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 Unit 1
Materials used in electrical equipment

1. What are the fundamental requirements or properties of high conducting

materials? Classify and explain electrical conducting materials in brief. 8
Following are the fundamental requirements or properties of high conducting
materials
1. Low Resistivity: High-conducting materials must exhibit low resistivity,
allowing for efficient flow of electric current with minimal opposition.
2. High Electrical Conductivity: The material should have high electrical
conductivity to enable the easy movement of electrons and support the effective
transmission of electrical signals.
3. Free Electron Availability: Conductors should have a high density of free
electrons that can move easily within the material, contributing to the material's
conductivity.
4. Temperature Stability: The conductivity of the material should remain stable
over a range of temperatures, ensuring consistent performance in varying
environmental conditions.
5. Mechanical Strength and Durability: High-conducting materials need to
possess sufficient mechanical strength and durability to withstand physical stress
and maintain their conductivity over time.
6. Cost-Effectiveness
7. Corrosion Resistance
8. Ductility and Malleability
9. Compatibility with Processing Techniques
10. Environmental Considerations
Electrical conducting materials are classified as

 Low resistivity or high conductivity conducting material

 High resistivity or Low conductivity conducting material
Low Resistivity or High Conductivity Conducting Material
These material used as conductors for all kind of windings required in electrical
machines, apparatus and devices. These material are also used as conductor in
22
transmission and distribution of electrical energy.
Some of low resistivity or high conductivity materials and their properties are
shown in tabular form
Property Copper Gold Aluminum Silver
Resistivity (µΩ-cm) 1.68 2.21 2.65 1.58
Temperature Coefficient of 0.00386/°C 0.0034/°C 0.00429/°C 0.0038/°C
Resistance ( at 20°C)
Melting Point (°C) 1085 1064 660 962
Specific Gravity (g/cm³) 8.96 19.30 2.70 10.49

High Resistivity or Low Conductivity Conducting Material

Materials having High resistivity or Low conductivity conducting are very useful
for electrical engineering products. These material are used to manufacture the
filaments for incandescent lamp, heating elements for electric heaters, space
heaters and electric irons etc.
Some of materials having High resistivity or Low conductivity are listed below:
 Tungsten

 Carbon
 Nichrome or Brightray – B
 Nichrome – Vor Brightray – C

 Manganin

2. Why aluminium is used in overhead lines through it has less

conductivity than copper. 4
Aluminium is used in overhead lines instead of copper because of following
reasons
1. Cost-Effectiveness: Aluminum is more economical than copper, making it a
cost-effective choice for extensive overhead power line installations.
2. Lightweight: Aluminum is significantly lighter than copper, reducing
mechanical stress on support structures and simplifying installation and
maintenance.
3. Adequate Conductivity: While aluminum has lower conductivity than copper,
it provides sufficient electrical conductivity for many power transmission
applications.
23
4. Corrosion Resistance: Aluminum naturally forms a thin oxide layer, offering
corrosion resistance that enhances durability in outdoor conditions.
5. Abundance and Availability: Aluminum is abundant and readily available,
ensuring a stable supply for large-scale production of overhead power lines.
In summary, the use of aluminum over copper for overhead lines is a practical
decision that balances the need for electrical conductivity with considerations
such as cost, weight, and environmental durability.
6. Compare the characteristics of conducting and insulating materials used
in dc machine. 4
In a DC (direct current) machine, both conducting and insulating materials play
crucial roles in different components.
Here's a comparison of the characteristics of conducting and insulating materials
used in DC machines
Characteristic Conducting Insulating Materials
Materials
Electrical High (Allow current Low (Restrict current
Conductivity flow) flow)
Resistivity Low High
Current Flow Permits Restricts
Charge Storage Low (Moves freely) High (Traps charges)
Thermal High Low
Conductivity
Temperature Sensitive to Stable over a range of
Stability temperature temperatures
changes
Mechanical Generally lower Generally higher
Strength
Application in DC Conductors like Insulators like Mica,
Machines Copper and Nomex used for
Aluminum used in insulation between
windings windings and core

Examples: Conducting Materials: Copper, Aluminum

 Insulating Materials: Mica, Porcelain, Nomex etc

24
3. Differentiate between soft and hard magnetic materials with examples
and necessary diagrams. 8
Hard magnetic materials
1. Materials which retain their
magnetism and are difficult to
demagnetize are called hard
magnetic materials.
2. They have large hysteresis
loss due to large hysteresis loop
area.
3. Its Susceptibility and
permeability are low.
4. Its Coercively and retentively
values are large.
5. Magnetic energy stored is
high.
These are also difference
between hard and soft magnetic
materials.
6. Hard magnetic material
retains their magnetism even
after the removal of the applied
magnetic field. Hence these
materials are used for making
permanent magnets.
7. They possess high value of
BH product.
8. These eddy current loss is
high
Soft magnetic materials
Soft magnetic materials are easy to
magnetize and demagnetize.
They have low hysteresis loss due to
small hysteresis area.
It’s susceptibility and permeability are
high.
Its Coercively and retentively values are
less.
Since they have low retentively and
coercively, they are not used for making
permanent magnets.
Soft magnetic materials are used for
making temporary magnets. The domain
wall movement is easy. Hence they are
easy to magnetize. this is measure
difference between hard and soft
magnetic materials.
Magnetic energy stored is less.
it’s eddy current loss is less because of
high resistivity.
25
 Hysterisys curve of soft and hard magnetic materials

4. Discuss in brief about insulating materials with their classification.

State the classes of insulating material. Or
Classify the insulating materials on the basis of their thermal stability.
What are the fundamental requirements of good insulating materials.

Electrical insulating materials are defined as materials which offer a very large
resistance to flow of current, and for that reason they are used to keep the
current in its proper path along the conductor. Insulating materials has poor
conductivity high resistivity that prevents the flow of current. These types of
materials do not allow to transfer of electrons from particle to particle.
The insulator materials are existing in three States, these are Solids, Liquids, and
Gaseous. The following table showing the classification of the insulator materials
according to Substances and Materials, with examples.

Different States Examples of insulator materials

Solids Dry wood, glass, rubber, cotton, silk, Mica, slate,
porcelain, rayon, bakelight, paper, and cellulose
materials, etc.
Liquid Mineral oil, Linseed oil, refined hydrocarbon mineral
oils, spirit, and synthetic varnishes, etc
Gaseous Dry air, carbon dioxide, argon, nitrogen, etc.

26
classes of insulating material based on thermal consideration
Class Max Working Temperature Examples of Insulating
(°C) Materials
Y Up to 90 Mica, Impregnated Paper
A Up to 105 Cotton, Silk, Paper
E Up to 120 Polyester, Polyethylene
B Up to 130 Varnished Cloth, Epoxy
Resin
F Up to 155 Nomex, Polyimide
H Up to 180 Glass, Silicone Rubber
C Above 180 Teflon, Ceramic

These classes indicate the maximum temperature that the insulating material can
withstand continuously without significant degradation of its electrical or
mechanical properties.

The fundamental requirements or characteristics of good insulating

materials.
1. Extremely high insulation resistance.
2. High dielectric strength.
3. Low thermal expansion.
4. Non-inflammable when exposed to arcing.
5. Resistant to oils or liquids, gas fumes, acids and alkalies.
6. Should have no deteriorating effect on the material, in contact with it.
7. Good thermal conductivity.
8. High mechanical strength
9. High thermal strength.
10. Should be resistant to thermal and chemical deterioration.
11. Should be resistant to moisture absorption

27
7. What is ageing? How it can be minimized? What are the advantages and
disadvantages after removal of ageing problem?
Aging is the term used to denote deterioration or degradation of magnetic
performance in service caused by increased in coercive force and hysteresis
loss. Ageing can also mean formation of new substances and stabilization. This
process can occur in benign environments and is influenced by various factors
such as ,
1. Exposure to environmental conditions such as temperature, humidity, and
chemicals can contribute to material ageing .
2. The ageing process is crucial, involving age-related changes in the physical
and chemical properties of metals .
To minimize material ageing, several strategies can be employed:
Protective Coatings: Apply coatings that shield materials from environmental
factors, preventing exposure to harsh conditions and reducing degradation.
Temperature and Humidity Control: Maintain stable environmental
conditions to mitigate the impact of temperature and humidity on material ageing.
Corrosion Prevention: Implement corrosion-resistant materials and employ
corrosion inhibitors to protect against chemical degradation .
Metallurgical Treatment: Optimize metallurgical processes to enhance
material properties and resistance to ageing, particularly in the case of metals .
Regular Maintenance: Conduct routine inspections and maintenance to
identify early signs of ageing and address them promptly, preventing further
deterioration.
The advantages and disadvantages after removal of ageing problem

Advantages:

1. Extended Lifespan: Materials can enjoy a prolonged service life, reducing

the frequency of replacements and associated costs.
2. Improved Performance: Aging-related deterioration can impact
performance; overcoming this allows materials to function optimally.
3. Cost Savings: Reduced maintenance and replacement costs contribute to
overall economic benefits.
4. Reliability: Materials become more reliable, decreasing the risk of
unexpected failures or disruptions.
28
 5. Safety Enhancement: Enhanced material integrity contributes to increased
safety, particularly in critical applications.

Disadvantages:

1. Upfront Costs: Implementing strategies to address ageing may require

initial investment in new technologies or materials.
2. Complex Maintenance: Some advanced materials or treatments might
demand specialized maintenance procedures, potentially increasing
complexity.
3. Environmental Impact: Certain protective coatings or treatments may
have environmental considerations; balancing sustainability is crucial.
4. Technological Obsolescence: Strategies employed to combat ageing
may become outdated as technology evolves, necessitating continuous
updates.
5. Resource Intensiveness: Certain methods to combat ageing may demand
substantial resources or energy.

8. Discuss soft magnetic materials in brief. Give their application from its
commercial aspects.
Soft magnetic materials are characterized by their ability to quickly magnetize
and demagnetize when subjected to an alternating magnetic field. Unlike hard
magnetic materials, which retain magnetization, soft magnetic materials exhibit
minimal hysteresis losses, making them ideal for applications where rapid and
efficient magnetic flux changes are necessary.

Applications from Commercial Aspects:

1. Transformers: Soft magnetic materials, such as electrical steels (e.g.,

silicon steel), are widely used in transformer cores. They facilitate efficient
energy transfer by minimizing energy losses through hysteresis and eddy
currents.

2. Inductors and Coils: Soft magnetic materials play a crucial role in

inductors and coils used in electronic circuits. Their high permeability allows
for effective magnetic flux coupling and energy storage.

3. Magnetic Sensors: Soft magnetic alloys find application in magnetic

sensors, such as magneto resistive sensors, used in various industries,
including automotive and consumer electronics.
29
 4. Electric Motors: Soft magnetic materials are essential components in the
cores of electric motors. Their ability to rapidly switch magnetic states
enables efficient energy conversion in motors, reducing power losses.

5. Magnetic Shielding: Soft magnetic materials are employed in magnetic

shielding applications to redirect and absorb magnetic fields, protecting
sensitive electronic devices from interference.

6. In Magnetic Recording: Alloys like permalloy are used in magnetic

recording heads and media, contributing to the development of magnetic
storage devices such as hard disk drives.

7. Automotive Sensors: Soft magnetic materials are utilized in sensors for

automotive applications, including ABS (Anti-lock Braking System) sensors,
contributing to improved vehicle safety.

8. Wireless Charging: Soft magnetic materials are employed in the design of

components for wireless charging systems, enabling efficient energy
transfer.

From a commercial standpoint, the use of soft magnetic materials in these

applications enhances the efficiency and performance of various devices and
systems, contributing to energy savings, improved reliability, and advancements
in technology.

9. Why CROS (cold rolled grain oriented steel) is known as superior

magnetic material? Why steel of low silicon content “dynamo grade steel”
is preferred in rotating electrical machine .
Cold-rolled grain-oriented steel (CROS) is specifically designed and processed to
exhibit superior magnetic properties, making it an excellent choice for use in
transformers and other electrical applications. The grain-oriented structure in
CROS is key to its enhanced magnetic performance. It is known as superior
magnetic materials because of following reasons.
1. Grain Orientation: The grains in the steel are aligned in a preferred
direction, usually parallel to the rolling direction. This grain orientation
allows for better magnetic properties along the specified axis.

30
 2. Low Core Losses: CROS is known for its low core losses, which means
that it experiences minimal energy loss in the form of heat when subjected
to alternating magnetic fields.

3. High Magnetic Permeability: This important for efficient energy transfer in

transformers.

4. Reduced Eddy Currents: The grain-oriented structure of CROS helps

reduce eddy currents, thereby improving the overall efficiency of electrical
devices.
5. Directional Magnetic Properties
6. High Saturation Flux Density:
7. Thin Gauge Sheets:.

"Dynamo grade steel" refers to a specific type of electrical steel, often used in the
construction of rotating electrical machines such as generators and dynamos.
This steel is typically characterized by low silicon content and is specifically
engineered to meet the requirements of these devices.
low-silicon dynamo grade steel is preferred in rotating electrical machines due to
its favorable magnetic properties, reduced losses, Saturation Magnetization, High
Resistivity, Improved Punchability and Formability, and suitability for
manufacturing processes. These characteristics contribute to the efficiency and
performance of generators and dynamos in various applications.

10. Mention the features and application of magnetic materials used for
steady and pulsating flux application.
Magnetic materials used for applications involving both steady and pulsating flux
must possess a combination of features that cater to the specific demands of
each scenario. Here are the key features for magnetic materials in such
applications:
1. High Saturation Magnetization:
They had ability to reach and maintain high levels of magnetization and essential
for establishing strong magnetic fields in both steady and pulsating flux
applications.
2. Low Coercivity: reduces energy losses and facilitates efficient magnetic
field changes in both scenarios.

31
 3. Low Hysteresis Losses: Enhances overall efficiency, particularly in
steady-state applications like transformers.
4. High Permeability: Critical for ensuring effective energy transfer and
magnetic field stability in both steady and pulsating flux.

Some additional Features for Pulsating Flux:

5. High Saturation Flux Density:.
6. Moderate Coercivity:
7. Good Magnetic Resilience:

Application of magnetic materials used for steady and pulsating flux

1. Transformers:
Magnetic materials with features suitable for both steady and pulsating flux are
used in transformer cores, ensuring efficient energy transfer and stability of the
magnetic field.

2. Electric Motors and Generators:

Magnetic materials are employed in the cores of electric motors and generators,
accommodating cyclic fluctuations in the magnetic field during operation.
3. Inductors and Chokes:
Magnetic materials find application in inductors and chokes for storing energy in
steady flux conditions, as seen in power supplies and electronic circuits.
4. Magnetic Sensors:
Magnetic materials are utilized in the construction of sensors, such as position
sensors and speed detectors, where responses to changing magnetic fields are
crucial.
5. Magnetic Recording Devices:
Magnetic materials are essential in devices like hard disk drives, supporting the
rapid changes in magnetic fields during data recording and retrieval processes.

12. What are the advantages and disadvantages of addition of silicon in

electric sheet materials? Explain.
The addition of silicon to electrical steel, often referred to as silicon steel or
silicon electrical steel, has both advantages and disadvantages. This type of
steel is commonly used in the construction of electrical transformers, generators,
and other magnetic devices. Here are the key advantages and disadvantages:

32
Advantages:

1. Increased Electrical Resistivity:

 Silicon addition raises electrical resistivity, reducing eddy current
losses and enhancing device efficiency.

2. Improved Magnetic Properties:

 Silicon enhances permeability and saturation magnetization,
improving performance in transformers and generators.
3. Reduced Core Losses:
 Silicon decreases hysteresis and eddy current losses, leading to
greater energy efficiency.

4. Enhanced Hardening Response:

 Silicon improves the hardening response during manufacturing,
allowing for controlled magnetic properties.

Disadvantages:

1. Increased Material Cost:

 Silicon steel can be more expensive due to the added silicon and
manufacturing processes.
2. Reduced Ductility and Formability:
 Silicon steel is less ductile and formable, posing challenges in the
manufacturing process.
3. Susceptibility to Embrittlement:
 High silicon content may make the steel more susceptible to
embrittlement, requiring special treatments.
4. Increased Magnetic Core Weight:
 Silicon steel can result in heavier magnetic cores, which may be a
concern in weight-sensitive applications.
In summary, the addition of silicon in electrical steel brings significant advantages
in terms of improved magnetic properties and reduced core losses, contributing
to increased efficiency in electrical devices. However, there are trade-offs,
including increased material cost and challenges in manufacturing processes due
to reduced ductility and formability. The specific application and requirements will
determine whether the advantages outweigh the disadvantages for a given use
case.

33
 Unit 2
Heating and cooling of electric machine

1. Explain the different types of ventilating scheme used in the electrical

machines for cooling purposes.
The different types of ventilating scheme used in the electrical machines for
cooling purposes
1. Radial Ventilation:
 In radial ventilation, the cooling air flows radially, i.e., from the center
to the periphery of the machine.
 This scheme is common in machines where the heat generated is
concentrated near the center or core.
 The cooling air typically passes through the rotor and stator core to
dissipate heat effectively.
2. Axial Ventilation:
 In axial ventilation, the cooling air flows parallel to the axis of the
machine.
 The airflow direction is along the length of the machine, passing
through the rotor and stator in the axial direction.
 Axial ventilation is suitable for machines where the heat is distributed
along the length of the machine.
3. Forced Ventilation:
 Forced ventilation involves the use of external means, such as fans, to
actively circulate air through the machine.
 Fans can be either axial or centrifugal, depending on the design
requirements.
 This method is effective in ensuring a consistent and controlled flow of
cooling air, especially in machines where natural convection is
insufficient.
4. Radial and Axial Ventilation:
 Some machines utilize a combination of radial and axial ventilation for
comprehensive cooling.
 Radial fans may be employed to direct air radially, while axial fans can
ensure airflow along the length of the machine.
 This dual approach helps address specific cooling needs in different
parts of the machine.

These ventilating schemes can be employed based on the design and cooling
requirements of the electrical machine. The choice between radial and axial
34
ventilation depends on factors such as the distribution of heat within the machine,
the geometry of the machine, and the desired cooling efficiency. Forced
ventilation is often used in conjunction with these schemes to enhance overall
cooling performance.

2. What are the heating time constant and cooling time constant? Explain.
The heating time constant and cooling time constant are terms used to describe
the rate at which a system responds to changes in temperature, specifically
during the processes of heating or cooling. These concepts are commonly
applied in the context of thermal systems, such as electronic devices, buildings,
or other systems where temperature regulation is important.

1. Heating Time Constant:

 The heating time constant Theat represents the time it takes for a system
to reach a certain percentage (usually 63.2%) of its final temperature
rise when subjected to a step change in heating power.
Mathematically, it is expressed using the formula Theat= m.C/h where:
 m is the mass of the system,
 C is the heat capacity of the material,
 h is the heating power.
2. Cooling Time Constant:
The cooling time constant Tcool is the counterpart to the heating time constant.
It represents the time it takes for a system to cool down to a certain
percentage (again, usually 36.8%) of its final temperature drop when
subjected to a step change in cooling conditions.
Mathematically, it is expressed using the formula: Tcool= m.C/h where the
symbols represent the same parameters as in the heating time constant.

In both cases, a larger time constant indicates a slower response to changes in

temperature. These time constants are essential for predicting how quickly a
system will reach thermal equilibrium or how long it will take to cool down or heat
up under specific conditions.

35
 Unit 3
Transformer Design
1. Differentiate between core and shell type transformer on the basis of
construction, mechanical design, leakage reactance and cooling.
Characteristics Core type transformer Shell type transformer
Winding In this type, winding In this type, core surrounds the
surrounds the core winding
Limbs It has two limbs It has three limbs
Copper Requires less Requires more
requirement
Lamination Laminations are usually in Laminations are usually in the form
the form of alphabet letter of alphabet letter E and L
L
Windings Primary and secondary Both windings are wound on the
position both windings are wound central limb
on the side limbs
Cooling Better cooling because Natural cooling is not very effective
more surface is exposed so fans are used
to external atmosphere
Repair Easy to repair because Difficult to repair because both
assembly can be windings are on the same limb
dismantled easily

36
Output Output is less because of Output is high because of less losses
more losses so less so efficiency is high in this type
efficiency
Design Easy in design and Comparatively complex
construction
Mechanical Low because of non- Possesses high mechanical strength
strength bracing
Leakage Leakage reactance is not In this type, leakage reactance is
reactance easily possible highly possible
Heat Better heat dissipation Windings are surrounded by core so
dissipation from windings heat dissipation is not easy
Application Used for high voltage Used for low voltage application like
application like power transformers in an electronic circuits
transformers,
autotransformers

2. Distribution transformer should have low value of leakage reactance.

Explain.
Distribution transformers are designed for use in electrical distribution systems to
step down the voltage from higher levels to the levels suitable for end-users. It is
beneficial for distribution transformers to have a low value of leakage reactance
for several reasons:

1. Voltage Regulation: A low leakage reactance minimizes voltage drop,

enhancing the transformer's ability to maintain a steady output voltage under
varying loads.

2. Reduced Energy Losses: Lower leakage reactance results in decreased

copper losses, contributing to higher efficiency and reduced energy wastage.

3. Improved Fault Response: During faults, a transformer with low leakage

reactance delivers a more stable voltage, enhancing system reliability and
minimizing voltage fluctuations.

4. Enhanced Power Factor: A lower reactance helps achieve a better power

factor, indicating efficient power conversion and utilization in the distribution
system.

37
5. Mitigation of Voltage Flicker: Low leakage reactance helps prevent rapid
and repetitive voltage changes, ensuring stable power supply, especially for
sensitive electronic loads.

3. Justify the statement that LV windings is kept near to core and HV

winding is kept outside LV winding.

The positioning of low-voltage (LV) windings near the transformer core and high-
voltage (HV) windings outside is a strategic design choice grounded in multiple
considerations. Electrically, this arrangement minimizes the risk of insulation
breakdown by placing the HV windings in an environment with a lower electric
field strength.

The reduced leakage flux associated with having LV windings closer to the core
enhances overall transformer efficiency. From a thermal perspective, this layout
allows for improved natural convection cooling as heat moves from the inside to
the outside. Mechanically, the proximity of LV windings to the core provides
stability and support, especially beneficial for smaller LV windings. Furthermore,
this design aids in maintaining a uniform temperature distribution within the
transformer.

Economically, the placement of HV windings on the outer layers reduces material

costs for insulation and simplifies the manufacturing process, contributing to cost-
effectiveness. In essence, the positioning of windings in transformers is a
carefully considered configuration balancing electrical, thermal, mechanical, and
economic factors for optimal performance and efficiency.

38
4. How is the flux density in the design of transformer chosen.
In the design of a transformer, the selection of an appropriate flux density (B) is a
pivotal aspect that demands careful consideration of multiple factors. The flux
density plays a crucial role in determining the efficiency, size, and overall
performance of the transformer.

1. Core Material Selection:

The choice of core material determines the permissible flux density, with different
materials having varying saturation levels; typically, materials like silicon steel
with high saturation flux density are chosen for transformers.

2. Efficiency Considerations:
Balancing the flux density is crucial for optimal transformer efficiency, as
operating at a high flux density may lead to increased core losses and reduced
overall efficiency.

3. Temperature Limitations:
The flux density is selected based on temperature limitations to avoid excessive
heating of the core; operating within the satura on limits helps prevent overhea ng
and ensures long-term reliability.

4. Cost and Size Optimization:

Determining the flux density involves a trade-off between core material cost and
size; optimizing these factors ensures a cost-effective design without
compromising performance.

5. Regulatory Standards:
Adherence to industry standards and regulations is vital; selecting the flux
density within prescribed limits ensures compliance with safety and performance
standards for transformers.

5. Explain the design of winding and choice of current density transformer.

Also show that current density in each of the two windings should be equal
for minimum copper loss.
The design of transformer windings involves the planning and configuration of
conductors that carry electric currents within the transformer. This process is
critical in determining the electrical, thermal, and mechanical performance of the
transformer. Key aspects of the design include the arrangement, insulation, and

39
sizing of the conductors to meet specific voltage, current, and efficiency
requirements.
Different winding configurations, such as cylindrical, helical, crossover, or
continuous disc.

Current density refers to the amount of electric current per unit cross-sectional
area of the conductor. It is typically measured in amperes per square millimeter
(A/mm²). In summary, the design of current density involves selecting an
appropriate level of electric current per unit area that balances factors such as
temperature rise, material characteristics, insulation compatibility, and
application-specific requirements. This ensures the safe and reliable operation of
electrical conductors and components.

current density in each of the two windings should be equal for minimum
copper loss by the following points.

1. Ohm's Law:
 Ohm's Law (I=V/R) states that the current I flowing through a conductor
is directly proportional to the voltage (V) and inversely proportional to the
resistance R. In the case of transformer windings, copper losses are
proportional to the square of the current (I2R)
2. Copper Losses:
2
 Copper losses in the windings are given by the formula Pcopper = I1 R1+
I22R2

 where I1 and I2 are the currents in the primary and secondary windings,
and R1 and R2 are their respective resistances.
3. Equal Current Densities:
Assuming equal cross-sectional areas for the primary and secondary
windings, the currents can be expressed as

4. Copper Loss Minimization:

2
 For minimum copper losses, the sum of the squares of the currents I1 +
I22 should be minimized. This occurs when I1= I2 , i.e., the current density
in each winding is equal.
5. Conclusion:Therefore, to minimize copper losses in a transformer, the current
density in each of the two windings should be equal.

40
 Unit 4
Three phase induction motor design
1. Discuss the factors to be considered for selection of magnetic loading in
the case of induction machine.
Selecting the appropriate magnetic loading is essential for achieving optimal
performance, efficiency, and reliability. Here are some factors to consider when
choosing magnetic loading in the case of induction machines:
1. Saturation Limit: Select a magnetic loading below the saturation point to
prevent efficiency losses in the induction machine.

2. Core Losses: Optimize magnetic loading to minimize hysteresis and eddy

current losses in the iron core, enhancing overall efficiency.

3. Efficiency and Power Factor: Strike a balance in magnetic loading to achieve

the desired efficiency and power factor for the specific application.

4. Temperature Rise: Choose a magnetic loading that ensures acceptable heat

generation to avoid detrimental effects on insulation and reliability.

5. Material and Core Design: Consider the magnetic characteristics of chosen

materials and core design when determining the optimal magnetic loading.

6. Cost Considerations: Find a magnetic loading that meets performance

requirements while maintaining cost-effectiveness in manufacturing.

7. Cogging and Noise: Minimize torque ripple and noise by selecting an optimal
magnetic loading for smooth machine operation.

8. Voltage and Frequency: Align magnetic loading with the desired operating
voltage and frequency of the induction machine.
9. Regulatory Compliance: Ensure the selected magnetic loading meets industry
standards and regulatory requirements for induction machines.

41
2. List and explain the different factors to be considered while choosing
specific electric loading in induction motor.
Selecting specific electric loading in an induction motor involves considering
various factors to ensure optimal performance and efficiency. Here are key
factors to consider:
1. Torque Requirements:
 Size the motor to meet both constant and variable torque demands of the
application.
2. Speed Requirements:
 Determine the required motor speed considering variations due to speed
regulation and slip.
3. Temperature Rise:
 Ensure the chosen electric loading prevents excessive temperature rise
for motor reliability.
4. Voltage and Frequency:
 Match the motor's voltage and frequency ratings with the power supply
for proper operation.
5. Efficiency:
 Select an electric loading that maximizes motor efficiency at the intended
operating point.
6. Power Factor:
 Consider power factor at various load conditions, aiming for unity to
minimize reactive power consumption.
7. Starting Torque:
 Ensure the motor provides sufficient starting torque to overcome initial
load inertia during startup.
8. Acceleration Time:
 Choose an electric loading supporting the desired acceleration time for
efficient motor performance.

3. What will be effect if air gap length is too wide in induction machine.
Explain different factors to be considered while selecting suitable air gap
length.
If the air gap length in an induction machine is too wide, it can have several
adverse effects on the performance and efficiency of the machine. The air gap is
the space between the rotor and stator in an induction machine, and its length
plays a critical role in determining the machine's characteristics.

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Effects of Too Wide Air Gap:

1. Reduced Magnetic Flux Density:

 A wider air gap leads to an increase in magnetic reluctance, reducing the
magnetic flux density in the air gap. This, in turn, lowers the
electromagnetic force and torque produced by the machine.
2. Lower Power Factor:
 The wider air gap can result in a lower power factor, reducing the overall
efficiency of the induction machine.
3. Increased Core Losses:
 A wider air gap may increase core losses in the stator and rotor
laminations, leading to reduced efficiency and increased heating.
4. Higher Magnetizing Current:
 The wider air gap requires a higher magnetizing current, contributing to
increased losses and reduced power factor.
5. Increased Vibration and Noise:
 Wider air gaps can lead to increased vibration and noise in the machine
due to the altered magnetic forces and air gap harmonics.
6. Reduced Starting Torque:
 The starting torque of the motor may be adversely affected as a wider air
gap reduces the effective magnetic coupling between the stator and
rotor.

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 Unit 5
Dc machine design
1. What are the factors for the selection of number of poles in a dc
machine.
The selection of the number of poles in a DC machine is a crucial design
parameter that influences its speed, torque, and overall performance. Several
factors need to be considered when determining the number of poles in a DC
machine:
1. Speed Requirement:
 Higher pole numbers generally result in lower speeds, and vice versa,
influencing the machine's performance.
2. Torque Requirement:
 The number of poles affects the torque produced by the machine, which
is crucial for meeting application requirements.
3. Armature Reaction:
 The armature reaction is influenced by the number of poles and needs to
be carefully managed for stable machine operation.
4. Frequency (f) of Armature Current:
 The frequency of the armature current is inversely proportional to the
number of poles. f=PN/60 where N is the speed of the machine.
5. Weight of Armature Core and Yoke:
 The weight of the armature core and yoke increases with the number of
poles, affecting the overall size and weight of the machine.
6. Iron Losses:
 Iron losses, including hysteresis and eddy current losses, are influenced
by the magnetic flux density and can be affected by the number of poles.
7. Size of Machine:
 The physical size of the machine is determined by the number of poles,
and it is crucial to meet space and design constraints.
8. Flash Over:
 The risk of flashover, which is the undesirable electrical discharge over
the surface of insulation, should be considered and managed based on
the number of poles.

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Write short Notes
1. Insulating material and their classification
Electrical insulating materials are defined as materials which offer a very large
resistance to flow of current, and for that reason they are used to keep the
current in its proper path along the conductor.
The insulator materials are existing in three States, these are Solids, Liquids, and
Gaseous. The following table showing the classification of the insulator materials
according to Substances and Materials, with examples.

Different States Examples of insulator materials

Solids Dry wood, glass, rubber, cotton, silk, Mica, slate,
porcelain, rayon, bakelight, paper, and cellulose
materials, etc.
Liquid Mineral oil, Linseed oil, refined hydrocarbon mineral
oils, spirit, and synthetic varnishes, etc
Gaseous Dry air, carbon dioxide, argon, nitrogen, etc.

2. Power transformer and distribution transformer

Power transformer

Power transformers are essential components in electrical power systems, serving

the crucial role of efficiently transmitting electrical energy over long distances.
Operating at high voltage levels, typically ranging from 230 kV to 765 kV, these
transformers are strategically located at substations within power generation and
distribution networks. Their larger and heavier build is a testament to their
capability to handle the demands of high-voltage power transmission, ensuring
electricity reaches substations for further distribution. Equipped with higher power
ratings and advanced cooling systems, power transformers play a critical role in
maintaining the reliability and stability of electrical grids by enabling the
transmission of power from generation sources to distribution points.

Distribution transformer

Distribution transformers are designed for the final stage of power delivery,
stepping down voltage for safe and localized distribution. Operating at lower
voltage levels, typically between 11 kV and 33 kV, distribution transformers are
strategically placed in local distribution networks. Characterized by lower power
ratings and simpler cooling systems, these transformers are smaller and lighter
compared to their power transformer counterparts. Whether installed on utility
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poles, pad-mounted, or in local substations, distribution transformers play a vital
role in supplying electricity to end-users, including residential, commercial, and
industrial areas, meeting the diverse needs of localized regions. They contribute
significantly to the reliability and efficiency of local power distribution systems.

3. Choice of specific loading in electric machine

For the choice of specific loading in electric machine following points are to be
considered.
1. Heat Dissipation and Temperature Rise:
 Specific loading affects heat generation, influencing the machine's
temperature rise. The chosen loading must allow for effective heat
dissipation to prevent overheating.
2. Material Properties:
 The type of materials used in the machine construction influences
specific loading, with considerations for thermal conductivity and heat
dissipation capabilities.
3. Insulation Class and Thermal Limits:
 The insulation class determines the thermal endurance of the
machine. Specific loading is chosen to avoid exceeding the thermal
limits of the insulation system.
4. Cooling Mechanism:
 The cooling method, whether air or liquid, impacts the specific loading.
Effective cooling is essential to manage heat density and maintain
safe operating temperatures.
5. Application Requirements and Efficiency:
 Specific loading is tailored to meet application needs, considering
factors like size, efficiency, and temperature rise to achieve optimal
performance in diverse applications.

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4. Conduction, Convection and radiation
Property Conduction Convection Radiation
DefinitionTransfer of heat Heat transfer Heat transfer through
through a material through the electromagnetic
by direct movement of fluids waves without the
microscopic due to differences need for a medium.
collisions of in temperature.
particles.
Mechanism Energy is Hot fluids rise, while Energy is emitted in
transferred from hot cold fluids sink, the form of
to cold regions creating a electromagnetic
without any bulk continuous waves.
movement of the circulation of heat.
material.
Medium Requires a material Requires the Does not require a
medium (solid, movement of fluids medium.
liquid, or gas). (liquids or gases).
Example Touching a metal Boiling water in a Feeling the warmth of
spoon in hot water. pot. the sun on your skin.

In summary, conduction involves direct contact between materials, convection

involves the movement of fluids, and radiation involves the transfer of heat through
electromagnetic waves. Each process plays a role in different heat transfer
scenarios.

5. Working principle of three phase induction motor

The three-phase induction motor operates on the principle of electromagnetic
induction. It consists of a stationary stator with three windings spaced 120 degrees
apart, connected to a three-phase AC power supply. When power is applied, the
stator produces a rotating magnetic field. Inside the motor, a rotor with conductive
bars or coils is subject to this rotating magnetic field. According to Faraday's law,
an induced voltage is generated in the rotor, leading to the flow of current and the
creation of a magnetic field. The interaction between the rotor's magnetic field and
the rotating magnetic field in the stator produces torque, initiating the rotation of
the rotor. The motor runs at a speed slightly less than the synchronous speed, and
the relative speed difference, known as slip, is crucial for the motor to generate
torque and operate efficiently. In summary, the three-phase induction motor

47
achieves its functionality through the interplay of a rotating magnetic field in the
stator, induction in the rotor, and the resulting torque leading to rotor rotation.

6. Distribution transformer should have low value of leakage reactance

Distribution transformer should have low value of leakage reactance because of
following reasons
 A transformer with low leakage reactance minimizes energy losses in power
transmission.
 Lower leakage reactance ensures stable and consistent output voltage for
improved regulation.
 Reduced leakage reactance leads to less heat dissipation, promoting a cooler
transformer operation.
 Low leakage reactance supports energy conservation and overall system
efficiency.
 Cost-effectiveness is achieved through decreased energy losses in the
transformer.
 Optimized power transfer results from the transformer's low leakage reactance.

7. stepping of core decreases the copper loss

Stepping up the core in a transformer decreases copper loss. The core of a
transformer is the part that carries the magnetic flux and is surrounded by coils of
wire. By increasing the number of turns in the coil on the side with higher voltage
(stepping up), the magnetic field induces a higher voltage with a lower current.
According to the power formula (P = I²R), where P is power (copper loss), I is
current, and R is resistance, decreasing the current reduces copper loss.
Therefore, stepping up the core helps to minimize energy wastage in the form of
heat, making the transformer more efficient in transmitting electrical power across
different voltage levels.
8. The size of machine will be small if it is designed with higher speed for
the same output
The size of a machine can be smaller if it is designed with a higher speed for the
same output due to several factors related to power and torque. The power
transmitted by a machine is given by the equation:

P=T⋅ω/Speed

Where:

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  P is power,
 T is torque,
 ω is angular velocity (related to speed).

For a given power output, increasing the speed (ω) allows for a reduction in torque
(T), and vice versa. Since the torque is directly related to the size and weight of
the machine components, reducing torque at a higher speed enables a more
compact design.

Additionally, higher-speed machines often allow for the use of lighter and more
compact materials, as they experience less stress due to the reduced torque.
9. State the classes of insulating material
classes of insulating material based on thermal consideration
Class Max Working Temperature Examples of Insulating
(°C) Materials
Y Up to 90 Mica, Impregnated Paper
A Up to 105 Cotton, Silk, Paper
E Up to 120 Polyester, Polyethylene
B Up to 130 Varnished Cloth, Epoxy
Resin
F Up to 155 Nomex, Polyimide
H Up to 180 Glass, Silicone Rubber
C Above 180 Teflon, Ceramic

These classes indicate the maximum temperature that the insulating material can
withstand continuously without significant degradation of its electrical or
mechanical properties.

10. Describe the construction of rotating field synchronous machine,

Mention its advantage over rotating armature machine.
A rotating field synchronous machine, commonly known as a synchronous
generator or alternator, is a type of electrical machine that generates alternating
current (AC) by maintaining synchronization between the rotating magnetic field
and the rotor.

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Construction of Rotating Field Synchronous Machine:

Stator: The stationary part of the machine, the stator, contains the armature
windings. These windings are connected to the power supply, producing a rotating
magnetic field when energized with three-phase AC.

1. Rotor: The rotor is the rotating part of the machine and usually consists of a
field winding. The rotor is mounted on a shaft and placed within the stator. The
field winding is excited by direct current (DC) to create a magnetic field.
2. Excitation System: A separate DC power source, often provided by a small
auxiliary generator or an exciter, supplies the DC current to the rotor's field
winding.
3. Bearings and Shaft: The rotor is supported by bearings, allowing it to rotate
freely on the shaft.

advantages over rotating armature machine

1. Robust construction ensures durability and reliability.
2. Higher efficiency is achieved without sliding contacts in the rotor.
3. Improved power factor control enhances overall system performance.
4. Constant speed operation is advantageous for stability in various
applications.
5. Low maintenance requirements, thanks to the absence of commutators and
brushes.

11. Field form factor of dc machine

The field form factor of a DC machine is a dimensionless parameter that
represents the shape or form of the field flux distribution in the air gap of the
machine. It is defined as the ratio of the root mean square (rms) value of the field
flux to the average value of the field flux.

Mathematically, the field form factor (Kf) is expressed as:

Kf =

For a sinusoidal distribution, the field form factor is approximately equal to 1.11.

KF≈1.11

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A sinusoidal distribution is ideal for minimizing harmonic components and
ensuring smooth machine operation. Understanding the field form factor is crucial
in analyzing and designing DC machines to achieve optimal performance.

12. Factors for selecting armature slots in dc machine

1. Tooth per Pole per Phase Rule:
 The "tooth per pole per phase" rule states that the total number of armature
slots (Z) is given by Z=2×P×m, where P is the number of poles and m is an
integer representing the number of slots per pole per phase.
2. Empirical Approach:
 The derivation is empirical, based on practical experience and
considerations of commutation quality. The rule provides a starting point for
selecting the number of armature slots.
3. Commendable Commutation:
 The selection aims to achieve commendable commutation characteristics,
ensuring smooth and reliable current reversal at the brushes.
4. Iterative Adjustment:
 The final determination of the number of armature slots often involves
iterations and adjustments based on various design factors, including
cooling requirements, mechanical strength, and specific application needs.
5. Optimizing Design Factors:
 Engineers refine the slot selection to optimize electrical, thermal, and
mechanical design factors, ensuring the DC machine's optimal performance
in diverse operating conditions.

13. Ageing and its minimization

Aging is the term used to denote deterioration or degradation of magnetic
performance in service caused by increased in coercive force and hysteresis
loss. Ageing can also mean formation of new substances and stabilization. This
process can occur in benign environments and is influenced by various factors.
1. Minimizing ageing in magnetic materials involves selecting high-quality and
stable materials for magnetic components.
2. Control environmental factors, such as temperature and humidity, to reduce
the impact of external conditions on magnetic material ageing.
3. Design with appropriate margins, avoiding overloading and ensuring that
magnetic components operate within specified limits.

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4. Implement regular inspections and maintenance procedures to detect and
address ageing effects early on.
5. Invest in research and development for advancements in materials, aiming to
develop magnetic materials with improved stability and resistance to ageing.

14. Magnetic materials used in ac machines

1. Silicon steel is chosen for core laminations due to its high magnetic
permeability and low core losses, enhancing efficiency in AC machine stators
and rotors.
2. Ferrites, ceramic materials with iron oxide, find use in high-frequency AC
machine applications for their low eddy current losses, notably in transformers
and inductors.
3. Laminated cores, made from materials like silicon steel, reduce eddy current
losses through insulated laminations, widely employed in AC machines to
improve overall efficiency.
4. Soft magnetic alloys, such as permalloy and mu-metal, with high permeability
and low hysteresis losses, are used in specific components like magnetic
shields and sensitive electronic devices in AC machines.
5. Amorphous metal alloys, characterized by a non-crystalline structure and low
core losses, are gaining popularity in AC machine transformer cores,
contributing to increased energy efficiency.

15. How to reduce copper loss in transformer

1. Use larger conductors with lower resistivity to reduce copper losses in
transformers.
2. Optimize winding design for lower resistance paths and enhanced efficiency.
3. Choose high-grade conductors with improved conductivity, such as copper or
aluminum alloys.
4. Implement efficient cooling systems to maintain lower operating temperatures
and minimize resistance.
5. Distribute the load among parallel conductors to decrease individual
resistance and overall copper losses.
6. Operate the transformer at or near its rated voltage to balance magnetic and
copper losses for optimal efficiency.

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