Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering

Thermal Power Stations

4th year Mechanical Power Engineering
Undergraduate Students
Mechanical Engineering Dept. Faculty of Engineering
Kafr Elsheikh University, EGYPT.
2016-2017
BY
Dr. Khaled Yousef
1
 Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering

outline
1. Thermal Power plant definition and types, and sources of energy.
2. Fluctuating loads on power plants
3. Combustion of fuels and types of fuels for power stations
4. Draught systems
5. Furnace types and energy balance
6. Boiler types and thermal equilibrium
7. Evaporators
8. Superheater and economizers
9. Air heaters
10. Calculation of flue gas temperature at each section of the boilers
11. Feed water treatment
12. Economical analysis and Optimal load division between units
13. Nuclear power plants
 Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering

What is power plant

1. A power plant or a power generating station, is basically an industrial location
that is utilized for the generation and distribution of electrical power .
2. A power plant can be of several types depending mainly on the type of fuel
used. Since for the purpose of bulk power generation, only thermal, nuclear and
hydro power comes handy, therefore a power generating station can be broadly
classified in the 3 above mentioned types. Let us have a look in these types of
power stations in details.
 Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering

Sources of Energy
Two Main sources of energy
1- Conventional or Traditional sources of energy
uses, coal, petroleum, natural gas,………
2- Renewable energy sources
water, solar, wind, ………….
3- Nuclear energy sources
 Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering

Conventional sources of energy

The most important source of energy.
Advantages,
low cost and higher power density (100 MW~100 m2.
Disadvantages,
limited available storage, not equally distributed b/w all countries,
considerable air pollution, lower heat value compared to Nuclear,
 Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering

Renewable energy sources

This new energy and it has no endless use. It has many forms
as:
1- water energy: used for generating mechanical and electrical
powers. Old use. Hydro-electric power plants, Figure.
2- wind energy: it has been used for harvesting and boats. It
has been recently used for electrical power generation, wind
pump and desalination, Figures for horizontal and vertical axes
wind turbines.
 Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering

Renewable energy sources

3- solar energy: sun is the origin of the world energy, how?.
Solar energy can be used directly for electrical power
generation by using the photoelectric cells (costly). Water
desalination (Solar Still), can be used for drying. Also, it can be
used for electrical power generation by using solar collectors
(solar thermal power stations, Figures.
4- Geothermal energy: stored energy in earth. We can use
the hot water or vapor that extracted from the earth inside to
generate electricity. In this case, either vapor for steam turbine
of hot water to heat lower saturation temperature working
medium in certain power plants, Figure.
 Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering

Renewable energy sources

5- Energy from oceans: three forms for energy from oceans and
seas:-
5.1 ocean temperature difference energy conversion (OTEC): hot
water from the ocean surface can be used for heat the working
medium of power plants using heat exchanger instead of boiler. Lower
saturation temp. can be used for this power plants.
5.2 Tidal energy: due to earth rotation about its center, earth attraction
force due to gravity and sun attraction force, the tidal force is
generated. Single hole tidal systems can be used for energy
generation, Figure.
 Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering

Renewable energy sources

5.3 Wave energy: it uses a float connected to rod which connects to a
wave energy absorber generator. Then this reciprocating and semi
rotational motion can be converted to electrical power.

Note: All these energies are costly due high maintenance and initial
cost compared to the conventional power generation
 Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering

2. Fluctuating loads on power plants

Load: The required load by the customers is not fixed all the time during
the day and it fluctuates depending on needs.
General arrangement of electrical power generation plants, Figure.
Load curves (L.C): it is a curve that describes the instantaneous
required load variation demand by the customer with respect to the time
the day, Figure.
If the time is hours then it is called Daily load curve.
If the time is days then it is called Monthly load curve.
If the time is months then it is called yearly or Annual load curve.

The load curve is used to detect the maximum required load and its time, also, it is
used for calculating the total energy consumed by the customers by integration of the
area under the curve.
 Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering

2. Fluctuating loads on power plants

𝑡=24
𝐸= 𝑡=0
𝑙 𝑑𝑡 𝑘𝑊. ℎ𝑟
Where E is the total energy required from the power plant for the
customers (Industrial, domestic, commercial, …..)

Load duration curve (L.D.C)

Is a simply a rearrangement of daily load curve with loads set up in
descending orders of magnitude. The areas under the L.C and L.D.C
are equal. The L.D.C is extracted from the daily L.C. by dividing the
L.C. into strips which has equal load, Figure.
Maximum and average load values can be found easily in L.D.C. Both
L.C and L.D.C should be drawn with the same scale.
 Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering

2. Fluctuating loads on power plants

Load Factor (L.F): is defined as the ratio between average load and
maximum load demand by the consumer during certain period of time.
𝐿𝑎𝑣
𝐿. 𝐹 =
𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
t=24
t=0 l dt
Average load(𝐋𝐚𝐯 )=area under the curve = (daily L.C)
24
= energy consumed in 24 hours/24
𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the peak load

L. F = energy consumed in 24 hours/(24 ∗ peak load)

Figures for L.F for two consumers of L.F=1 and L.F<1. Cost of Kw.hr and
PP setup cost. Base unit and peak unit (stand by unit)
Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering

13
 Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering

Ch. 1: Furnace

A furnace is a thermal Enclosure used

for high-temperature heating.
Several industries like iron and steel
making, non ferrous metals production,
glass making, manufacturing, ceramic
processing, calcination in cement
production etc. employ furnace for these
industires.
 Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering

Ch. 1: Furnace
The components of a furnace:
1- Source of energy: furnaces can be classified based on energy source as follows:
a) Fossil fuel: For fossil fuel one requires burner for efficient mixing of fuel and air.
Arrangement of burner is important.
b) Electric energy: Resistance heating, induction heating or arc heating.
c) Chemical energy: Exothermic reactions

2- Suitable refractory material:

Refractory design is important. Thermal enclosure of the furnace is designed and
constructed keeping in view the requirements. For example refractory
facing the thermal enclosure must have high refractoriness, chemically inert etc.
Whereas refractory facing the surrounding must have low thermal conductivity to
minimize heat losses
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Ch. 1: Furnace

3- Heat exchanger: Heat exchanger is becoming now as part of the fossil fuel fired
furnaces in order to recover and reuse the heat of POC. Heat of POC can be used
either external to furnace by installing a heat exchanger or internally by recirculation
the POC within the furnace.
4- instrumentation and control: Furnaces are equipped with POC analyzer and
temperature control.

Difference between furnace and oven

Furnace is an equipment to melt metals for casting or heat materials for change of shape
(rolling, forging etc.) or change of properties (heat treatment). When the furnace is
operated below 370 °C then it is called as oven, and when it operates above 370 °C then
the operating equipment is called furnace.
 Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering

Ch. 1: Furnace
 Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering

Ch. 1: Furnace

The following factors are responsible for the selection of furnace.

(i) Considerations of initial cost and cost of its operation.
(ii) Relative average cost of repair and maintenance.
(iii) Availability and relative cost of various fuels in the particular locality.
(iv) Melting efficiency , in particular speed of melting and required production rate
(v) Composition and melting temperature of the metal.
 Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering

Ch. 1: Furnace
Furnace design
To design the furnace, all various losses to the overall heat
balance of the furnace should be discussed first.
 Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering

Ch. 1: Furnace
1- Wall losses during steady state operation
During the steady state operation of the furnace, the flow of heat through the furnace
walls is a function of the temperature gradient between the inside and outside surface
temperature of wall. The heat flow can be expressed as:

𝑘 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜
𝑄= = 𝑈 𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑎
𝑡
Where, Q is the heat loss through walls, (W/𝑚2 )
𝑇𝑜 is the outer surface temperature of the furnace wall, K
𝑇𝑖 is the inner surface temperature of the furnace wall, K
𝑇𝑎 is the outer surface temperature of the furnace wall, K
𝑘 is the thermal conductivity of the wall, (W/𝑚. 𝐶)
𝑡 is the wall thickness, m: 𝑈 is the overall heat transfer coefficient, (W/𝑚2 . 𝐶)
 Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering

Ch. 1: Furnace
the overall heat transfer coefficient depends on :
1-𝑇𝑜 , 𝑇𝑖
2- Furnace wall orientation ( vertical or horizontal)
3- Wall surface conditions (smooth or rough)
4- It combines conduction, convection and radiative heat transfer
5- Wall martial and its composition
6- Wall insulation and coating layers
7- Air velocity outside the furnace wall
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Ch. 1: Furnace
2- Wall losses during intermittent operation
 Many furnaces are operated on alternating (on/off) basis or are operated on an
intermittent basis. During the off periods, the heat absorbed and stored in the
refractory materials during the on periods is dissipated to the environment. This
heat loss is done by the radiation, convection, and conduction.

 This heat loss should be calculated to be added to the furnace when it is used for
another time in the on period. It is difficult to calculate this heat loss as it depends
on various parameters and it works as unsteady operation. Also, it requires the
physical properties and refractory materials to be known at the outer surface
temperature of the wall
 Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering

Ch. 1: Furnace
2- Wall losses during intermittent operation
Bradley, Ernst and Paschkisl developed an equation and using a chart for calculating
this heat loss based on the following assumption:
1. Tight furnace ( little outside air infiltration)
2. Absence of corner heat loss
3. Homogenous wall construction
4. Constant refractory material over the temperature range.
5. Infinity rapid heating of furnace interior
6. No boundary resistance
7. An empty furnace
 Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering

Ch. 1: Furnace
2- Wall losses during intermittent operation

𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 × 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒

𝜒=
(𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠)2

𝑘𝜌
𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 =
𝑐
Example:
A furnace has brickwork walls 340 mm thick and it operates 8 hours per day. What
will be the wall losses compared to steady state operation.
Ratio of time = 8/24=0.333
From tables with wall material then, 𝜒 = 0.0016 ∗ 24/0.342 =
From figure 7-9 at 𝜒 = ⋯ . 𝑎𝑛𝑑 0.333 to get the value of percent of wall loss for
intermittent furnace.
 Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering

Ch. 1: Furnace
2- Wall losses during intermittent operation
 Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering

Ch. 1: Furnace
2- Wall losses during intermittent operation

Figure 7-9
 Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering

Ch. 1: Furnace
3- Heat loss by radiation through opening
This heat loss depends on the size and orientation of the opening and wall thickness
around this opening and its dimensions. If the wall thickness is very small, the
radiation through opening is like black body radiation.

Example: a furnace front is bricked up with 113 mm wall through which an

observation port of 63 mm by 113 mm is left open. The furnace temperature is 1200
C. How much heat escapes through the hole by radiation
Area of the hole=63*113=7120 mm2. from the figure 7-10 , for black body radiation
at T=1200 C is 0.98 kJ/hr.mm2. then the total heat from black body is
0.98*7120=6978 kJ/hr.
The ratio of smallest hole edge is 63 divided by wall thickness is 63/113=0.55
By using the figure 7-11 at D/X=0.55 for the rectangular hole, the total radiation
factor is 0.45. then the actual heat radiation from the opening is 0.45*6978=3140
kJ/hr.
 Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering

Ch. 1: Furnace
4- Heat loss by furnace gases escaping around doors
 This loss is nearly zero fro electric furnace as the doors is fitted properly.
 This loss is not exceed 2% of the furnace heat input when tightly doors. This loss
may reach as much as 8% or more of the furnace heat input in case of loosely
doors.
 Also, this loss can be seen in the exhaust gases through chimney or through
furnace vents into the stack. This loss is small if the combustion is completed
inside the furnace but this loss increases if the combustion is not completed as the
gases completes their combustion through these openings until exit to surrounding.
 Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering

Ch. 1: Furnace
5- Heat loss due to part of the stock projecting out of the furnace
 In this case, heat is dissipated to the environment through part of the charge is
projecting from inside the furnace domain. Through the heating period, heat is
conducted from the hottest part of the charge to the outside part. Then large portion of
this heat is dissipated to the surrounding by radiation and convection
 An approximation for this heat loss can be calculated as follows by assuming that:
1. Both the furnace and environment temperatures are constant.
2. Steady state heat flow from the hottest part to the cooled outside part charge stub. So
based on these two assumption, the amount of heat dissipated to surrounding is equal
to heat flow from hottest to cooled parts.
Based on these assumptions , the charge stub can be replaced by an equivalent
opening through which heat is radiated. The same calculations in loss 3 can be used.
 Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering

Ch. 1: Furnace
6- Heat loss by conduction through terminals and electrodes
 For air cooled terminals, the heat loss by conduction can be:
𝑙 4ℎ
𝑘𝐴 𝑘𝐷
𝑄=𝑛 (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑎 )
𝑙 𝑙+1 4ℎ

𝑘𝐷
Where,
𝑄 heat transfer flow (kJ/hr)
𝑛 in the number of terminals passing through the furnace walls
𝐴 is the cross sectional area of the terminal, (𝑚2 )
𝑘 is the thermal conductivity of the terminal, (𝑘𝐽/𝑚2 . ℎ𝑟. 𝐶 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘)
𝑙 is the terminal length through the wall which is the wall thickness, (m)
ℎ is the heat transfer coefficient of the outer surface of the terminal, (𝑘𝐽/𝑚2 . ℎ𝑟. 𝐶)
𝐷 is the terminal diameter, (m)
𝑇𝑖 in the temperature of the terminal inside the furnace, C
𝑇𝑎 is the temperature of the surrounding, C
 Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering

Ch. 1: Furnace
6- Heat loss by conduction through terminals and electrodes
 This heat loss may be greater that that estimate if the terminal has a loose sleeve
around its opening. So in this case, heat is dissipated through sleeves and air flow
through gaps.
 The terminal leads are generally good conductors of heat and have a large heat
dissipating surface. If the terminal lead is close to the wall then the equation is
𝑘𝐴
simplified to: 𝑄=𝑛 (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑎 ), where 𝑙 is length from the inside wall to the
𝑙

junction of the lead of the terminal.

 Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering

Ch. 1: Furnace
7- Heat loss by charging and conveying devices
• Cold tongs of the conveying tools absorb heat while in furnace and dissipate this
heat to environment while outside the furnace. The amount of heat loos depends on
the residence time within the furnace and radiation factor of the conveyers.
• Losses to conveying tools and trays are based on their weight and specific heats

8- Heat loss by combustion

It depends where the combustion is complete or not. Also, it depends on the method of
heat recovery from the exhaust gases. This part has been discussed before.
 Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering

Ch. 1: Furnace
9- Sensible heat loss in flue gas
𝑄 = 𝑚 × 𝐶𝑝 × ∆𝑇
Where m is the weight of flue gas (Air +fuel)
𝐶𝑝 is the specific heat
ΔT is temperature difference
10- Loss due to evaporation of moisture present in fuel
 Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering

Ch. 1: Furnace
11-Loss due to evaporation of water formed due to hydrogen in fuel
 Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering

Ch. 1: Furnace
General Fuel Economy Measures in Furnaces
Typical energy efficiency measures for an industry with furnace are:
1) Complete combustion with minimum excess air
2) Correct heat distribution
3) Operating at the desired temperature
4) Reducing heat losses from furnace openings
5) Maintaining correct amount of furnace draught
6) Optimum capacity utilization
7) Waste heat recovery from the flue gases
8) Minimum refractory losses
9) Use of Ceramic Coatings
 Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering

Ch. 1: Furnace
What is a Blast Furnace?

•The purpose of a blast furnace

is to reduce and convert iron
oxides into liquid iron called "hot
metal".
•The blast furnace is a huge,
steel stack lined with refractory
brick.
•Iron ore, coke and limestone
are put into the top, and
preheated air is blown into the
bottom.
 Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering

Ch. 1: Furnace

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 Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering

Ch. 1: Furnace
Why does Iron have to be extracted in a
Blast Furnace???
•Iron can be extracted by the blast furnace because it can be
displaced by carbon.
•This is more efficient method than electrolysis because it is
more cost effective.
 Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering

Ch. 1: Furnace
Solved Example