A2 – Pure Mathematics II & III – Formulae & Notes

ALGEBRA
Modulus of a real number is the magnitude of that number.

𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠

|𝑥| = 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ 0
|𝑥| = −𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 < 0

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑞𝑢𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 × 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑟 + 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟

Remainder Theorem:

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 (𝑥 − 𝑎), 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑓(𝑎)

𝑏
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 (𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏), 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑓 ( )
𝑎

FURTHER ALGEBRA
Partial Fractions

Type 1: Linear factors

1 𝐴 𝐵
= +
(𝑥 + 𝑝)(𝑥 + 𝑞) (𝑥 + 𝑝) (𝑥 + 𝑞)

Type 2: Repeated Factor

1 𝐴 𝐵
2
= +
(𝑥 + 𝑝) (𝑥 + 𝑝) (𝑥 + 𝑝)2
Type 3: Quadratic Factor
1 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
2
= + 2
(𝑥 + 𝑝)(𝑥 + 𝑞) (𝑥 + 𝑝) (𝑥 + 𝑝)
Type 4: Improper Fractions

𝑥2 𝐵 𝐶
=𝐴+ +
(𝑥 + 𝑝)(𝑥 + 𝑞) (𝑥 + 𝑝) (𝑥 + 𝑞)

In the case where n is not a positive integer, the binomial expansion of (1 + 𝑥)𝑛 does not terminate. In this case, the
domain should be restricted to |𝑥| < 1 for the infinite series to converge.
𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 2 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) 3
(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 +⋯
2! 3!
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝑥| < 1

𝑥 𝑛
When the first term in the bracket is not 1, first factorise the expression into the form 𝑎𝑛 (1 + 𝑎) and then use the
binomial expansion of (1 + 𝑥)𝑛

𝑥 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 𝑥 2
(𝑎 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 (1 + ) = 𝑎𝑛 [1 + 𝑛 ( ) + ( ) + ⋯]
𝑎 𝑎 2! 𝑎
 LOGARITHMS & EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS
A function 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑎 × 𝑟 𝑡 where t is real, gives exponential growth when 𝑟 > 1 or exponential decay when 𝑟 < 1

The logarithmic function is the inverse of the exponential function to the same base.

Logarithmic function:

𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑥 ⇔ 𝑥 = log 𝑏 𝑦
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ, 𝑦 > 0
Rules of Logarithms:

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑏, log 𝑏 1 = 0

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑛, log 𝑏 𝑏 𝑛 = 𝑛
log(𝑥𝑦) = log(𝑥) + log(𝑦)
𝑥
log ( ) = log(𝑥) − log (𝑦)
𝑦
log(𝑥 𝑛 ) = nlog 𝑥

ln(𝑥) or log 𝑒 𝑥 is the inverse function of 𝑒 𝑥

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑏 𝑡 ⇒ log 𝑦 = log 𝑎 + 𝑡 log 𝑏

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 ⇒ log 𝑦 = log 𝑎 + 𝑛 log 𝑏

TRIGONOMETRY

1 1 1
sec(𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐(𝜃) = cot(𝜃) =
cos (𝜃) sin(𝜃) tan (𝜃)
 DIFFERENTIATION
𝑑𝑦
𝐼𝑓 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 ⇒ = 𝑒𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝐼𝑛 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙, 𝑖𝑓 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) ⇒ = 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) × 𝑓′(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 1
𝐼𝑓𝑦 = ln(𝑥) ⇒ =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
𝐼𝑛 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙, 𝑖𝑓 𝑦 = ln(𝑓(𝑥)) ⇒ =
𝑑𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)

Product Rule

𝑖𝑓 𝑦 = 𝑢 × 𝑣
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 = 𝑢′ 𝑣 + 𝑣 ′ 𝑢 = 𝑣 +𝑢
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Quotient Rule
𝑢
𝐼𝑓 𝑦 =
𝑣
𝑑𝑦 𝑢′ 𝑣 − 𝑣′𝑢
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑣2
Implicit Differentiation

We use implicit differentiation when one of the variables is not given explicitly as a function of the other variable.

While differentiating an implicit equation, we must use chain rule to differentiate any expression involving 𝑦

Parametric Differentiation

When differentiating parametric equations involving a parameter 𝑡,

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡
= ×
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
When differentiating parametric equations involving an angle 𝜃,
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝜃
= × [𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑥

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
A differential equation is an equation in which at least one differential expression appears.
𝑑𝑦
A differential equation which can be rearranged to the form 𝑔(𝑦) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥) is said to have separable variables.
 INTEGRATION
𝑎𝑥+𝑏
𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏
∫(𝑒 ) 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
𝑎
Indefinite integral - When the integral has no limits

Definite integral - When integral has limits

Improper integral - When integral has 1 limit, and other is ∞

1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln|𝑥| + 𝑐
𝑥
1 ln |𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏|
𝐼𝑛 𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙, ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑎
Note: Write |x| in case of definite integrals. For indefinite integrals it is normal to restrict the function by the
condition 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 > 0
−cos (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)
∫ sin (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
𝑎
sin (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)
∫ cos (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
𝑎
𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)
∫ sec 2(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
𝑎

NUMERICAL SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS

Sign Change rule:

𝐼𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝛼 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝛽, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(𝛼) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝛽) ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑠,
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 1 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽
State explicitly each time: "𝐵𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑒, 𝑓(𝑥) ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽

The iterative relation 𝑥𝑛+1 = 𝐹(𝑥𝑛 ), together with an initial value 𝑥1 , defines a sequence. If that sequence
converges to a limit, then the limit will be a solution to the equation 𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥)

If you have an equation 𝑓(𝑥) = 0, you can rearrange into the form 𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥) for some function 𝐹(𝑥). From here,
you can define the iterative equation 𝑥𝑛+1 = 𝐹(𝑥𝑛 ) which will often converge to the root of 𝑓(𝑥) = 0.

Example #1:

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 + 5
To show that f(x) has a root between x = -3 and x = -2:

𝑓(−3) = −27 + 12 + 5 = −10

𝑓(−2) = −8 + 8 + 5 = 5
∴ 𝐵𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑒, 𝑓(𝑥)ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = −3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = −2
Example #2:

𝑥2 1
𝑔(𝑥) = + −4
2 sin (𝑥)
To find the iterative formula:

𝑥2 1
+ −4=0
2 sin (𝑥)
1 𝑥2
=4−
sin(𝑥) 2
1 8 − 𝑥2
=
sin(𝑥) 2
2
sin(𝑥) =
8 − 𝑥2
2
𝑥 = sin−1 ( )
8 − 𝑥2
2
∴ 𝐼𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎: 𝑥𝑛+1 = sin−1 ( )
8 − 𝑥𝑛2

Extra note: if the gradient of F(x) close to the root is positive, then any convergent sequence will approach the root
from one side, and if it is negative, the sequence will alternate values above and below the root.

Generally, the smaller the modulus of the gradient, the faster the convergence will be.

VECTORS
A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction.

A scalar is a quantity that has only magnitude but no direction.

𝑥
The column vector (𝑦) can be represented in the form 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗 + 𝑧𝑘, where i, j and k are unit vectors in the x, y and
𝑧
z directions respectively.

A displacement vector represents a change in position.

A position vector describes the displacement from the origin to a point.

𝑥
A point with coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) has position vector (𝑦) or 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗 + 𝑧𝑘
𝑧
Magnitude of vector:

In two dimensions - |𝑎| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2

In three dimensions - |𝑏| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2

Vectors are equal if they have the same direction and magnitude.

A negative vector has the same magnitude as positive vector but in opposite direction.

A unit vector is a vector of magnitude 1.

𝑎
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎 =
|𝑎|

Parallel vectors must be scalar multiples of each other.

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑏 − 𝑎
𝐴𝐵

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦

𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 ⇒ 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚
𝑟 = 𝑎 + 𝑡𝑏 ⇒ 𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚
Vector equation of a straight line passing through a point with position vector 𝑎 and direction vector 𝑏 is:

𝑟 = 𝑎 + 𝑡𝑏 (𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟)
𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒

- Lines intersect if they have one point in common

- Lines are parallel if they are in the same direction but no point in common
- Lines are coincident if they have same direction and infinite/all points in common
- Lines are skew if they are not parallel, don’t intersect and are not coincident. They have different directions
and no point in common.

𝑖𝑓 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 = 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑏
The angle between two straight lines is defined as the angle between their direction vectors.

COMPLEX NUMBERS
√−1 = 𝑖 ⇒ 𝑖 2 = −1

√−𝑏 2 = 𝑏𝑖

Numbers of the form bi, where b is real, are called imaginary numbers.

A number of the form 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖, where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are real, and 𝑖 2 = −1 are called complex numbers.

The complex conjugate of 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 is 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑖 where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are real numbers.

To add two complex numbers, we add their real parts and add their imaginary parts.

To subtract two complex numbers, we subtract their real parts and subtract their imaginary parts.

To multiply complex numbers, we use the normal rules of algebra and simplify the answer using 𝑖 2 = −1
To divide two complex numbers, we multiply the numerator and denominator of the fraction by the complex
conjugate of the denominator. (Similar to rationalising surds)

Two complex numbers are equal if both the real parts are equal and the imaginary parts are equal.

If 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 is a root of polynomial equation with real coefficients, then 𝑧 ∗ = 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦 is also a root of the polynomial
equation where 𝑧 ∗ is the complex conjugate of 𝑧.

∴The number of complex roots of a polynomial equation with real

coefficients will always be equal.

The position of the point representing 𝑧 ∗ , the complex conjugate of 𝑧,

can be found by reflecting the point representing 𝑧 on the real axis in an
Argand diagram.

Multiplying a complex number 𝑧 by the imaginary number 𝑖 is geometrically

equal to rotating the point representing 𝑧 by 90° anticlockwise about the
origin.

Polar form / Modulus-Argument form:

𝒙 + 𝒊𝒚 = 𝒓(𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝜽) + 𝒊 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝜽))

𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠: 𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
𝑦
Argument: tan(𝜃) =
𝑥
Exponential form:

𝒛 = 𝒓𝒆𝒊𝜽 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑢𝑔𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡