Module IV-Thermal Systems and Management

Dr. Vinayak Hemadri

SoE, Department of Mechanical Engineering.
Modes of Heat Transfer
Heat Transfer
Heat transfer is the transport of energy due to a temperature
difference between different amounts of matter

Heat Transfer Modes

a) Conduction b) Radiation c) Convection

CONDUCTION

Energy transfer by conduction can take place in solids, liquids, and

gases. Conduction can be thought of as the transfer of energy from
the more energetic particles of a substance to adjacent particles that
are less energetic due to interactions between particles.

Conduction can take place in solids, liquids, or gases.

• In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions and diffusion of the
molecules during their random motion
• In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of the molecules in a
lattice and the energy transport by free electrons.

Example:
A cold canned drink in a warm room, for example, eventually warms up to the room
temperature as a result of heat transfer from the room to the drink through the aluminum
can by conduction
The rate of heat conduction through a medium depends on the geometry of
the medium, its thickness, and the material of the medium, as well as the temperature
difference across the medium.

Fourier’s law of heat conduction

• Consider steady heat conduction

through a large plane wall of thickness
Δx, and area A
• The temperature difference across
the wall is ΔT= T2 - T1
Experiments have shown that the rate of heat conduction through
a plane layer is proportional to the temperature difference across
the layer and the heat transfer area, but is inversely proportional
to the thickness of the layer.
( Area)(Temperature diffrence)
Rate of Heat Transfer
Thickness
• (T1 − T2 )
Q cond = kA
x
• (T − T )
Q cond = −kA 2 1 k is the constant of
x proportionality, which is a
• (T ) property of the material
Q cond = −kA (W )
x through which heat
Limiting case x → 0 propagates.
• dT This property of the material is
Q cond = −kA
dx called thermal conductivity
(W/m K)
This is called as Fourier's Law of
Conduction
 More on Thermal Conductivity
• (T )
Q cond = −kA
x
Rate of conduction heat transfer under steady conditions can also be viewed as the defining
equation for thermal conductivity.

•
Q  x
k = cond (W/m K)
A  T

Thus the thermal conductivity of a material can be defined as the rate

of heat transfer through a unit thickness of the material per unit area
per unit temperature difference
The thermal conductivity of a material is a measure of the ability of
the material to conduct heat
A high value for thermal conductivity indicates that the material is a
good heat conductor, and a low value indicates that the material is a
poor heat conductor or insulator.
The thermal conductivities of some materials at room
temperature
 Heat flux
The rate of heat transfer per unit area normal to the direction of heat transfer is
called heat flux, and the average heat flux is expressed as

•
• Q
q= (W / m 2 )
A
Convection
• Convection is the mode of energy transfer between a
solid surface and the adjacent liquid or gas that is in
motion and it Involves the combined effects of
conduction and fluid motion.
In the absence of any bulk fluid motion, heat transfer between a
solid surface and the adjacent fluid is by pure conduction.The
presence of bulk motion of the fluid enhances the heat transfer
between the solid surface and the fluid,
Boundary layer development in convection heat transfer.

Types of Convective heat Transfer

Convective Heat Transfer

Natural Convection Forced Convection

Somethings about (h)
The convection heat transfer coefficient h is not a property of the fluid. It is an
experimentally determined parameter whose value depends on all the variables
influencing convection such as the surface geometry, the nature of fluid
motion, the properties of the fluid, and the bulk fluid velocity.

Typical values of convection heat transfer coefficient

 RADIATION

Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the form of

electromagnetic waves (or photons) as a result of the changes
in the electronic configurations of the atoms or molecules.

Unlike conduction and convection, the transfer of energy by

radiation does not require the presence of an intervening medium

Thermal radiation, which is the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of

their temperature.

It differs from other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays, gamma

rays, microwaves, radio waves, and television waves that are not related to
temperature. All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation.
Radiation that is emitted by the surface originates from the thermal energy of
matter bounded by the surface,
The rate at which energy is released per unit area (W/m2) is termed the surface
emissive power, E

Stefan–Boltzmann law

The maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted from a

surface at an absolute temperature Ts (K)
•
Qrad =  As Ts4 (W )

 = 5.67 10−8 W / m 2 − K 4 σ= Stefan- Boltzmann Constant

The idealized surface that emits radiation at this maximum rate is

called a blackbody, and the radiation emitted by a blackbody is
called blackbody radiation
The radiation emitted by all real surfaces is less than the radiation
emitted by a blackbody at the same temperature, and is expressed as

•
Qrad =  As Ts4 (W )

where is the emissivity of the surface. The property emissivity, whose value
is in the range

Radiation heat transfer between a surface and the surfaces

surrounding it.
When a surface of emissivity and surface
area As at an absolute temperature Ts is
completely enclosed by a much larger (or
black) surface at absolute temperature Tsurr
 Thermal management in Electronic Devices

• All electronic devices and circuitry generate excess heat and thus require thermal
management to improve reliability and prevent premature failure.
• The amount of heat output is equal to the power input, if there are no other energy
interactions.
• There are several techniques for cooling including various styles of heat sinks,
thermoelectric coolers, forced air systems and fans, heat pipes, and others.

• The cooling or thermal management issues are facing critical challenges with the
continuous miniaturization and rapid increase of heat flux of electronic devices.

• Significant efforts have been made to develop high-efficient cooling and flexible
thermal management solutions and corresponding design tools
• A common problem in product design—particularly in electronics
cooling—is managing thermal conditions for optimal efficiency.

• The core of the challenge is designing energy-efficient microprocessors

and printed circuit boards (PCBs) that will not overheat.
 Thermal Management of Electronics: Active vs Passive
Cooling

• Fundamentally, we can divide electronics cooling techniques

into two categories: passive cooling and active cooling.
• Passive cooling utilizes natural conduction, convection, and
radiation to cool a component.
• Active cooling requires the use of energy specifically dedicated
to cooling the component.
• One example of these two cooling categories is in heat sink
and heat spreader design, both of which utilize fundamental
heat transfer principles.
 Heat spreader
Heat sink finned type
 Active Cooling

• Active cooling is somewhat similar to passive. The idea is to have

the heat generated by the CPU transferred onto another material
(metal etc.), and then cooling it down with fans.
• Another thing it has over liquid-cooling, is the fact that if
anything goes wrong, it’s only the fan on the cooler itself that
can break, which limits the amount of damage that can be done.
(except for CPU overheating damage).
• Active cooling, on the other hand, refers to cooling technologies that
rely on an external device to enhance heat transfer. Through active
cooling technologies, the rate of fluid flow increases during convection,
which dramatically increases the rate of heat removal

• Active cooling solutions include forced air through a fan or blower,

forced liquid, and thermoelectric coolers (TECs), which can be used to
optimize thermal management on all levels. Fans are used when natural
convection is insufficient to remove heat
Refrigeration:
Vapor Compression Refrigeration cycle (VCR)

Saturated vapor at low pressure enters the compressor and undergoes a reversible
adiabatic compression, process 1–2. Heat is then rejected at constant pressure in
process 2–3, and the working fluid exits the condenser as saturated liquid. An
adiabatic throttling process, 3–4, follows, and the working fluid is then evaporated at
constant pressure, process 4–1, to complete the cycle.
Coefficient of Performance (COP)= Heat Rejected/ Work input
Vapor Absorption Refrigeration System (VAR)

The ammonia absorption refrigeration cycle

differs from the vapor-compression cycle in the
manner in which compression is achieved.
In the absorption cycle the low-pressure
ammonia vapor is absorbed in water, and the
liquid solution is pumped to a high pressure by
a liquid pump
• The low-pressure ammonia vapor leaving the evaporator enters the
absorber where it is absorbed in the weak ammonia solution. This process
takes place at a temperature slightly higher than that of the surroundings.
• Heat must be transferred to the surroundings during this process.
• The strong ammonia solution is then pumped through a heat exchanger to
the generator where a higher pressure and temperature are maintained.
• Under these conditions, ammonia vapor is driven from the solution as heat
is transferred from a high-temperature source.
• The ammonia vapor goes to the condenser where it is condensed, as in a
vapor-compression system, and then to the expansion valve and
evaporator.
• The weak ammonia solution is returned to the absorber through the heat
exchanger.
 Working Principle of Refrigerator

• Refrigerators work on the second law of thermodynamics. In

the process of refrigeration, unwanted heat is taken from one
place and discharged into another. The common refrigerator
which we have in our homes, works on the principle of
evaporation.
• A refrigerant is a substance used in a heat cycle to transfer
heat from one area, and remove it to another.
• A refrigerant when passed through the food kept in the
refrigerator, it absorbs heat from these items and transfers the
absorbed heat to the surrounding with less temperature.
The Components of Refrigerator
• There are four components in
the refrigerator system. They
are:
• Evaporator
• Compressor
• Condenser
• Expansion valve
Components
• Evaporator: It is the main part of the refrigerator that helps to keep the device and things cool always. It
features the tubes with high thermal conductivity that helps in absorbing the heat rejected by the fan or coil
in the system.
• Compressor: It compresses the low-pressure, low-temperature vapor into a high-temperature, high-pressure
vapor. The refrigerant is passed from the evaporator and is compressed in a cylinder to generate a high-
temperature, high-pressure gas.
• Expansion valve helps to control the flow of refrigerant into the evaporator, or cooling coil. Expansion valve
is also known as flow control valves. It is a sensitive small device that aids to sense the temperature
change of the refrigerant.
• Condenser: It comprises a set of tubes with external fins placed back of the refrigerator. This component
helps to convert the gaseous refrigerant into liquid form.

Working Of The Refrigerator

• Vapour compression refrigeration cycle is followed for the refrigeration process. In this process, the
Evaporator, Compressor, Condenser and expansion valves are connected to tubes made of copper or steel.
• Evaporator tube is placed throughout the refrigerator, when heat is absorbed the liquid refrigerant absorbs
the heat and then converts into vapour.
• The heat absorbed is passed to the external environment through the compressor from vapour state to
liquid state.
• This process repeats when the heat is absorbed and passed through the expansion valve to the evaporator.
The above process helps to keep the refrigerator cool always.