be a GC and the uncertainty has been adequately
disclosed: Issue an unmodified opinion and will include a material uncertainty related to
GC paragraph.
Scenario 6: Company may not be a GC and the uncertainty has NOT been adequately
disclosed: If the auditor consider this problem is material but not pervasive and therefore
the auditor will issue a modified ‘except for’ opinion. If the auditor considered this issue is
material and pervasive, the auditor will issue an adverse opinion.
7.8. MANAGEMENT LETTER

It is management responsibility to design and implement and monitor suitable internal
control to address their business risks. Auditor’s responsibility is to express audit opinion
on the truth and fairness of financial statements. However, during performing an audit,
auditors perform test of controls and can find out the weakness of internal control. IAS 265
Communicating deficiencies in internal control to those charged with governance and
145
Lecture note
management requires that above their normal audit work, auditor should note deficiencies
in the internal control system and report these in the management letter.
Management letter is a report to those charge with governance and management which
normally include the observations of auditor which identifies the weakness point of internal
control, the possible consequences which could result from those weakness and the auditor’s
recommendation for improvement.
A report to management generally include: a covering letter and a appendix showing the
control deficiencies, implication and recommendation.
ILLUSTRATION 1: MANAGMENET LETTER – COVER LETTER

To Management and [identify the body or individuals charged with governance, such as the entity’s board
of directors] of ABC Company
In planning and performing our audit of the financial statements of ABC Company (the “Company”) as of
and for the year ended December 31, 20XX, in accordance with auditing standards generally accepted in
the United States of America, we considered the Company’s internal control over
financial reporting (internal control) as a basis for designing audit procedures that are appropriate in the
circumstances for the purpose of expressing our opinion on the financial statements, but not for the purpose
of expressing an opinion on the effectiveness of the Company’s internal control. Accordingly, we do not
express an opinion on the effectiveness of the Company’s internal control.
Our consideration of internal control was for the limited purpose described in the preceding paragraph and
was not designed to identify all deficiencies in internal control that might be [material weaknesses or
material weaknesses or significant deficiencies] and therefore [material weaknesses or material weaknesses
or significant deficiencies] may exist that were not identified. However, as discussed below, we identified
certain deficiencies in internal control that we consider to be [material weaknesses or significant deficiencies
or material weaknesses and significant deficiencies].
A deficiency in internal control exists when the design or operation of a control does not allow management
or employees, in the normal course of performing their assigned functions, to prevent, or detect and correct,
misstatements on a timely basis. A material weakness is a deficiency, or a combination of de ficiencies, in
internal control, such that there is a reasonable possibility that a material misstatement of the entity’s
financial statements will not be prevented, or detected and corrected, on a timely basis. [We consider the
following deficiencies in the Company’s internal control to be material weaknesses:]
[Describe the material weaknesses that were identified and an explanation of their potential effects.]
[A significant deficiency is a deficiency, or a combination of deficiencies, in internal control that is less
severe than a material weakness, yet important enough to merit attention by those charged with governance.
We consider the following deficiencies in the Company’s internal control to be significant deficiencies:]
[Describe the significant deficiencies that were identified and an explanation of their potential effects.]
[If the auditor is communicating significant deficiencies and did not identify any material weaknesses, the
auditor may state that none of the identified significant deficiencies are considered to be material
weaknesses.]
This communication is intended solely for the information and use of management, [identify the
body or individuals charged with governance], others within the organization, and [identify any
governmental authorities to which the auditor is required to report] and is not intended to be, and should not
be, used by anyone other than these specified parties.
[Auditor’s signature]
[Auditor’s city and state]
[Date]
146
Lecture note
ILLUSTRATION 2: MANAGMENET LETTER – APPENDIX

The table in the appendix would normally have 3 sections:
Deficiency Deficiency Recommendations
…… …… ……
147

F8 AOF Lecture Note - 7.2023

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AOF ACCA Paper F8 – Audit and Assurance

SECTION 1: AUDIT AND ASSURANCE ENGAGEMENTS 4

1. THE CONCEPT OF AUDIT 4

3. DEVELOPMENT AND STATUS OF IAS 8

SECTION 2: CODE OF ETHICS AND CONDUCT 12

1. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF PROFESSIONAL ETHICS 12

2. THREATS TO INDEPENDENCE AND OBJECTIVITY 14

SECTION 3: RISK ASSESSMENT 23

3. UNDERSTANDING THE ENTITY AND ITS ENVIRONMENT 27

4. RESPONDING TO THE RISK ASSESSMENT 31

SECTION 4: AUDIT PLANNING AND DOCUMENTATION 36

3. INTRODUCTION TO AUDIT EVIDENCE 44

SECTION 5: INTERNAL CONTROLS 49

1. INTERNAL CONTROL SYSTEMS 49

2. THE USE OF INTERNAL CONTROL SYSTEMS BY AUDITORS 54

3. EVALUATION OF INTERNAL CONTROL COMPONENTS 57

SECTION 6: AUDIT SUBSTANTIVE PROCEDURES 79

2. SALES AND RECEIVABLES 82

4. LIABILITIES AND CAPTIAL 98

5. CASH AND BANK 106

6. NON-CURRENT ASSETS (FIXED ASSETS) 109

SECTION 7: REPORTING 113

LEARNING OBJECTIVE 113

7.1. THE CONSIDERATION OF OPENING BALANCES AND COMPARATIVES 113

7.2. SUBSEQUENT EVENTS REVIEW 118

7.3. GOING CONCERN REVIEW 122

7.4. OBTAINING WRITTEN REPRESENSTATION 127

7.5. CONSIDERATION OF MISSTATEMENTS 133

7.6. OVERALL REVIEW 133

7.7. AUDIT REPORT 134

7.8. MANAGEMENT LETTER 145

SECTION 1: AUDIT AND ASSURANCE ENGAGEMENTS

Truth and fairness

True Information is factual and conforms to reality. In addition, the information

WHAT ARE BENEFITS OF EXTERNAL AUDITS?

Shareholders The impartial view provided by the auditors

Companies Recommendations being made in relation to accounting and control

Other - More credibility for financial statements prepared by management

ACCOUNTABILITY, STEWARDSHIP AND AGENCY

Directors are accountable to shareholders. Directors act as stewards of the shareholders’

(a) A three party relationship

(d) Evidence collection: collected by auditor to support the assurance to be given

Reasonable vs. Limited Assurance

Reasonable assurance Limited Assurance

ISAE 3000 (Revised) Assurance engagements Limited assurance is a lower level of

3. DEVELOPMENT AND STATUS OF IAS

THE WORKING PROCEDURES OF THE IAASB

Research and consultation

Exposure for public comment

560 Subsequent events

SECTION 2: CODE OF ETHICS AND CONDUCT

THE ACCA’s FUDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF PROFESSIONAL ETHICS

Integrity Members should be straightforward and honest in all professional

Objectivity Members should not allow bias, conflicts of interest or undue

Professional Members have a continuing duty to maintain professional

Confidentiality Members shall respect the confidentiality of information acquired

- Consent has been obtained from the client

SITUATIONS WHERE AN AUDITOR MAY DISCLOSE CONFIDENTIAL

ACCA’s Code of ethics - obligatory disclosure

ACCA Code of ethics - voluntary disclosure

CODE OF ETHICS DOES NOT INCLUDE “INDEPENDENCE”?

OBJECTIVITY AND INDEPENDENCE