1. What are the most important characteristic features of adjectives?

An adjective is a word that modifies or describes a noun or pronoun. Adjectives can be used to describe the qualities
of someone or something independently or in comparison to something else.
How are adjectives used in sentences?
Adjectives modify or describe nouns and pronouns. They can be attributive (occurring before the noun)
or predicative (occurring after the noun). Predicative adjectives typically follow a linking verb that connects the
subject of the sentence to the adjective.
The proud soldier is home. (attributive)
The soldier is proud. (predicative)
The dedicated employee starts early. (attributive)
The employee is dedicated. (predicative)
Comparative and superlative adjectives
Comparative adjectives are used to compare two things. They’re usually formed by adding the suffix “-er”.
Comparative adjectives can also be formed by adding “more” or “less” before an adjective that has not been modified.
The “more” form is typically used for words with two or more syllables, while the “less” form is used for all
adjectives.
Simon’s essay is longer than Claire’s.
I have never met a more honorable person.
Superlative adjectives are used to indicate that something has the most or least of a specific quality. They’re typically
preceded by the definite article “the” and usually formed by adding the suffix “-est”.
Superlative adjectives can also be formed by adding “most” or “least” before an adjective that has not been modified.
The “most” form is typically used for words with two or more syllables, while the “least” form is used for all
adjectives.
Even the greatest athletes need adequate rest.
Alicia is the most charming person at the party, but her partner is the least charming.
Absolute adjectives
An absolute adjective is an adjective describing an absolute state that cannot be compared. For example, the word
“dead” is often considered to be an absolute adjective because it’s not possible to be “deader” than someone else.
However, actual usage varies, and absolute adjectives are often modified by words such as “almost.”
Coordinate adjectives
Coordinate adjectives are two or more adjectives that modify the same noun in a sentence. Coordinate adjectives can
be separated by commas or by the conjunction “and.”
The plums were cool and delicious.
Aaron wrote a heartbreaking, inspiring novel.
Appositive adjectives
An appositive adjective is an adjective (or series of adjectives) that occurs after the noun it modifies. It is typically
set off by commas or dashes. It works similarly to an appositive noun.
Then the cliffs, ominous and dark, came into view.
Compound adjectives
A compound adjective is an adjective that is formed using two or more words that express a single idea (e.g., well-
mannered, five-star, time-consuming). When a compound adjective occurs before the noun it modifies (attributive),
the individual words are typically connected by a hyphen. Frequently, no hyphen is needed when the compound
adjective is placed after the noun (predicative).
A well-known man lives here.
Mark is well known.
Participial adjectives
A participial adjective is an adjective that is identical to the participle form of a verb (typically ending in “-ing,” “-
ed,” or “-en”).
The light produced a blinding effect.
Eva was pretty confused.
Proper adjectives
A proper adjective is an adjective formed from a proper noun and used to indicate origin. Like proper nouns, proper
adjectives are always capitalized.
There is a popular Indian restaurant nearby.
Liza is not a fan of Shakespearean drama.
Denominal adjectives
A denominal adjective is an adjective formed from a noun, often with the addition of a suffix (e.g., “-ish,” “-ly,” “-
esque”).
Amira thinks Han is childish, but at least he’s friendly.
Nominal adjectives
A nominal adjective (also called a substantive adjective) is an adjective that functions as a noun. Nominal adjectives
are typically preceded by the definite article “the.”
The candidate appealed to both the rich and the poor.
It’s important to take care of the elderly.

2. Why do we have to differentiate the qualitative and relative adjectives?

Relative Adjectives:
 Express properties of a substance determined by its direct relation to another substance.
 Examples: wood — a wooden hut; history — a historical event; table — tabular presentation; colour —
coloured postcards; surgery — surgical treatment
 The nature of this "relationship" in adjectives is best revealed by definitional correlations.
a wooden hut — a hut made of wood; a historical event — an event referring to a certain period of history
Qualitative Adjectives:
 Denote various qualities of substances allowing quantitative estimation.
 Qualities can be high or low, adequate or inadequate, sufficient or insufficient, optimal or excessive.
 Examples: "awkward situation," "difficult task," "enthusiastic reception," "hearty welcome."
Degrees of Comparison:
There are some exceptions but usually qualitative adjectives can form degrees of comparison: positive, comparative,
and superlative, while relative can’t.
Examples: "pretty girl," "quicker look," "heartiest of welcomes," "most interesting speech."
- Recognizing qualitative adjectives helps in expressing the degree or level of a quality (e.g., high, low, adequate,
insufficient).
- Relative adjectives are generally considered incapable of forming degrees of comparison. Recognizing this
distinction aids in grammatical accuracy.
- Differentiating qualitative and relative adjectives may help us to understand that adjectives can serve different
functions depending on context, emphasizing the need for a nuanced understanding.

3. What are the main features of adverbs?

An adverb is a word that can modify or describe a verb, adjective, another adverb, or entire sentence. Adverbs can be
used to show manner (how something happens), degree (to what extent), place (where), and time (when).
Adverbs are usually formed by adding -ly to the end of an adjective (e.g., “quick” becomes “quickly”), although there
are also other adverbs that don’t have this ending.
How are adverbs used in sentences?
Adverbs provide context in a sentence by describing how, when, where, and to what extent something occurs.
Adverbs can be used to modify verbs, adjectives, and even other adverbs.
Tamara danced slowly. (verb)
Jeff is extremely talented. (adjective)
I started playing golf quite recently. (another adverb)
Adverbs can also be used to modify entire sentences by expressing a viewpoint or making an evaluation. These
adverbs (called sentence adverbs) are typically set off with commas.
Luckily, the fire department responded immediately.
Monica can’t attend the party, unfortunately.
Adverbs of manner
An adverb of manner describes how an action is performed or how something happens. In most cases, adverbs of
manner occur after the main verb.
Jessie read quietly.
Tom laughed loudly.
Adverbs of degree
Adverbs of degree are used to qualify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs by expressing extent or degree. Some common
adverbs of degree include: “extremely,” “absolutely,” “slightly,” “quite,” and “enough.”
The medication had a very positive effect.
I’ll be ready soon; I’m almost finished.
Adverbs of place
An adverb of place provides information about the location of an action (e.g., position, distance, and direction).
Adverbs of place typically occur after the main verb of a sentence.
Go downstairs and open the door.
Confetti was thrown everywhere.
Come here!
Adverbs of time
Adverbs of time (e.g., “yesterday,” “today,” “tomorrow”) describe when something happens. They are typically
placed at the end of a sentence.
I have to run, but I’ll see you tomorrow.
Dylan has a dentist appointment, so he will be late for school today.
Adverbs of duration (e.g., “temporarily,” “forever,” “shortly”) are slightly different; they describe the length of time
something happens for.
The power outage should be fixed shortly.
I played football briefly, but I didn’t enjoy it.
Adverbs of frequency
Adverbs of frequency describe how often something happens. They can be divided into two categories based on how
specific they are.
Adverbs of indefinite frequency (e.g., “always,” “sometimes,” “never”) give an idea of how often something occurs,
but they don’t give an exact timeframe.
Anna always works on Saturdays.
Jessica never washes the dishes.
Adverbs of definite frequency (e.g., “hourly,” “daily,” “weekly”) give a more precise description of how often
something happens.
I check my email hourly.
We visit France yearly.
Adverbs of purpose
Adverbs of purpose (also called adverbs of reason) help to explain why something is the case.
The company made a huge profit; therefore, the employees were given raises.
Since you’re busy, I’ll call back later.
Conjunctive adverbs
Conjunctive adverbs (also called linking adverbs) connect two independent clauses by turning the second clause
into an adverbial modifier of the first. They can be used as transition words to introduce consequence, condition,
comparison, contrast, and clarification.
The wedding is scheduled for tomorrow. However, we no longer have a caterer.
Kelly’s funding application was denied; therefore, she can not continue her research.
Focusing adverbs
Focusing adverbs are used to emphasize a particular part of a sentence. They’re typically positioned next to the word
they’re drawing attention to. Some common focusing adverbs include: “only,” “just,” “especially,” “even,” “either,”
and “neither.”
Natalia loves reading, especially fiction.
Jen had a great time at the party; she even danced.
Interrogative adverbs
The interrogative adverbs “when,” “where,” “why,” and “how” are used to introduce a question.
When do you want to go shopping?
Where did you get that doughnut?
Relative adverbs
The relative adverbs “where,” “when,” and “why” are used to introduce dependent or relative clauses (i.e., clauses
that contain a subject and verb but do not express a complete thought).
This is the city where the soldiers were stationed.
That was the moment when I first noticed him.
4. Pronouns.
A pronoun is a word that stands in for a noun, often to avoid the need to repeat the same noun over and over. Like
nouns, pronouns can refer to people, things, concepts, and places. Most sentences contain at least one noun or
pronoun.
How are pronouns used in sentences?
The main function of pronouns is to replace nouns. Because of this, they are used in sentences in similar ways to
nouns.
Like nouns, pronouns commonly serve as the subject of a sentence, followed by a verb (a word expressing an action).
I like to play chess.
We have never been to Germany before.
It is difficult to stay calm in stressful situations.
A pronoun can also function as the object in a sentence—either a direct or indirect object:
 The direct object is something or someone that is directly acted upon by the verb.
 The indirect object is someone or something that receives the direct object.
Give me that!
Can you promise her this?
Pronoun antecedents
The antecedent of a pronoun is the noun that it refers back to. It’s usually mentioned in the text before the pronoun,
but sometimes it comes just after it in a sentence. Pronoun-antecedent agreement means ensuring that the pronoun you
use matches its antecedent in number, person, and gender.
Annie was late to class again because she missed the bus.
As they debated the point, the students became increasingly animated.
Person A: What do you think of Julian?
Person B: I don’t like him very much.
Some pronouns, such as “you” and “I,” don’t need an antecedent because it’s self-evident to whom they refer.
Personal pronouns (first-, second-, and third-person)
Personal pronouns are words like “he” that refer to yourself, the person you’re addressing, or other people and
things. They usually refer to an antecedent but may occur without one when the reference is self-evident (e.g., “I”
always refers to the person saying or writing it).
Personal pronouns can change their form based on:
 Person (first-, second-, or third-person)
 Number (singular or plural)
 Gender (masculine, feminine, neuter, or epicene)
 Case (subject, object, possessive, or reflexive/intensive)
Demonstrative pronouns
The four demonstrative pronouns (this, that, these, and those) are used to indicate something previously mentioned
or, in conversation, something that is clear from the context. For example, in the sentence “Take this,” “this” has no
explicit antecedent, but it would be clear in context that it referred to whatever object you were being given.
 The “near” demonstrative this (singular) or these (plural) indicates something close to you.
 The “far” demonstrative that (singular) or those (plural) indicates something farther from you.
This is an apple, and those are oranges.
That isn’t fair! I wanted to go first.
Interrogative pronouns
Interrogative pronouns are used (along with other types of interrogative words) to introduce questions. The
interrogative pronouns are:
 What and which, used to ask questions about things
 Who and whom, used to ask about people
 Whose, used to ask about ownership
Whose is this jacket?
What were your favorite classes at school?
Whom do you admire the most?

Relative pronouns
A relative pronoun is used to introduce a relative clause—a phrase that usually supplies more information about the
preceding noun. They have a lot in common with interrogative pronouns. The relative pronouns are:
 Which(ever), that, and what(ever), used in relation to things
 Who(ever) and whom(ever), used in relation to people
 Whose, used to indicate ownership
Relative pronouns are often omitted (e.g., “the book [that] I read”). There’s nothing wrong with doing this as long as it
doesn’t create ambiguity.
The first thing that I thought of was a cloud.
It doesn’t matter whose it was; it’s ours now!
Whoever broke the chair should own up to it.
Indefinite pronouns
Indefinite pronouns are words like “somebody” that refer to an unspecified person or thing. Many of them are
formed using some combination of some-, any-, every-, or no- with -thing, -one, -where, or -body.
There are also various indefinite pronouns used to describe quantity, such as “little,” “many,” “none,” and “enough.”
And there are distributive pronouns like “neither” and “each” that allow you to distinguish between options.
The impersonal pronoun “one” can also be regarded as indefinite.
Try to think of somewhere nice to go for dinner.
No one likes him, and he doesn’t like anyone.
Some are born lucky, while others have to work hard for everything they get.
Few are able to excel in such a competitive field.
Reciprocal pronouns
Reciprocal pronouns are used to indicate a reciprocal relationship between two people or things, where the members
of a group each perform the same action relative to the other(s). The English reciprocal pronouns are each
other and one another.
Some writers claim that “each other” should only be used to refer to groups of two and “one another” to groups of
three or more. But this distinction is rejected by most style guides and not borne out in practice; you can use the two
interchangeably.
Siblings often compete with each other for parental attention.
It’s important that we treat one another with respect.
Dummy pronouns (expletives)
A dummy pronoun (also called an expletive) is a pronoun that doesn’t have any explicit meaning but is necessary to
the sentence structure. Unlike other pronouns, dummy pronouns don’t actually replace a noun.
The two words used as dummy pronouns in English are it and there. Note that both words can also fulfill other
grammatical roles. Dummy pronouns are commonly used to talk about the weather, to emphasize certain elements in a
sentence, or to introduce the existence of something.
It rained yesterday, but today it’s bright and sunny.
There are thousands of different species of birds in the world.
It isn’t clear to me what you mean.

5. Numerals.
Numerals are a grammatical form that is used to indicate a number and talk about amounts, among other things. They
mostly fall under the category of determiners ( word that appears before a noun and specifies something about the
number, definiteness, or ownership of the noun). But they can sometimes be nouns or even adverbs (although much
less frequently).
I have three dogs. (adjective)
It's the second time I've called you. (noun)
I've seen that movie twice. (adverb)
Some grammarians place numerals into the determiner subclass named "quantifiers."
When is a Numeral a Determiner?
A numeral is a determiner when it's placed before a noun, and when that's the case, it can express quantity or
sequence.
She won first place.
The company has three branches.
Can I have a double whiskey?
When is a Numeral a Noun?
When a numeral doesn't come before a noun, that usually means it's a noun itself. For example:
I'm the first to arrive.
She got married in her forties.
I have a ton of things to do.
When is a Numeral an Adjective?
It's quite rare for numerals to function as adjectives, but it can happen.
You heard it here first.
I've only met her once.
Once he left I turned the music up.
Types of Numerals
Cardinal Numbers
Cardinal numbers are your classic 'one,' 'two,' 'three,' etc., numbers that are used in simple counting and to indicate
amounts.
Cardinal numbers answer the question, "How many?".
There were nine of us in the office this morning.
She's only 25 and already managing the entire team.
A table for one, please.
Ordinal Numbers
Ordinal numbers tell us something or someone's number, rank, or position, like first, second, or third. As the word
'ordinal' suggests, ordinal numbers allow you to put things in order.
Just like cardinals, ordinals can be either spelled or written in number format, followed by the suffix -st, -rd, -nd, or -
th.
She came third in the spelling bee competition.
It's the second time you've stood him up; you should apologize.
First I'll go over the procedure, and then you can all get started.
Nominal Numbers
That's why nominal numbers allow you to name objects, concepts, people, or animals in a series. They are given a
number so that they may be identified more easily. For example:
He lives in 90210, a highly-desirable postcode.
She was allocated the number 8 when she joined the soccer team.
I just got the I-Phone Pro 14.
Compound Numerals
The word 'compound' in grammar refers to two or more words put together to form a new word.
I'm celebrating my twenty-fourth year on this planet.
This project cost six hundred and fifty thousand dollars.
You completed the marathon in three hours thirty two minutes.
The first thing to note with compound numerals is that it is only the last number that takes the -th suffix. You can see
that in the first example, we said 'twenty-fourth' and not 'twentieth-forth' or 'twentieth-four.'
Then there's the question of the hyphen. The general consensus seems to be that you use a hyphen with numbers
between twenty-one and ninety-nine. Anything lower or higher doesn't require one.

6. Functional parts of speech.

Functional parts of speech are words that serve as mediatory functions (посреднические функции) in a sentence,
conveying relationships, limitations, connections, attitudes, and emotions. They are not independent like notional parts
of speech.
1. Article:
 The article (definite "the" or indefinite "a" or "an") expresses specific limitations of substantive
functions. It helps to specify whether the noun it precedes is definite or indefinite.
2. Preposition:
 Prepositions (e.g., "in," "on," "at," "under") express dependencies and interdependencies of
substantive referents. They establish relationships between nouns, pronouns, and other elements in a
sentence.
3. Conjunction:
 Conjunctions (e.g., "and," "but," "or," "because") express connections between phenomena. They join
words, phrases, or clauses, indicating relationships such as addition, contrast, alternative, or cause and
effect.
4. Particle:
 Particles unite functional words of specifying and limiting meaning. They include words like "only,"
"even," "just," and "almost," which add emphasis or restriction to other words or phrases in the
sentence.
5. Modal Word:
 Modal words, including adverbs like "probably," "perhaps," "fortunately," and "unfortunately,"
express the speaker's attitude toward the reflected situation and its parts. They convey probabilities,
evaluations, affirmations, negations, and other attitudes.
6. Interjection:
 Interjections (e.g., "oh," "wow," "ouch," "alas") occupy a detached position in the sentence and serve
as signals of emotions. They express feelings, reactions, or exclamations, often adding emotional
intensity to the expression.
Functional parts of speech play crucial roles in structuring sentences, conveying meaning, and expressing attitudes and
emotions. While they may not carry standalone meanings like notional parts of speech (nouns, verbs, adjectives,
adverbs), they are essential for organizing language and conveying nuances of meaning and emotion in
communication.