LSVAS401: ROAD ALIGNMENT AND SETTING OUT

Competence: Perform Road Alignment and Setting Out

Table of content
1. Apply horizontal alignment.
1.1. Suitable identification of road elements according to the road cross
section.
1.2. Appropriate determination of horizontal curve elements in accordance
with road geometry. 1.3.Proper pegging of aligned points according to the
project type
2. Apply Vertical alignment.
2.2. Proper identification of road elements according to the vertical road
geometry.
2.2. Appropriate determination of vertical curve elements in accordance with
road geometry.
2.3. Proper marking of vertical alignment according to type of terrain.
3. Conduct setting out.
3.1. Precise setting out of horizontal curves according to their types.
3.2. Proper setting out of vertical curves according to their types.
3.3. Methodical setting of road layer levels according to road design
 1. Apply horizontal alignment.

INTRODUCTION
What is Road Alignment ( Highway Alignment ) ? : 15 Principles, Factors
Controlling & Steps in Design of Road Alignment

Road alignment is the positioning of the centerline of the highway or road. It is

also called highway alignment.

✔ Simply, it is the direction through which the road will pass.

✔ Road alignment provides proper guidance to pass the road through the path
which is most economical, easy to construct, and free from conflicts.

There are two types of road alignment.

a. Horizontal Alignment

It includes straight stretches, curves, etc.

  Horizontal alignment is a straight portion of the road which is connected
by suitable curves.
 All the curves of roadway need a superelevation for banking of the curve,
to resist vehicles from slipping, allow all the vehicle to run at a uniform
speed.
 Horizontal alignment is designed on some basic rules and regulations like
driver limitations, curve radius, vehicle characteristics, cost, profile,
design speed, etc
There are mainly four types of classification are observed, those are-

 Simple Curve.
 Spiral Curve.
 Reverse Curve.
 Compound Curve.

An object of Horizontal Alignment:

 Horizontal alignment increases the adequate level of the user.

 Horizontal alignment secures the safety of the road user
b. Vertical Alignment

Vertical alignment of the road comprises of gradients and vertical curve.

Vertical alignment is defined as the height and depth in a vertical axis with
respect to the horizontal axis, this height and depth, it creates a gradient and
vertical curve.

There are mainly two types of vertical curves are exist, they are-

a. Summit Curve:

 This type of curve is a vertical curve mainly used in the upward gradient.
 If the summit curve is a parabola in shape, then it’s considered as the
best curve.
b. Valley Curve:

 We provide the valley curve when the gradient is downward.

 When a vehicle entered a downward gradient, then it catches more speed,
so the valley curve provides a suitable sight distance for comfort.

3. Factor Controlling Road Alignment

1. Class & Purpose

The alignment of the road is affected by class and purpose.

National and state highways between two stations must be aligned straight as
much as possible whereas, in the case of other types of roads, a deviation may
be allowed where it is found necessary.

2. Obligatory Points
Obligatory points define the alignment through which road should be passed or
not.

The roads are usually built for the development of the areas. Therefore, road
alignment must necessarily pass through important towns, groups of villages,
and places of religious, social, political, and commercial importance

Road alignment should not be passed through historical & cultural places.

3. Type of Vehicular Traffic

In the case of fast-moving traffic, the road alignment must be straight as far as
possible.

In the case of low traffic, the alignment may even have sharp turns.

4. Gradient

Road alignment should be selected, so longitudinal slopes are not steeper than
the ruling gradient. To achieve this, the alignment might need a deviation from
the straight line.

5. Horizontal Curves

In the case of national and state highways, the radius of the horizontal curve
must not be less than 230 m. Otherwise, the alignment must be improved.

6. Sight Distance

The alignment of roads must be decided such that more and clear sight
distance is available for drivers of the vehicles.

7. Obstructions

Obstruction also affects alignment selection. For example, the alignment

should be improved to avoid marshy land, ponds, wells, graveyards, historical,
monumental, and religious sites, etc.
8. Economic Factor

Road construction becomes economical when the road alignment is straight.

So, straight alignments should be given priority.

9. Availability of Construction Materials

Construction material should be easily available. The use of abundant

materials leads to low construction costs

1. Result of Improper Road Alignment

Improper road alignment leads to the following:

a. Increase in the rate of accidents.

b. Increase in construction and maintenance costs.

c. Increase in the vehicle operating cost. It also leads to the discomfort of the
users.

d. Decrease in durability and strength of the road.

Learning outcome 1: Prepare for field work

Indicative content1.1: Interprétations of topographic map

4. Steps in Design of Road Alignment

Before a highway alignment is finalised in a new highway project, engineering

surveys are to be carried out. These engineering surveys may be completed in
the following four stages:

a) Map Study

b) Reconnaissance Survey

c) Preliminary Surveys

d) Final Location and Detailed Surveys

Map Study

It is possible to suggest the likely routes of the roads if the topographic map of
the area is available. The main features like rivers, hills valleys, etc. are also
shown on these maps.

This helps to know the position of natural features like ponds, rivers, lakes,
hills, etc. This also helps to learn about different alternative alignments.

Reconnaissance Survey

The second stage of engineering surveys for highway alignment is the

reconnaissance survey. During the reconnaissance, the engineer visits the site
and examines the general characteristics of the area before deciding the most
feasible routes for detailed studies.

Some of the details to be collected during reconnaissance are given below:

a) Valleys, ponds, lakes, marshy land, ridge, hills, permanent structures and
other obstructions alone the route which are not available in the map

b) Approximate values of gradient, length of gradients and radius of curves of

alternate alignments.

c) Number and type of cross drainage structures, maximum flood level and
natural ground water level along the probable routes.

d) Soil type along the routes from field identification tests and observation of
geological features

e) Sources of construction materials, water and location of stone quarries

C. Preliminary Survey

The main objectives of the preliminary survey are:

1. To analyze the different alternatives to the road alignment.

2. To estimate the cutting and filling required in the construction.

3. To survey the alignments proposed by the reconnaissance survey.

4. To finalize the best alignment among different alternatives.

D. Detailed Survey

• Temporary bench marks are fixed at intervals of about 250 m and at all
drainage and under pass structures. Levels along the final centre line should
be taken at all staked points.

• Levelling work is of great importance as the vertical alignment, earth work

calculations and drainage details are to be worked out from the level notes.

• The cross-section levels are taken up to the desired width, at intervals of 50

to 100 m in plain terrain, 50 to 75 m in rolling terrain, 50 m in built-up areas
and 20 m in hilly terrain.

• The cross sections may be taken at closer intervals at horizontal curves and
where there is abrupt change in cross slopes.

• All river crossing, valleys etc. should be surveyed in detail up to considerable

distances on either side.

• All topographical details are noted down and also plotted using conventional
signs. Adequate hydrological details are also collected and recorded.

• A detailed soil survey is carried out to enable drawing of the soil profile

Road classification:

The functional classification is useful but there are many basis of

classification such as region where the road is located, material in which
the surfacing is constructed from, and mode of road construction.

A functional classification of arterial

Street roads (Rural Roads): These are the lowest level in the road hierarchy.
They are only sufficient to provide appropriate access to the rural agricultural,
population and commercial small centers served

Collector roads (Secondary Roads): They have the function of linking traffic
to/from rural areas, either direct to adjacent urban centers or to the arterial
road.

Arterial roads (Primary Roads): These are the main roads connecting national
and international centers.
 Based on Materials

1. Earthen Roads
Earthen roads are laid with soil. They are cheaper than all types of roads. This
type of road is provided for fewer traffic areas or countryside areas. A good
drainage system should be provided, which reflects excellent performance for a
more extended period.

2. Gravel Roads

Gravel roads are also low-quality roads, but they are better when compared
with earthen roads. A compacted mixture of gravel and earth is used as
pavement material in this case.

3. Murrum Roads

Murrum is a matter obtained from the disintegration of igneous rocks by

weathering agencies. This is used to make roads called murrum roads.

4. WBM Roads
Water Bound Macadam (WBM) roads contain crushed stone aggregate in its
base course. The aggregates are spread on the surface and rolled after
sprinkling water. WBM roads provide better performance compared to earthen,
gravel, murrum.

5. Bituminous Roads
Bituminous roads are prevalent roads around the world. They are the most
used roads in the world. This road types are low in cost and suitable for driving
conditions. The thickness of bituminous roads depends upon the subgrade soil
conditions

6. Concrete Roads
Cement concrete is used to construct the pavements in case of concrete roads.
These are very popular and costlier than all other types of roads. They are not
flexible, so they require less maintenance.

Concrete roads are suitable for high traffic areas. They are laid with joints and
time of construction is more.

Based on Rigidity

1. Flexible roads
2. Rigid roads
1. Flexible Roads
Flexible roads consist of a flexible layer as a pavement surface, which requires
proper maintenance; otherwise, it can be disintegrated easily with heavy traffic.
All types of roads except concrete roads fall under this category.

2. Rigid Roads
Rigid pavements are non-flexible and cement concrete roads are fall under this
category.

a) Basic terminologies of topographic map

Map: is a diagrammatic representation of an area of land or sea showing
physical features, cities, roads, etc. It is a picture or representation of the
Earth’s surface, showing how things are related to each other by distances
(coordinates); directions (North, South, East, West) and size. A map is not a
photograph of the earth’s surface because it can show many things that a
picture cannot show. A person who creates map as a profession is called a
cartographer.

Topographic map

A topographic map is a detailed and accurate illustration of man-made and

natural features on the ground such as roads, railways, power transmission
lines, contours, elevations, rivers, lakes and geographical names.

What information is on a topographic map?

Topographic maps identify numerous ground features, which can be grouped

into the following categories:

Relief: mountains, valleys, slopes, depressions as defined by contours

Hydrography: lakes, rivers, streams, swamps, rapids, falls

Vegetation: wooded areas

Transportation: roads, trails, railways, bridges, airports/airfield, seaplane

anchorages.

Culture: buildings, urban development, power transmission line, pipelines,

towers

Boundaries: international, provincial/territorial, administrative, recreational,

geographical

Toponymy: place names, water feature names, landform names, boundary

names

b) Elements of a topographic map

A topographic map may contain a scale, contours, distances, directions, features
and all other elements that helpful to read topographic map; it is better to
describe some of them as follow
1. Map scale:

Maps are made to scale. In each case, the scale represents the ratio of a
distance on the map to the actual distance on the ground.
Map scale can be printed (written) in a variety of ways
 A ratio or Representative Fraction (RF): indicate how many units
on the earth’s surface are equal to one unit on the map. It can be
expressed as “1/100,000” or “1:100,000”.
 A word statement (Engineering scale): Gives a written description of
map distance, such as “1Cm=1Km” to indicate that “One centimeter
equals to thousand centimeters”.
 A graphical scale: It is simply line marked with distance on the
ground which the map user can use along with a ruler to determine
scale on the map.

e.g.:

Map scales are also known as large scale (which has larger fraction, e.g.:
1/25,000) or small scale (which has smaller fraction, e.g.: 1/7,500,000).

How to measure distances on a map using a ruler and scale?

 Use a ruler to measure the distance between the two places. If the line
is quite curved, use a string to determine the length and then measure
the string. If the scale is a representative fraction, multiply the
measured distance of the ruler or string by the denominator, giving
distance in the ruler units. Congratulation!

2. Instruments and Surveying Aids

There are a number of appropriate methods for setting out the road alignment.
The surveying equipment required is based on the setting out methods chosen.
When choosing a specific method of surveying, it is important to bear in mind
the required level of accuracy for the work.

Obviously, the requirements of a rural road may not be the same as for major
highways or city streets. Bearing this in mind, the following section describes
some low-cost but still accurate enough methods of setting out rural road
alignments.

Reference pegs are used to mark the alignment and road levels

It is advisable to paint them white or yellow for visibility and paint the chainage
on a prepared face. To avoid loss or damage, the pegs should be offset from the
road width, hammered deep into the ground to avoid pilferage and placed in a
prominent location.

Survey pegs are usually set on the centre line, but unless there are no
earthworks to be undertaken, they should be off-set from the road width.
Multipurpose pegs may be needed to stake out cross-section, tasks, levels, etc.
They are normally sharpened sticks 30 cm long used in conjunction with a
string line to define horizontal or vertical alignment.

Tape measures

Are made of steel or linen, the most useful length is 20 or 30 meters.

Profile Boards and Ranging Rods are useful for setting out levels. Also, the
ranging rods are used for setting out straight lines and curves.

Boning rods

Are generally manufactured on site from wooden laths to a " T " profile and of
uniform height. A simple stand can also be manufactured.

They are particularly useful to check gradients of ditches and culverts.

Abney Level

Is used for the measurement of vertical angles for setting out levels.

The dumpy level

Is used to measure height differences used in combination with a levelling staff.

A camber board

Can be used to establish the camber of the road. Its length is usually the
distance from the centre line to the shoulder of the road. In cases where the
shoulders have the same gradient as the running surface, the length of the
camber board can also include the shoulder

The camber board is used in combination with a spirit level as shown

below:

Ditch templates

Are generally a trapezoid constructed of timber laths or plywood to check the

profile of ditches, mitre drains, back slopes, etc
4.BASIC DOCUMENTS AND TERMS FOR ROAD DESIGN:

Terminology:

General terms:

a) Road: is a wide way leading from one place to another, especially one that
vehicles can use.

b) Highway: is a public road, especially a major road connecting two or more

destinations.

c) Traffic: means the total volume of vehicles encountered in both directions on

the road in the considered period.

d) Carriageway: is a part of the road arranged to receive movement of vehicles.

This is the part of a road designed to withstand the weight or loading by traffic.
It is also known as “pavement”. It is that part of the road constructed for use by
moving traffic, including auxiliary lanes, climbing lanes and passing places.

e) Lane: Is a part of carriageway (roadway) within a road marked out for use by
a single line of vehicles in such a way as to control and guide drivers for the
purpose of reducing traffic conflicts.

f) Climbing lane: An auxiliary lane provided on an up gradient for use by slow

moving vehicles and to facilitate overtaking.

g) Passing place: It is known as “passing lane” or “overtaking lane” and is

nearest the centre of the road. it is defined as a local widening of a narrow
carriageway (motorway) to enable vehicles to pass or overtake each other.

h) Platform: This is used in road design to say the area occupied by

carriageway and shoulders.

i) Shoulder: Is a lateral surface located on either sides of carriageway, reserved

only for pedestrians, and in some cases is designed as part of carriageway.
Shoulders are named “Sidewalks” when are located in urban paved or asphaltic
roads.

j) Kerb: Is stone, brick or concrete device built along the carriageway edges to
separate this and shoulders. On highways, kerbs can be used to separate lanes
of carriageway and hence, termed “median”.

k) Hump: A physical obstruction, normally of semi-circular profile, placed

transversely on the surface of the carriageway for the purpose of reducing traffic
speed.
l) Ramp: is a slope or inclined surface for joining two different levels, as at the
entrance.

m) Geometric element: An individual horizontal or vertical curve, transition

curve, gradient, or straight section of road.

n) Horizontal alignment: The direction and course of the centre line of the road
in plan.

o) Vertical alignment: The direction and course of the centre line of the road in
profile (vertical).

p) Geometric (design) standards: Guidelines for limiting values of road

alignment and cross-section design.

q) Right-of-way: The physical extent of the right of access that is granted in

association with a road.
Road capacity

The capacity of a road is defined as the maximum flow of traffic possible under
prevailing traffic and road conditions. It is measured as a number of passenger
cars per hour.

Saturation flow: is defined as the maximum rate of flow possible in the

absence of controlling factors such as the red light in the traffic signal. It can
also be considered as the potential capacity of road section or junction under
ideal conditions.

Traffic classification:

Generally, traffic is classified differently according to the considered design

standards and sometimes is classified according to the types of vehicles
encountered on the road. In order to assess benefits in an economic appraisal
(from actual to future users), it is necessary to separate traffic into the
following three main categories:

 Normal traffic : analyzing and predicting traffic conditions to

recommend appropriate measures to keep traffic flowing as efficiently as
possible

Diverted traffic : A special route arranged for traffic to follow when the
normal route cannot be used

 Generated traffic: is the additional peak-period vehicle traffic that

results from a road improvement, particularly urban roadway expansions

In transport modeling, the Diverted traffic is also termed “Reassigned

Traffic” whereas Generated traffic is termed “Redistributed Traffic”.
 The estimation of traffic in future named “AADT” (Annual Average
Daily Traffic) is normally used for road planning and design as the total
annual traffic in both directions divided by 365 days

Traffic volume

Information on traffic volume, traffic composition and traffic loading are

important factors in determination of the appropriate standard of the road.
The traffic has major impact on the selection of road class, and
consequently on all geometric design elements.

For roads of low volume traffic, the design control is the Annual Average
Daily Traffic “AADT” in the ‘design year’.

For routes with large seasonal variations, the design control is the Average
Daily Traffic “ADT” during the peak months of the ‘design year’.

The ‘design year’ is usually selected as 10 or 20 years from the time of

construction completion.

Average daily traffic (ADT) represents the total traffic for a period (year,
month or week) divided by days of that period, or the average traffic volume
per day.

Design hourly volume (DHV) is the number of vehicles that travel through a
segment of roadway during the design hour. The DHV is used for making
roadway structural and capacity design decisions because traffic volume varies
by hour and from day to day throughout the year.

Contours:

 A contour line is an imaginary line on the map joining the points of equal
elevation (altitude).
 On a map, elevations (vertical distances) can be represented by several
methods such as shading, hachure, contour lines and form lines.
 Out of these, the contour lines are most used because they directly
indicate the elevations.

Contour Map
 A map showing contour lines is known as contour map. A contour
map gives an idea of the altitudes of the surface features as well as
 their relative position in plan serves the purpose of both, a plan
and a section.
 It facilitates depiction of the terrain in a two dimensional plan or
map. In other words contour is a line in which the ground surface
is intersected by a level surface obtained by joining points of equal
elevation. This line on the map represents a contour and is called
contour line. Contouring is the Science of representing the vertical
dimension of the terrain on a two dimensional map.

Contour interval

 It is the vertical distance between any two consecutive contours. If

a map includes contour lines of 101m, 100m, 99m, 98m and so
on, the contour interval here is 1m.

The contour interval depends on

a) The nature of the ground (i.e. whether flat or sleep)

b) The scale of the map

c) The purpose of the survey.

Contour intervals for flat ground are generally small, e.g 0.25m, 0.5m, 0.75m
etc. Contour interval for a steep slope in a hilly area is generally greater i.e 5m,
10m 15m etc. Contour interval is kept large up to 2m for projects such as
highways and railways whereas it is kept as small as 0.5m for measurement of
earthwork building sides and Dams etc. It should be recommended that the
contour interval for a particular map is constant.

Horizontal Equivalent (HE)

It is the horizontal distance between two consecutive contour lines measured to

the scale of the map.

* It is not constant it varies according to the steepness of the ground * For

steep slopes, the contour lines run close together and for flatter slopes they are
widely spaced.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS

The principal characteristics of contour lines which help in plotting or reading

a contour map are as follows:
1. Contour lines must close, not necessarily in the limits of the plan.
2. The horizontal distance between any two contour lines indicates the
amount of slope and varies inversely on the amount of slope.
3. Widely spaced contour indicates flat surface.
4. Closely spaced contour indicates steep slope ground

5. Equally spaced contour indicates uniform slope

6. Approximately concentric closed contours with decreasing values

towards centre indicate a pond.
7. Approximately concentric closed contours with increasing values towards
centre indicate hills

8. Contour lines with U-shape with convexity towards lower ground indicate
ridge.
 10. Contour lines with V-shaped with convexity towards higher
ground indicate valley

11.Contour lines generally do not meet or intersect each other. If contour

lines are meeting in some portion, it shows existence of a vertical cliff.
12. Contours of different elevations cannot cross each other. If contour lines
cross each other, it shows existence of overhanging cliffs or a cave.
Uses of Contour Maps

1. The suitable site can be selected for construction activities.

2. Reservoir capacity can be determined.

3. Alignment for roads, canals, transmission lines are done efficiently with the
help of contour map.

4. Nature of ground surface may be determined.

5. Estimating the quantities of earthwork.

6. The nature of ground i.e. flat, uniformly, sloping, undulating or hilly etc.

7. It is possible to select the most suitable and economical sites for work such
as the location of roads, railways, canals, pipelines, dams, reservoirs etc. by
using contour map.

8. Estimating of the volume of reservoir storage water, volume of earthwork in

cutting and embankment can be done by using contour map.
GENERAL CONSIDERATION IN CHOOSING THE ROUTE LOCATION ON
TOPOGRAPHIC MAP:

1.1. Introduction:

A route may have three location:

a) Valley location
b) Cross-country location
c) Ridge line location

a) In the case of valley location, the route follows the

valleys and so:
 It has few excessive grades (slopes).
 There is often danger of washouts and floods.
 A number of bridges may be required, to cross streams or rivers that
found in this valley.
b) In the case of cross-country location, the route is
located in opposition to the drainage and so:
 The route crosses the bridges very often.
 It will have steep grades.
 The construction costs along such a line may also be excessive.
c) Locations along Ridge line are:
 Relatively free from drainage problems and major drainage
structures(bridges).
 Also, steep grades are encountered when the location drops into valleys
or when the ridge is regained.

There are also important topographic features, and all other details that may
possibly be helpful in the selection of route location which may contain the
following:

1. The character of the terrain between termini or major controlling points. The
terrain may be generally classified as level, rolling and mountainous.

2. Possible ruling gradients.

 3. Stream crossings. This tends to a careful study of flow rate, high-water
elevation, flood conditions, Character of banks, and the width of the stream. A
suggested type of structure with most desirable points of crossing should be
noted on the map.

4. Information about other route crossings.

5. Obligatory points such as intermediate towns, markets or production

centers. Bypass locations should be indicated in the notes for all small towns
and cities for the more important routes. Provisions should be considered for
connections of the route of these centers of population.

6. Geological characteristics of area that affect foundation for bridges, etc…

The presence of rock outcrop, swamps, varying soil types and dangerous
possibility of landslides is very important.

7. Availability of building materials, labor and sites of quarries etc… nearby the
proposed route. 8. Value of the land to be acquired.

Note that, all these points contribute in choosing the best route location as
they affect economy of the route before, during and after construction.

Contour gradient tracing

A contour plan or map is very much useful in locating the route of highway or
any other communication line.

Let, on the following sketch, be required to locate a route from “A” to “B” at any
acceptable gradient, say for example 5%, having a map scale of 1 in 2000
comprise of 2m contour interval:

To join two successive contours, the route should have the horizontal
equivalent of 𝟐𝐦/𝟎.𝟎𝟓 = 40m.
STUDY OF LONGITUDINAL AND CROSS-SECTIONS OF THE ROAD

LONGITUDINAL SECTIONING OF THE ROAD

Introduction:

Longitudinal section (Profile) of the road may be of two types which are the
longitudinal profile of the ground and the longitudinal profile of the project. The
longitudinal profile of the road is defined as the vertical section along its centre
line.

The longitudinal sectioning is thus, the process of determining the elevations of

points at short measured intervals along a fixed line such as the centre line of
highway, drainage pipe line, etc.

The fixed centre line may be a single straight line or a succession of straight
lines or a series of straight lines connected by curves.

From the given contour plan (map), the section along any given direction can
be drawn to know the general shape of the ground or to use it for earthwork
calculations for a given communication line in the direction of the profile.

Longitudinal profile of the ground: From the following contour plan, let be
required to draw the section along the line “AL”.
The points in which the line “AL” intersect with various contours are projected
on the “X” axis and their corresponding heights are plotted along the “Y” axis
to some scale to get the corresponding contour points which may be joined to
get the configuration of the ground surface.

Straight route like “AL” is rarely found in route design and a serie of short
tangents to form a total length of the route is frequent. Thus,the method
should be changed as described in the following three stages from the given
contour plan below, on which the route “AL” is proposed:

a) Data recording from the contour map

From the above plan, the contour interval is 10metres and the horizontal
equivalent is reduced to the scale of 1 in 5000. Thus, using the rule, the first
tangent on the map is measured as 20mm to represent the horizontal distance
of 100m on the terrain.

Where: CI = Contour Interval (in metres) HE = Horizontal equivalent (in metres)

Remember the principle of measuring distances on the map, as described in

the first chapter that: “to measure the distance between the two places, a ruler
is used. And if the scale is a representative fraction, multiply the measured
distance of the ruler or string by the denominator, giving distance in the ruler
unit”.
Using the same principle, the other tangents were found and tabulated here
below:

The slope is named to be negative, the descending tangent in the direction of

the route (from its origin to its destination) or positive when the tangent is in
ascending position.