Indian Political Thought 6

Kautilya 20
Political Theory 82
Political Theory- Approaches (Part-3) 90
Perspectives on Indian National Movement (INM) 98
Fundamental Rights 134
Judicial Review 140
Fundamental Rights (Part-2) 142
Doctrine of Basic Structure - 182
Amendment, Doctrine of Basic Structure Politics of Amendment 187

Voting Behaviour 267

73rd Amendment Act 272
73rd Amendment Act (Part-2) 277
73rd Amendment Act 282
74th Constitutional Amendment Act 288
Grassroot Movements, Statutory Bodies 299
Election Commission, Finance Commission 321
Election Commission, Finance Commission (Part-2) 325
Union Public Service Commission 327

Federalism part 3 401

Governor 418
Contemporary Global Concerns – Human Rights 459
Political Science & International Relations
:: PAPER - I :: Political Theory and Indian Politics :
1. Political Theory: meaning and approaches.
2. Theories of state : Liberal, Neo-liberal, Marxist, Pluralist,
post-colonial and Feminist.
3. Justice : Conceptions of justice with special reference to
Rawl’s theory of justice and its communitarian critiques.
4. Equality : Social, political and economic; relationship
between equality and freedom; Affirmative action.
5. Rights : Meaning and theories; different kinds of rights;
Concept of Human Rights.
6. Democracy : Classical and contemporary theories;
different models of democracy— representative,
participatory and deliberative.
7. Concept of power : hegemony, ideology and legitimacy.
8. Political Ideologies : Liberalism, Socialism, Marxism,
Fascism, Gandhism and Feminism.
9. Indian Political Thought: Dharamshastra, Arthashastra
and Buddhist Traditions; Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Sri
Aurobindo, M. K. Gandhi, B. R. Ambedkar, M. N. Roy.
10. Western Political Thought : Plato, Aristotle, Machiavelli,
Hobbes, Locke, John S. Mill, Marx, Gramsci, Hannah Arendt.

Indian Government and Politics

1. Indian Nationalism :
(a) Political Strategies of India’s Freedom Struggle :
Constitutionalism to mass Satyagraha, Non-cooperation,
Civil Disobedience; Militant and Revolutionary Movements,
Peasant and Workers Movements.
(b) Perspectives on Indian National Movement; Liberal,
Socialist and Marxist; Radical Humanist and Dalit.
2. Making of the Indian Constitution : Legacies of the British
rule; different social and political perspectives.
3. Salient Features of the Indian Constitution : The
Preamble, Fundamental Rights and Duties, Directive
Principles; Parliamentary System and Amendment
Procedures; Judicial Review and Basic Structure doctrine.
4. (a) Principal Organs of the Union Government : Envisaged
role and actual working of the Executive, Legislature and
Supreme Court.
(b) Principal Organs of the State Government : Envisaged
role and actual working of the Executive, Legislature and
High Courts.
5. Grassroots Democracy : Panchayati Raj and Municipal
Government; Significance of 73rd and 74th Amendments;
Grassroot movements.
6. Statutory Institutions/Commissions : Election
Commission, Comptroller and Auditor General, Finance
Commission, Union Public Service Commission, National
Commission for Scheduled Castes, National Commission for
Scheduled Tribes, National Commission for Women;
National Human Rights Commission, National Commission
for Minorities, National Backward Classes Commission.
7. Federalism : Constitutional provisions; changing nature of
centre-state relations; integrationist tendencies and
regional aspirations; inter-state disputes.
8. Planning and Economic development : Nehruvian and
Gandhian perspectives; Role of planning and public sector;
Green Revolution, land reforms and agrarian relations;
liberalisation and economic reforms.
9. Caste, Religion and Ethnicity in Indian Politics.
10. Party System : National and regional political parties,
ideological and social bases of parties; Patterns of coalition
politics; Pressure groups, trends in electoral behaviour;
changing socio-economic profile of Legislators.
11. Social Movement : Civil liberties and human rights
movements; women’s movements; environmentalist
movements.

:: PAPER - II :: Comparative Politics and International

Relations Comparative Political Analysis and International
Politics :
1. Comparative Politics : Nature and major approaches;
Political economy and political sociology perspectives;
Limitations of the comparative method.
2. State in Comparative Perspective : Characteristics and
changing nature of the State in capitalist and socialist
economies, and advanced industrial and developing
societies.
3. Politics of Representation and Participation : Political
parties, pressure groups and social movements in advanced
industrial and developing societies.
4. Globalisation : Responses from developed and developing
societies.
5. Approaches to the Study of International Relations :
Idealist, Realist, Marxist, Functionalist and Systems theory.
6. Key Concepts in International Relations : National
interest, security and power; Balance of power and
deterrence; Transnational actors and collective security;
World capitalist economy and globalisation.
7. Changing International Political Order :
(a) Rise of super powers; Strategic and ideological
Bipolarity, arms race and cold war; Nuclear threat;
(b) Non-aligned Movement : Aims and achievements.
(c) Collapse of the Soviet Union; Unipolarity and American
hegemony; Relevance of non-alignment in the
contemporary world.
8. Evolution of the International Economic System : From
Brettonwoods to WTO; Socialist economies and the CMEA
(Council for Mutual Economic Assistance); Third World
demand for new international economic order;
Globalisation of the world economy.
9. United Nations : Envisaged role and actual record;
Specialized UN agencies—aims and functioning; need for
UN reforms.
10. Regionalisation of World Politics : EU, ASEAN, APEC,
AARC, NAFTA. 11. Contemporary Global Concerns :
Democracy, human rights, environment, gender justice,
terrorism, nuclear proliferation.

India and the World

1. Indian Foreign Policy : Determinants of foreign policy;
the institutions of policy making; Continuity and change.
2. India’s Contribution to the Non-Alignment Movement
Different phases; Current role.
3. India and South Asia :
(a) Regional Cooperation : SAARC-past performance and
future prospects.
(b) South Asia as a Free Trade Area.
(c) India’s “Look East” policy.
(d) Impediments to regional co-operation : River water
disputes; illegal cross border migration; Ethnic conflicts and
insurgencies; Border disputes.
4. India and the Global South : Relations with Africa and
Latin America; Leadership role in the demand for NIEO and
WTO negotiations.
5. India and the Global Centres of Power : USA, EU, Japan,
China and Russia.
6. India and the UN System: Role in UN Peace-keeping;
Demand for Permanent Seat in the Security Council.
7. India and the Nuclear Question : Changing perceptions
and policy.
8. Recent developments in Indian Foreign Policy : India’s
position on the recent crises in Afghanistan, Iraq and West
Asia, growing relations with US and Israel; Vision of a new
world order.

Indian Political Thought

● Every thought reflects the peculiar circumstances that
exist in a particular age and a particular society.
Ancient Indian thought reflected the realities of its own
time but Western scholars reject the existence of Indian
political thought.
● The following are the reasons for not accepting the
existence of Indian Political thought:
The prominent political
works in India are the works on statecraft and public
administration. They do not deal with the issue of
justice, equality, liberty, etc. In India, political
thoughts have no autonomous existence.In Ancient
India, politics was a part of religion and ethics.
According to Bhikhu Parekh, Hindu political texts are
largely incidental, fragmentary and patchy. They are
neither critical nor nonprobing enough. However, there
are a number of scholars in the West who gave
recognition to Indian Political Thought.
Views of scholars on Indian political thought are
● Views of Morris Jones: Neglect of Indian thoughts
reflects the parochialism of Western philosophers.
● Views of McIntyre: Neglect of Indian thought will result
in the impoverishment of the West.
● Views of Max Muller: If I have to look around the world
for a country where human minds have dealt most
deeply with the problems of life I will point towards
India.
● Views of Prof. V. R. Mehta: West fails to recognize
Indian political thought because Indian traditions are
quite different from Western traditions. West works in
terms of conflict and there exist dichotomies between
spirit and matter, individual and society, nature and
culture, necessity and freedom.However, Indian thought
considered dichotomies as unfair and artificial.
According to Indian thought, there is no conflict and
dichotomies between spirit and matter, individual and
society, nature and culture, necessity and
freedom.Western thought is tied to the concept of nation
states whereas Indian thought is always cosmopolitan
in nature i.e. Indian thought believes in Vasudev
kutumbakam - the whole world is a family. Western
thought believes in the complete separation of state and
religion but Indian thought believes in the principle
that all religions are equal.

Reasons for questioning Indian Thought:

To maintain the intellectual hegemony of the West, Eastern

thought was questioned. Indian texts were having some
features which were not according to the Western
parameters like Indian texts were primarily focused on
statecraft and public administration.

In Indian thought, politics and religion were not separated

but in Western thought, politics and religion were
completely separated.

Major Traditions in Indian Political Thought:

1. Dharmashastra (Manusmriti)
2. Dandashastra or Arthashastra (Kautilya)
3. Buddhist tradition (Shramanic tradition)

Topic Dharmashatra and Dandashastra Tradition

In the Indian context, politics and morality were not

separate or different. It is the amount of focus or
differences of degree which was given to Dharma Or Danda.
In Indian context, these two are the prominent traditions
i.e., Dharmashastra and Dandashastra.

According to Bhikhu Parekh, Dharmashastra and

Dandashastra traditions have difference of degrees than of
kind. According to Bikhu Parekh, in the Indian context
concepts of Dharmashastra and Dandashastra are always
present together i.e., whether it is Dharmashastra or it is
Dandashastra the difference was the degree in the sense
that in Dharmashastra, Danda is at the periphery and
Dharma is at the centre whereas in Dandashastra, Dharma
is at the periphery and Danda is at the centre.
If we compare the Indian tradition with Western tradition,
we can see that Western tradition differs in the qualitative
term. In fact, the Realist tradition in the modern age differs
from the idealist tradition of ancient Greece age because in
the idealist tradition politics and ethics are present together
whereas in the Realist tradition politics and ethics are
completely separated.

So, we cannot simply put Indian tradition in the category of

Western tradition. Even the so-called Realist tradition of
India never loses sight of Ethics. It is just a matter of
degree. This is the reason that many scholars believe that
instead of comparing Machiavelli with Kautilya we should
compare Kautilya with Aristotle.

Indian tradition shows the essential continuity if we take

the work of Manu and Kautilya. In the areas of politics, we
see similar types of concepts with respect to the origin of
the state, its nature, functions, principles of taxation,
objectives of the state and foreign policy of the state. There
are a lot of similarities between different Indian traditions
and the differences between different traditions are
superficial.

In Indian tradition, we find the theory of the origin of the

state. In Indian tradition, the state emerged when people
wanted to change their situation because of anarchical
conditions prevailing. They requested God and God in turn
created the institution of Kingship. King had a divine
personality because God had given some virtues to the
King. However, King never had divine rights like in Western
tradition. King was always bound by Dharma. King was
always under Dharma. Thus, we can see that from the
beginning India adopted the concept of the constitutional
state.

In Buddhist tradition also, the state originated as a result

of social contract. Though Buddhist tradition was critical of
Hindu tradition. In Buddhism, we find the concept of the
republican form of government. People selected from
among themselves the honest and noblest of all persons as
king. Here, also the king was under Dhamma.

Comparison between Hindu Tradition and Buddhist

Tradition:

The ancient Hindu tradition in the area of foreign policy is

realist. Manu as well as Kautilya talks about the four-fold
policy i.e., Sama, Dama, Danda, Bheda. In comparison to
Hindu tradition, Buddhist tradition represents the tradition
of idealism.

The foreign policy is based on the principle of Panchsheel

which is based on the philosophy of Ahimsa on
Non-Violence. Buddhist tradition is egalitarian whereas
Hindu tradition is hierarchical.

Buddhist tradition believes in gender equality as well as

equality among people. Buddhism was a rebel child of
Hinduism due to Casteism prevailing in Hindu society.
Buddhism gives importance to the individual which is why
this is also called a shramanic tradition.

Comparison with West:

In the Western tradition, we see the theory of the state
which talks about the state as a natural institution. The
Socratic tradition was the dominant tradition of ancient
Greek times and was critical of the pragmatic tradition
which adhered to the contractual theory of the state.

In medieval times, we find the theory of divine rights of the

king which gives absolute power to the king. In the West,
the theory of constitutional state emerged against the
divine rights tradition in modern times (from the time of
Locke).

Origin of State in India Anarchy like the situation was

existing in society and to remove anarchy, men created god
and god created a king. God imparted his eternal qualities
to the king. Different Gods like Indra, Varun, Agni, Surya
and Kuber and Yama are represented in the king. It means
King is the personification of god. It means the king is
superior to the ordinary man. Manu talks about the divinity
of the king but he doesn't give divine rights to the king.
King is obliged to follow Raj Dharma. King is not absolute.
The king must secure the welfare of his people. The king is
bound to his duties.

Organs of State: In India, the organic theory of state

existed. It means there is a tradition to explain the state in
the context of various organs of the state. It is known as
the Saptanga theory of state. It means there are 7 limbs of
the state.

Limbs of state:
King
Kosha
Mitra
Janpada
Danda
Amatya
Durga (fort)
All these limbs combined to form the sovereignty of the
state. King is at the centre. He is the most important part of
Saptanga theory but still king is dependent on other limbs
of the state.

Types of State:
Manu calls the state as Rashtras and he says there are 4
types of Rashtras:
Mitra Rashtra
Ari Rashtra i.e. Enemy Rashtra
Udasin Rashtra (Neutral Rashtra)
Madhyama Rashtra

Functions of state:
Welfare of people
Protection from external invasion
Maintenance of law and order
The state has to ensure that all the Varna must follow their
Dharma The state should control the prices of commodities
The state should promote culture and charity.
This shows that Manu Smriti talks about the theory of the
Welfare state.
Indian tradition differs from the ancient Greek tradition,
where there was no difference between society and state.
However, in Indian tradition, the state is a Regulator of
society. It possesses Danda i.e. power to punish. Hence, the
Ancient Indian idea of the state also comes closer to the
modern idea of the state. In modern times, Western liberal
tradition differentiated between state and society. Max
Weber associated the state with a monopoly to use force in
a particular society.

Ideas about King:

Since the king is created by god. He possesses the qualities
of a god. He should belong to either Kshatriya or Brahmin
Varna.
King should be a learned man.
King should know the Vedas.
King should have control over his senses.
King shouldn't sleep during the day time.
King should not indulge in hunting, gambling and
pleasure-seeking. We find similarities between Manu and
Plato. Both of them King is an embodiment of knowledge
and sacrifice. Both Plato and Manu are elitists.

Duties of King
The king must ensure Dharma in society.
King should punish those who break social order.

Manu
Manu is treated as the first lawgiver in Indian tradition.
Manusmriti is the oldest book in Hindu laws. According to
Puranic tradition, Manu is treated as the father of the
human race. It means he is treated as the founder of society
and moral order
Manusmriti belongs to the Dharmashastra tradition. It is
based on the Vedas. It is an address to kings and not to
Scholars. It deals with social order. Manu explores the issue
of 4 Purusharthas- Dharma, Artha, Kama, Moksha. He
discussed the issue of Dharma at length.
Note: There is nothing original in Manu's work. Manusmriti
is the collection of views of a number of previous scholars.

The idea of King:

Manu's theory is known as semi contractual theory of the
state. Since men were living in the state of King, they should
aspire to achieve Yogashema i.e. welfare of all.
The other Function of the King includes executive,
legislature, judicial, administrative, military, religious,
patronage of culture, collection of taxes, and respecting
Brahmins.

Nature of authority of King:

King does not have absolute power. According to K.P.
Jaiswal, the king was the servant of the people. King did
not have divine rights but only divine personality whereas,
in the West, the king enjoyed divine Rights also (Divine
Right's Theory of King i.e., the King can do no wrong).

Manu's Theory of Law and Punishment:

Manusmriti is known as the most important book in the
Hindu Code of Law. Manu discusses Various courses of law:-
Vedas
Customs and usages
the consciousness of the king
deeds of great men
In the modern sense of the term, it can be called a pluralist
theory of law.
Human Rights

Human Rights Background:

The concept of human rights originated after the second
world war. It is based on the experience of the atrocities
committed by Hitler on Jews.
Till World War second, the principle of sovereignty of the
state was considered sacrosanct. Hence, there was no scope
for intervention by the international community in the
domestic affairs of the state. However, it was realized that
there is a need to dilute the principle of state sovereignty.
There is a need to recognise the role of the international
community.
In case a state violates the rights of its all citizens or
person living in the state it becomes the responsibility of
the international community to come forward for the
protection of the rights.

Meaning of human rights:

Human rights are those conditions of life that allow us to
develop and use our human qualities of intelligence to
satisfy our spiritual needs. We cannot develop our
personalities in their absence as they are fundamental to
our nature. Without them, we cannot live as human beings.
According to the theory of human rights, irrespective of
caste, class, gender, or nationality, some basic minimum
rights should be available to all just because they are
humans. Hence, whether the constitution of the country
recognises or not, it will be assumed that people possess
human rights. The fundamental theme of human rights is
universalism.
Generation of human rights:
The modern concept of human rights is comprehensive in its
nature and content. It includes 3 types of rights which are
popularly known as 3 generations of human rights.
1. Civil and political rights
2. Economic, social and cultural rights
3. Emerging collective or group rights
Several analysts also claim that a fourth generation of
human rights is emerging which would include rights that
cannot be included in the third generation, especially in
relation to technological development.

The content of human rights goes hand in hand with the

state of development of civilization at any given time. For
example, people had started demanding for- Personal data
protection
Right to access to digital data

Note: There is no agreement on the nature, meaning and

content of human rights. The concept of human rights is
very much contested not only between East and West but
also between developed and developing countries. Each
group of nations has a different perception of human rights.
Developed countries of the West believe in the supremacy of
the individual and they assert the primacy of civil and
political rights while the developing countries of the East
focus on community and unconditional priorities of the
class interest. They give priority to economic, social and
cultural rights.

Evolution of human rights:

With the establishment of the UN in 1945, the evolution of
the international bill of rights began. In 1948, the UN
adopted a universal declaration that included civil political
and socio-economic rights in a single document.
The Universal Declaration of human rights was adopted in
1948. It is based on-
Locke’s theory of natural rights- that is those rights which
are granted to us by nature and which are inalienable
rights that if rights which cannot be separated.
Immanuel Kant's theory of the concept of dignity-According
to Immanuel Kant, it is a categorical imperative to treat
every man with dignity. Men are different from animals,
men possess reason. Hence, all human beings deserve to be
treated with respect.
Since UDHR was not a legally binding document. The Un
subsequently adopted covenants on civil and political rights
and Socioeconomic rights
These two covenants along with UDHR are popularly known
as the international bill of Rights.
This covenant seeks to promote and protect human rights
that include- The right to work in a just and favourable
condition.
The right to social protection- to have an adequate
standard of living The right to education and the
enjoyment of benefits of cultural freedom and scientific
progress.

Features of human rights:

Every individual is equally entitled to human rights without
discrimination. These rights are interdependent, interrelated
and indivisible.
There are the following 5 essential features of human rights
1. Equality 2. Universality 3. Invisibility 4. Inalienable 5.
Permanent

1. Equality: all human beings are to be treated equally,

which means all should be given equal rights.
2. Universality: It means irrespective of nationality all are
to be treated as humans, Hence, all should possess some
basic minimum rights. So far, there is no agreement on
what rights will be called a basic minimum. There is a big
difference in the approach of the Western and non-western
countries.
Note: In the name of universal values, western countries
promote Western values which is seen by some countries as
an attempt at cultural imperialism. The political leader of
known Western countries cultural relativistic perspective.
For example, leaders from south East Asia have called for
Asian values. However, western scholars consider it a
justification for authoritarianism.
For supporters of Asian values, social and economic rights
will have primacy but for Western world civil and political
rights are minimum guarantees.
3. Invisibility: Human rights are to be enjoyed by human
beings as an individual. Human rights are based on the
concept of the autonomy of man.
4. Inalienable: Human rights cannot be taken away from
individual means human beings possess these rights by
virtue of being a human being.
5. Permanent: These rights are not based on circumstances.
Men possess these rights on permanent bases.

Indian Political Thought Manu and Kautilya

Manu (Continued)

Administration of Laws:
❖ King should administer the law with the help of Brahmins
and other learned councillors.
❖ The King should come to the Court in dignified attire, and
he should not wear ornaments.
❖ In the absence of a King, learned Brahmin can
administer the law.
❖ Women cannot be made an eye witness in the
administration of Justice.

Theory of Taxation:
❖ Taxation should be adequate for the smooth functioning
of the State. ❖ Taxation should be moderate.
❖ Kings should take taxes like bees, as they take their food
little by little.
❖ A King who takes tax but does not give protection to
people goes to hell.
❖ The King should take one-sixth part of the produce of
trees, and other produce from the people in case of fertile
land.
❖ Taxation of land was dependent on the quality of land-
one-sixth from the fertile land, one-eighth from the less
fertile land and one-twelfth from the least fertile land.

Manu’s views on Diplomacy:

❖ Manu’s views about ambassador is next only to the King.
❖ He should be honest, skillful, loyal, fearless, and should
know the proper time and situation.
❖ He must be in a position to understand the weaknesses of
foreign policy.
❖ He must be able to interpret the gestures and actions of
foreign kings.
❖ Diplomacy must adopt the four-fold policy which are
following-
➢ Sama i.e., pacific settlement of dispute through
negotiation.
➢ Dama i.e., economic diplomacy
➢ Danda i.e., army
➢ Bheda i.e., espionage
❖ These four-fold policies are considered central to
diplomacy. They are also related to the well-being of the
State.

Kautilya
❖ In ancient Indian tradition, Arthashashtra belongs to the
tradition of Dandashashtra.
❖ There is a continuity between Dharmashashtra and
Dandashashtra tradition. Hence, Arthashashtra tradition is
also not completely devoid of Dharmasastra tradition. It is
more realistic in comparison to Dharmashashtra.
❖ Arthashashtra deals with political economy. The task of
the King was to give protection to land and people as well
as increase the wealth of rashtra.
❖ For Kautilya, land is considered as the most essential
commodity and the task of the King was to give protection
to land and people as well as to increase the welfare of the
people along with the wealth of rashtras.
❖ Kautilya’s approach is more pragmatic compared to
Manu.
❖ Kautilya is primarily concerned about how power can be
managed and how effective administration of the State can
take place. In ancient times, land was the major source of
wealth, that is why Kautilya has spent major time in
explaining the importance of land as the most precious
commodity. Hence, a large part of Arthashastra deals with
the preservation of territory, statecraft, maintenance of
territory, etc.
❖ Although Arthashashtra was primarily associated with
Kautilya. Other scholars have also written about
Arthashastra, Kautilya is not the only person writing about
the Arthashastra. It is said that later scholars have also
written about the Arthashastra.
❖ Kautilya is treated as the greatest Indian scholar on
Statecraft and diplomacy. Kautilya is known for his fearless
account of actual practices in politics.
❖ Today, Kautilya is considered as an inspiration for the
scholars of the realist school of thought.
❖ Important scholars have produced scholarly works on
Kautilya like U. N. Ghoshal.

Kautilya

Kautilya’s Theory of State

The Origin of State in Kautilya is almost similar to Manu.
According to Kautilya, the state originated when people
were tired of Matsyanyaya i.e., big fishes eating smaller
ones. People selected Manu to be their King. The term of
settlement was that one-sixth of the grains produced and
one-tenth of gold and merchandise in return to the security
the king will provide

Definition of State
From Rigveda to Shukraniti, no one defined the term State.
Kautilya was the first person to define the term state. His
definition of State comes quite near to the modern-day
definition of State. No territory deserves the name of State
unless it is full of people i.e., controlled by absolute
authority.

Saptanga Theory of State

It is an organic theory of State discussing various organs of
State. King is central to Saptanga Theory yet king requires
assistance to run the administration successfully. Thus, the
State comprises different parts and not simply a king.

1. King
King is the son of the Gods and divine punishment falls on a
person who treats the king with disrespect. King grants
favour like Indra and punishes like Yama.
Kautilya discusses about 3 types of Kings:
(a) Rajan
(b) Dwirajya i.e., territory controlled by 2 kings.
(c) Vairajya i.e., territory controlled by a foreign king.
Yogakshema is the objective of the King i.e., welfare of all.
King plays an important role in providing facilities to
people and also king is responsible for maintenance of the
minor, aged and destitutes.
Thus, the Indian state was never a police state, it was
always a welfare state. Subjects can revolt against the King
if a King does not fulfill his duties.
It means authority of the King is based on the consent of
the governed. According to Kautilya, happiness of the King
lies in the happiness of the subjects. Kautilya suggested the
King to get rid of an unworthy son and Kautilya also
suggested a son to get rid of an unworthy King.
So, Kautilya for the position of King supported merit. This
was one of the reasons that Chandragupta Maurya, who
was a commoner, was made Samrat of India by Kautilya.

Nature of the Authority of King

It is not absolute. There are various restraints on the King.
King is educated in such a manner that he knows the proper
use of authority. Ministers keep a moral check upon the
King and remind the King of his mistakes. People can revolt
against the King.

2. Amatya
According to Kautilya, one wheel alone cannot turn the cart
in motion. No ruler how competent he is, can run the
administration alone. Kautilya calls Amatya as the second
most important element of sovereignty.
According to Kautilya, the number of Amatyas should be
more than two because it is difficult to have control over
one Amatya; two Amatyas can join hands together against
the King. Hence, at least there should be three Amatyas.
Amatyas are important but the King cannot trust them
completely. They are a potential threat to the King. King
should keep a regular check on the integrity of the
Amatyas.

Characteristics of Amatyas:
❖ He should be a native man, wise, bold, and skillful. ❖ He
should not be fickle minded.
❖ He must follow the King.
❖ He must try to remove the defects of the King.
❖ He should be able to install the successor of the King in
case of death of the King.
❖ He should be able to protect the successor.
According to Romilla Thapar, a well developed ministerial
system and administration was the strength of the Mauryan
Empire.

3. Durga
It is the symbol of strength. It reflects offensive as well as
defensive power of state. Durga must be strategically
located. Kautliya discusses about the water fortification,
desert fortification, and mountainous fortification.

4. Janapadas
Janpad is a rural area. It is divided into various divisions
and each division was further divided into villages.

5. Kosha
The Treasury is important to maintain the kingdom.
Without a treasury, it is impossible to keep the army loyal
and to achieve a welfare state. It is inherited by the King
and it should be sufficient to face challenges.

6. Danda
It talks about hereditary army. Army should comprise of
Kshatriyas, other varnas can also be considered depending
on needs.
Army must be well trained, loyal and full of strength.

7. Mitra
They are very important. Mitra should be one who is not
only ready to help but who is capable of helping. Mitra is an
important part of Kautilya’s theory. Having Mitra is an
acknowledgement of one’s power. Mitra is an important
element for diplomatic purposes as well.

Thus, for Kautilya, all the elements of Sovereignty constitute

the strength of the State. King is the centre and the wise
king can convert weak elements into elements of strength. A
wicked King brings destruction not only to himself but also
to elements of sovereignty as well as the Kingdom. Kautilya
talks about merit and integrity in administration. His theory
of legitimacy appears to be quite modern. He says that the
objective of the King is to ensure the welfare of his people.
Thus, his views are also quite similar to the views of
Aristotle who also believes that normal functions of the
State is to achieve welfare of the people. Aristotle calls
those states which do not perform these functions as
perverted States. In Kautilya the powers of the King are
given not for his own benefits but for the benefit of people.
King is not above the law. Thus, Kautilya also establishes a
Constitutional Monarchy.

Criticism
❖ Women have not been given a central position in
Administration by Kautilya.
❖ Kautilya attaches a lot of importance to hereditary
Amatyas and army men.
❖ Sometimes it appears that Kautilya is not modern and
prefers hereditary monarchy. Hence, his ideas are far from
the Republican form of Government.

Kautilya (Part 2)
Kautilya’s views on Diplomacy
Kautilya was the first person to visualise on all India state.
According to him, no state can exist in isolation. State
remains in existence in relations with each other.
According to Kautilya, States compete for power. Kautilya
feels that no state is satisfied with what it has hence, each
state wants to extend its resources. No state can be stable
until it manages its foreign relations properly. Relations
among states are like laws of the jungle where only the
strength of the lion prevails.
Thus, Kautilya adheres to the power view of International
politics. It means power is the ultimate reality of
International politics.
Kautilya advocates offensive foreign policy.

Offensive Foreign Policy

It is not sufficient that the State is capable of self defence,
it is equally important that the State should be in a position
to inflict injury. Like Machiavelli, Kautilya also discusses
about the policy of acquisition of territory so that acquired
territory can be ruled and the State's territory can be
expanded.
According to Kautilya, only expansion of territory is not
enough, the territory is to be kept peacefully. His foreign
policy reflects the continuity of Indian tradition. Like Manu,
Kautilya also talks about four-fold theory i.e., sama, dama,
danda, bheda.
There is nothing original in Kautilya. Infact, Kautilya
systematised the existing ideas. Kautilya is more realist
than Manu. He allows the King to use all kinds of means to
achieve its aims. Stephen P. Cohen traces the realistic
posture of India’s Foreign Policy in present time with
Kautilya’s Arthashastra.
Infact, Indian Foreign Policy has taken a lot of ideas from
Kautilya’s Arthashastra for example, India’s Necklace of
Diamond strategy under which India has been establishing
strategic partnership with China’s neighbours is greatly
influenced by the Kautilya’s Mandala’s theory in which
Kaultiya advocates that smaller nations should collaborate
with each other and join hands to stop bigger powers into
its own territory.

Kautilya’s Mandala Theory

Purpose of Mandala Theory is to create a balance in the
system so that aspirations of an expansionist power can be
curbed.
According to Kautilya, neighbour’s neighbour should always
be your friend because the immediate neighbour of a
Nation is its natural enemy.
Mandala literally means circles. So, Mandala Theory has
been used by Kautilya while explaining foreign relations of
a country. Kautilya gives a lot of advice to the King for
expansion of territory as well as for protection of territory.
According to Kautilya, a King aspiring for expansion should
make an equal number of friends who can help in fulfilling
his ambitions. Kautilya says that weaker states for their
protection should collaborate with other weaker states to
protect themselves from powerful neighbours.
According to Kautilya, weaker nations should establish
friendly connections with equal status nations to protect
themselves. Kautilya in his mandala theory talks about a
circle of states in which the most important one is vijigishu.
Vijigishu is the most important king in his Mandala theory
along with other kings who are having similar goals.
Strength of a nation decides the position of Vijigishu.
Kautilya also talks about ari. Ari is the immediate
neighbour. According to Kautilya, the immediate neighbour
is a natural enemy.
Mitra is Ari's neighbour. For example, China’s neighbours in
contemporary times are India’s friends. These are the most
important actors of his Mandala theory.
Other important components of Mandala Theory include:
Ari-Mitra: Friend of ari, shares border with mitra
Mitra-Mitra: Friend or an ally of friend
Ari Mitra-Mitra: Friend of enemy’s friend
Parshnigraha: Enemy in the rear of the Vijigishu
Aakranda: Friend in the rear behind Parshnigraha
Parshnigraha-asara: Friend of Parshnigraha behind
Aakranda Aakranda-asara: Friend of Aakranda behind
Parshnigrahasara Madhyama: Indifferent kingdom
Udasina: Neutral Kingdom.
The Madhyama or an indifferent king could turn out to be
an ally or an enemy and intervene in favour of the
victorious king by supporting him or decide to be neutral
(udasina) or an enemy (ari). The policy of vijigishu should
be to turn as many of the kings as possible into allies or
take neutral position.

Relevance of Mandala Theory in Contemporary times:

Similar arrangements like Mandala Theory can be seen in
India’s foreign policy in recent years.
China’s expansionist policies have destabilised the peace
and stability of the whole region which has made India to
collaborate with like-minded countries like Japan and other
China’s neighbours for containment of China.

Comparison between Kautilya and Machiavelli

The tradition of comparison between them began with G. V.
Botazzi. He compares Kautilya with Thucydides, who is
known as the forerunner of Machiavelli. Hence, scholars
started comparing Kautilya with Machiavelli.
A. V. Keeth also finds a parallel between the thoughts of
Kautilya and Machiavelli. Nehru in his Discovery of India
calls Kautilya as Indian Machiavelli. Stephen P. Cohen also
compares Kautilya with Machiavelli.

Reasons for Similarities:

1. The Prince as well as Arthashastra deals with statecraft.
2. Both books are like directions to aspiring Princes.
3. Both books are concerned with the resolution of problems
of the motherland.
4. Both deal with internal as well as external policies of
state.
5. Both consider acquisition of land necessary for the good
health of citizens.
6. Both gave the preliminary idea of Balance of Power.
7. Both believe in the selfishness of the human race.
8. Supremacy of national interest is found in both the
thinkers.
9. Both have a utilitarian approach to religion.
10. Kautilya allows Vijigishu to use spies in disguise of
sadhus to frighten the enemy and defeat him morally.

Similarities between the two should not be stretched too far.

The two scholars belong to different time and space. They
belong to two different traditions. The differences between
Kautilya and Machiavelli is with respect to their approach
related to ethics and religion. Kautilya’s Vijigishu is not
above morality. He is always tied to Rajdharma whereas
Machiavelli’s Prince is above morality. He is a creator of
morality. He is free to take any actions if ends justify the
means.
In Machiavelli, there is strict separation between religion
and state. He imitates western tradition of Secularism. In
Kautilya, it is the State's responsibility to maintain Dharma
in society. Kautilyan State performs religious functions also.

Some Scholars compare Kautilya with Aristotle also on

following grounds:
1. Aristotle was the teacher of Alexander and Kautilya was
the teacher of Chandragupta Maurya.
2. Both of them were contemporaries.
3. Both of them considered state as necessary for virtuous
life.

Though there are a lot of similarities between Kautilya and

Machiavelli, there are substantial differences also. One can
say that it is not justified to say that Kautilya is Indian
Machiavelli. He is prior to Machiavelli and there are
substantial differences between the two also.

Contribution of Kautilya
He has helped Chandragupta Maurya in establishing his
empire. Chandragupta Maurya adopted Kautilya’s teachings
into practice. He entered into alliance with enemy kings of
Nanda to end the empire of Nandas. Bindusara also
continued with the Kautilyan tradition. The Mauryan empire
could secure a long period of stability and security by
adhering to the principles of Kautilya.
Arthashastra has theoretical significance also. It leads to
the development of the theory of International Politics also.
It gave the concept of Balance of Power. It has a special
place in the discipline of Public Administration.

Gandhi

Gandhian concept of Non-violence

The Gandhian concept of Non-violence is the most
important running thread throughout Gandhian philosophy.
It is associated with-
(a) Gandhi’s views on Nature- According to Gandhi, man is
a part of Mother Nature and man should remain in close
cooperation with Mother Nature. Man should not try to
dominate Mother Nature. Man is part of a whole called
Mother Nature and part should not try to dominate the
whole. So, the Gandhian concept of nonviolence is
applicable for the preservation of nature as well.
(b) Gandhian concept of Ends and Means- This concept also
involves Gandhian idea of non-violence. For Gandhi, purity
of means is more important than the end itself.
The Gandhian concept of non-violence can be used as a tool
of analysis to understand violence in many parts of the
world. This tool can be utilised for ending violence and
bringing peace.
The Gandhian concept of non-violence broadly involves his
concept about man and his concept about society.

Gandhian concept of Man

According to Gandhi, the element of reason differentiates
between Man and Animal. Animals cannot differentiate
between what is right and what is wrong. They are only
interested in satiating their needs at any cost whereas the
purpose of Man’s life is different.
Purpose of Man’s life is to move towards ultimate good, that
is, welfare of all and the highest purpose of Man’s life brings
Man near to God. According to Gandhi, Man can realise his
true self and true objectives by following the principles of
Non-violence.

Concept of Society
According to Gandhi, society is made up of various parts
which are interconnected and interdependent. Man is a part
of society and the purpose of society is to create the
conditions under which growth of Man would be possible.
The Gandhian idea of nonviolence is a social concept to
create order in society and to ensure development of
individuals. It is a moral concept for creating a good
society and an ideal state i.e Ram Rajya.
Note: Ram Rajya, according to Gandhi, is a situation when
there is complete order in society and everybody is free
from wants and miseries.

Aspects of Ahimsa
Ahimsa broadly involves two aspects- Negative aspects and
Positive aspects.
Positive Aspect of Ahimsa- It is related to a sense of “we”
feeling and cooperation with each other. According to
Gandhi, one can reach near to God by sacrificing oneself for
the sake of others.
Negative Aspect of Ahimsa- It involves not using violence
against anyone either directly, indirectly or even in
thoughts. According to Gandhi, use of violence against
human beings is violence against God because God resides
in every individual. Gandhi says that one should not hate
the sinner rather one should hate the sin.

General Explanation of Ahimsa

According to Gandhi, Principle of Ahimsa involves self
sacrifice for the sake of larger society. By following
principles of Ahimsa, one comes near to God. The Gandhian
concept of Ahimsa makes human beings near to God.
According to Gandhi, the concept of Ahimsa should be
practised not only for human beings but also for nature and
animals. Ahimsa should also be practised even at the level
of one’s thinking. Gandhi says that Ahimsa is an instrument
of a strong person. It is an instrument to realise God.
Ahimsa is a weapon of a morally and spiritually strong
person.
Ahimsa is also a source of morality. If Ahimsa is practised
in one’s life then man comes near to God. According to
Gandhi, Ahimsa is a rule of his life. Gandhi says that the
concept of non-violence or Ahimsa is not related to reason
only but it is also related to one’s conscience.

Relevance of the Gandhian Concept of Non-Violence

With increasing violence across the world, it becomes
important for human beings to practise non-violence.
Problems of terrorism, ethnic conflicts, etc can be tackled
with the help of Gandhian philosophy of Non-violence.
Phenomena of Climate Change can be tackled by practising
Gandhian philosophy of Non-violence. According to Gandhi,
there is enough in this world for everyone’s need but not
enough for anyone’s greed. Human beings are a part of
mother nature but in reality human beings are trying to
dominate mother nature which is causing a crisis like
situation for mankind. Therefore, it is imperative for
mankind to practise nonviolence for ensuring sustainable
development, and preventing climate change.

Gandhian Theory Continuity of Ends and Means

The Gandhian concept of Ends and Means has been a part
of the Indian way of life since time immemorial. It has been
a part of Indian tradition. As per Indian philosophy,
reaching one’s goals through wrong means will never give
good results.
Essential continuity of Ends and Means can also be logically
derived from Gandhian Principle of Non-violence. According
to Gandhi, in order to achieve ideal state or ram rajya,
non-violence must be practised. Gandhi believed that an
ideal state can never be achieved by following unethical
and violent means.
The Gandhian concept of continuity of Ends and Means
comes closer to the idealist tradition of the west which was
represented by Plato and Aristotle. Both of them said that
politics and ethics cannot be separated. The purpose of
politics is to secure a good life. Therefore, it can be said
that Gandhian thinking comes remarkably close to the
idealist tradition of the west.
Gandhian thinking was different from the realist tradition of
the west which was represented by Machiavelli. This
tradition says that end justifies the means and this tradition
advocates violence to achieve one’s goals but Gandhi was
of the view that achieving goals through wrong means will
have disastrous consequences for both individual and
society.
According to Gandhi, Man’s life is intertwined with Ethics.
Unethical behaviour will always have disastrous
consequences, that is why, Gandhi advocates that Ethics
should be practised in every walk of life. Unfair means will
only lead to conflict and violence in society. Gandhi believes
that wrong means will never result in good ends. Infact,
Gandhi has compared means with seeds and ends with
fruits. According to Gandhi, politics devoid of religion is
like a death trap, that is why, even the Second
Administration Reform Commission has advocated for
reinfusion of Ethics into Politics.

Contemporary Relevance
By Following Gandhian principles, unethical practices
prevalent in politics and public services can be removed.
Gandhian principles focus upon the creation of a moral man
deeply connected to the larger interest of society.

Gandhian Concept of Swaraj

The Gandhian idea of Swaraj was different from the

traditional definition of Swaraj which confined itself to
freeing India from British rule.
The Gandhian concept of Swaraj is not merely a transfer of
power to Indians. For Gandhi, Swaraj involved both
external and internal freedom. It means Swaraj involves not
only freedom from foreign rule but also self-purification.
Swaraj involves freedom from wants and miseries. It also
involves Self-rule as well as freedom from exploitation.
According to V. Krishna Iyer, Gandhian Swaraj means
wiping tears from every broken men’s and women’s eyes.
The Gandhian idea of Swaraj is a very comprehensive
concept that involves empowerment of individuals also.
According to Gandhi, Swaraj is the power of people to
determine their own destiny.
According to Gandhi, in order to attain Swaraj, masses
should be educated so that they can regulate and control
authority.
Swaraj is a vedic word which means self-rule and
self-restraint. Swaraj is the capacity of individuals to shape
their external world.
The concept of Swaraj involves achieving reforms from
within which means an ability to regulate one’s own self as
well.
According to Gandhi, Swaraj can be attained by following
the principles of Nonviolence. Non-violence is the means
through which Swaraj will eventually prevail and
individuals start giving primacy to rights over duties.
According to Gandhi, when people perform their duties, they
will automatically get their rights. So, Swaraj focuses upon
the performance of one’s obligations towards larger society.
According to Gandhi, Swaraj is something which is the basic
need of society. Swaraj means consent of the governed in
their rules. It is another important aspect of Swaraj.
Gandhi says that Swaraj is not merely participating in the
democratic process but the concept of Swaraj also involves
winning over one’s vices. Swaraj happens when people are
able to develop capacity to regulate their impulses on the
basis of reason which eventually strengthens not only
individuals but it also strengthens larger society. Swaraj
also involves ending social evils like untouchability,
communalism, ethnic conflicts, etc.
Application of Swaraj can be seen in different walks of life
and at different levels. For example-
(a) At the political level, Swaraj involves democratic
decentralisation, i.e., 73rd and 74th Constitutional
Amendment Act.
(b) At Social level, Swaraj involves ending conflicts in
society like communalism, ethnic conflicts, etc.
The Gandhian concept of Swaraj resonates in the list of
Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles of State, Article
326 which provides Universal Adult Suffrage.
The Gandhian concept of Swaraj also has international
meaning which can be seen through theories like
Interdependence and Complex Interdependence. Today, the
world has become like a Global village, and
interdependence can be seen at different levels.

Concept of Gram Swaraj

According to Gandhi, decentralised democracy is needed for
achieving Swaraj wherein power should be given into the
hands of common man. Gandhi has criticised the centralised
structure of society.
Moreover, Gandhi wanted that villages should be
empowered in the real sense of the term. Gandhi wanted to
make villages self-sufficient. Gandhi has advocated Ocean
circle of Power to explain his decentralised system.
So,according to Gandhi, like one wave empowers another
wave in the ocean, likewise, one layer of the system will
empower another layer and this process will continue.
According to Gandhi, villages should be the most important
part of our democracy and annual elections should take
place to elect a panchayat which will be responsible for
managing the affairs of the villages. Each village will be
connected with another village in line with the Oceanic
circle of power.
In contemporary times, India’s former President APJ Abdul
Kalam has talked about PURA model for empowering
villages i.e., providing urban amenities in rural areas by
ensuring the following:
a) Knowledge connectivity
b) Physical connectivity, etc.
Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam’s idea is worth implementing to
change the face of Indian villages and to ensure the
objective of Gram Swaraj.

Gandhi’s element of Gram Swaraj included the following

aspects:

Village Industries: It emphasised on the revival of

traditional cottage industries in the villages to increase the
employability of the villagers. Swadeshi: Gandhi was a
strong proponent of locally produced goods and resources,
to reduce the dependence on imported goods. Panchayati
Raj: This was Gandhi’s proposed scheme of democratic
decentralisation that provided villages with the autonomy
of decision making.
Education and Basic Necessities: He laid emphasis on the
importance of Education and a provision for basic needs
like food, shelter, clothing and healthcare.
Sustainable Environment: He emphasised on the need to
ensure sustainable agricultural practices that are suitable
for the needs of the future generation.
Gandhi’s views on Economy
According to Gandhi, Economy should be based upon
a) Equality of individuals.
b) It should not be exploitative in character.
c) It should focus upon employment generation.
d) It should produce low-cost consumer goods.
e) The focus should not be on mass production rather the
focus should be on the production by masses.
According to Gandhi, Economy should be structured in such
a manner that it should promote equality and social justice.
According to Gandhi, the economy should be based on the
needs of individuals rather than wants of individuals.
Labour intensive technologies are to be promoted.
According to Gandhi, in a country like India having a huge
population, mad craze for machines is not good. Rather, the
country should focus upon the production by masses and
generation of mass employment. Gandhi criticised both
Capitalism and Communism. For Gandhi, liberty of
individual, dignity of individual, fulfilling life, etc. are more
important than economic progress only whereas both
capitalism and communism promoted merely economic
growth. According to Gandhi, liberation of man is more
important than anything else.
The Gandhian idea of economy mixes principles of Morality
and Ethics with Economy. Gandhi says that Ethical
standards should never be compromised while ensuring
Economic Growth. Gandhi says that Economy in the true
sense of the term should stand for ensuring social justice
and promotion of collective good.
The purpose of the Economy should be ensuring Swaraj and
wiping tears from every broken men and women’s life.
Human beings should be given ultimate consideration in the
Gandhian scheme of things, for example, every man should
have the right to food, shelter, clothing, and everyone
should be able to find work.
Gandhi says that human labour should be utilised first and
then machines should be employed. The success of India
lies in using its manpower and equal distribution of
resources rather than using mechanical production for mass
production of goods.
Hence, in Gandhi’s Economic Model, human beings were
given the central position. He opposed the Capitalist
Economic system that focussed on the exploitation of
humans for the sake of profits. He was equally against
Communism as he gave priority to the progress of the
individual rather than the economic system. Therefore,
Social Justice, that involves the welfare of the poorest of the
poor was the central theme of Gandhi’s Economic model.

Gandhi’s views on Religion and Politics

❖ According to Gandhi, Modern world has tried to separate
Religion and Politics. The tradition of separation of Politics
and Religion is part of realist tradition and Machiavelli was
forerunner of this tradition.
❖ In western world, religion and politics have been
completely separated whereas Gandhi called for infusion of
religion into politics. Gandhi found both religion and
politics as inseparable. According to Gandhi, politics
without religion is like a death trap.

Gandhi’s concept of Religion

❖ According to Gandhi, there is remarkable unity among all
religions of the world, that is, be good and do good. Gandhi
believed that there are as many religions in the world as
there are human minds and each human mind has a
different conception of God but there is common unity
among all religions at fundamental level.
❖ According to Gandhi, religion and ethics are different.
According to Gandhi, fundamental ethical principles among
all religions are common but religions may differ with each
other with respect to beliefs and practices. Religion makes
people pursue the path of truth and religion is a way
through which people come nearer to God. According to
Gandhi, religion is the fundamental aspect of human life.
❖ Gandhi says that problem arises when one religion claims
superiority over another religion which leads to conflict and
also becomes an obstacle in the path of realisation of truth.
There is no problem in having different religious symbols
but when these symbols are used for proving superiority
between or amongst people, then it causes problems and it
must be discarded.

Gandhi’s concept of Politics

❖ According to Gandhi, Politics and religion cannot be
separated. Gandhi did not believe in the unlimited power of
the State which has done greatest harm to mankind. But
Gandhi believes that political power can be used for
empowerment of people in all spheres of life.
❖ According to Gandhi, political activity is something which
is closely associated with all other activities of people.
Therefore, politics is an essential part for empowering
individuals but at the same time Gandhi criticised the
unlimited power of state and associated violence with this
unlimited power.

Relationship between Religion and Politics

❖ For Gandhi, politics without religion is a death trap
because the ultimate objective of human life is self
realisation and realisation of truth and if politics does not
help in this regard, then it is not something which is
worthwhile at all.
For Gandhi, self realisation is the ultimate objective and
ultimate activity for a human being and if politics is not
helping in this quest, then it is absolute dirt which must be
discarded.
❖ Gandhi said that without religion there is no politics but
at the same time, he was also conscious of religion being
used for showing a sense of superiority of one religion
which leads to violence and conflict in society. That is why
he talked about universal religion of toleration and a
religion that binds people together.

Gandhi’s views on Modernity/Industrial Civilization

❖ Gandhi has not provided a detailed body of knowledge
about Industrial civilization. We have come to know about
Gandhi’s views on industrial civilization through his various
pamphlets, articles, books, etc.
❖ According to Gandhi, certain aspects of modernity are
harmful and also immoral. According to Gandhi, following
aspects of modernity/industrial civilisation is harmful for
mankind:
➢ Excessive consumerism.
➢ Hedonistic behaviour of man.
➢ Focus of industrial civilisation is on unlimited growth but
the irony is in a world having limited resources, unlimited
growth is not possible.
➢ Exploitation of nature which will lead to crisis-like
situations in future.
➢ Industrial civilization focuses on mass production by
machines rather than production by masses.
➢ Conflict due to power politics at international level.
❖ Suggestions given by Gandhi to minimise negative
impact of Industrial Civilisation:
➢ Minimisation of wants
➢ Living in harmony with nature.
➢ Eradication of evils like prostitution, theft, etc.
❖ According to Gandhi, hedonism reduces man to the level
of beast. It has led to colonialism also. It makes man
behave like an animal, that is why Gandhi calls Industrial
civilisation as Satanic civilisation.
❖ Gandhi has provided a solution to this excessive
consumerism and industrialisation through his ideal state
which will be based upon the concept of Ramrajya,
democratic decentralisation or Gram Swaraj, etc.

Gandhi’s Concept of Sarvodaya

❖ Gandhi was critical of both Capitalist and Socialist
Economies. He held that despite the industrialization in
America, it is marred with poverty and degradation.
Similarly, in the case of Socialist Russia, he criticised the
use of violent means to bring out reforms.
In his Hind Swaraj, Gandhi held that under Socialism, there
is no individual freedom and it is based on only one aim
which is the material progress of man.
❖ Gandhi held that the position of individuals in the
modern times has been merely reduced to being a cog in
the machine. He held that man has lost his individuality.
According to him, a life where a man loses his soul for the
gain of the entire world is futile.
❖ He advocated that every person should become a full
blooded and fully developed member of the society.
❖ Gandhi proposed the concept of Sarvodaya as an
alternative to the concept of Capitalism and Socialism.
Sarvodaya is based on the three basic principles, which are:
➢ The good of the individual is contained in the good of all.
➢ Every work has the same value. He held that the work of
a lawyer has the same value as that of Barbar, as each of
these occupations involves the right of earning livelihood
from their work.
➢ Life of a labourer is the life worth living.

Gandhi’s views on Trusteeship

❖ Genesis of Gandhi’s theory of trusteeship goes back to
French scholar Saint Simone, who held that dynastic
inheritance is a threat to merit and social justice. He held
that after the death of a person his property should be
taken by the state to create common facilities like schools,
hospitals, etc.
❖ Similarly, Gandhi held that capitalists should act as the
trustees to the property. The reason being that since the
capitalist has created property from the society itself, hence
they should give property back to the society and therefore
it is their moral responsibility to take care of the property
and not own it.
❖ He propounded the concept to ensure that those who are
rich do not use the property for meeting their selfish
interests. Similarly, since the basic needs of all are met,
there are no poor people. Gandhi held everything belonged
to God and was from God. Hence, any individual having
more than his proportionate share becomes the trustee of
that portion.
❖ He even suggested that the trustee in office should have
the right to nominate his successor.
❖ The idea underlying the concept of trusteeship is:
➢ All humans are born equal and have a right to equal
opportunity implying that basic needs of all must be fully
satisfied.
➢ Since, all humans are not endowed with equal intellectual
and physical capacity, hence, some have greater capacity
to produce than others. These persons should consider
themselves as trustees for any produce beyond their basic
needs.
➢ Rejection of violence as a mode of the distribution of
produce.

Gandhi, B R Ambedkar

Concept of Rights and Duties

❖ Relationships between Rights and duties have been a
matter of debate for a very long time. Large number of
political scholars have talked about rights, duties and their
relationships.
❖ Idealist scholars like Plato and Hegel have completely
neglected the concept of rights and they have focused upon
the duty aspect only.
➢ According to Hegel, the State is the march of God on
Earth. Hegelian tradition believes that the State should not
be disobeyed by anyone under any circumstance. Plato
talks about the duties of the individuals. He subordinates
Individuals completely with respect to society.
❖ Another tradition of Negative Liberals have talked about
Rights only, infact, negative liberals have given primacy to
rights over duties. Their concept of absolute right is a part
of the theory of possessive individualism, i.e., Whatever I
own is the product of my hard work and society has got
nothing to do with it.
❖ Gandhian thought belongs to Indian tradition wherein
the focus has been on the performance of duties and not on
rights. Gandhian views were influenced by the Vedantic
philosophy and Gita, which emphasised upon performance
of duties rather than rights. For Gandhi, duties are rights in
embryonic form. In Indian tradition, an individual is not
independent of the needs of the larger society. Individuals
are a part of the larger society. According to Gandhi, rights
and duties are part of the same coin. They always come
together. For example, every man has certain obligations
towards society whereas as an individual, man has got
certain rights also. For Gandhi, duties are rights in
embryonic form. It means when an individual will perform
his duties, the individual will also get his rights.

Comparison between Gandhi and Marx

Note:Comparison means Similarities and Differences

❖ Similarities between Gandhi and Marx:

➢ Gandhi calls Industrial civilization a Satanic civilization.
Gandhi has spoken at length about the ill effects of
industrial civilization. Marx has also talked about ill-effects
of industrial civilization and called it exploitative.
➢ Both Gandhi and Marx have talked about the exploitative
nature of the modern state. Infact, Gandhi has called State
as an instrument of organised violence and Marx has called
State an instrument of capitalist class which exploits
people.
➢ Both Marx and Gandhi advocated resistance against
exploitation.

❖ Differences between Gandhi and Marx:

➢ Differences are more fundamental whereas similarities
are superficial.
➢ Gandhi has given central position to religion in man’s life
and also in politics whereas Marx called Religion as the
opiate of Masses.
➢ Marx gave a call for violent revolution whereas Gandhi
believed in Non-violence. For Gandhi, spirituality is
everything whereas for Marx, matter is everything.
➢ Gandhi believed in cooperation among different groups
whereas Marx believed in conflict between different classes.

Gandhi’s Theory of State

❖ Gandhi’s theory of State is based on the principle of
concept of Oceanic Circle of Power, Non-violence, and
Swaraj.
❖ According to Gandhi, the State represents organised
violence. State is immoral, and State is a soulless machine.
State is not based on the principle of non-violence.
❖ According to Gandhi, the modern idea of State is against
the principle of Swaraj which means rule of a person on
oneself whereas modern notion of State is based on the
principle of hierarchy, exploitation and authority which is
something existing outside the State.
❖ Gandhi believed in the creation of Ramrajya, an ideal
state and exploitation free state where complete equality
will prevail. Hence, there will be no need for the State.
❖ Gandhi’s concept of Ramrajya i.e., ideal state will be
based upon democratic decentralisation principle and it will
be based upon the ancient Indian Institution of Panchayati
Raj in which villages will be the primary unit.
❖ But Gandhi did not continue with his idea of Ramrajya
forever, infact, later on Gandhi accepted that State is a
necessary evil which is required. So, Gandhi went on to
believe in the idea of a Constitutional State also.

Relevance of Gandhi in contemporary times

❖ Minimization of wants. Hedonism is not good for the
future of human civilization. Since, in a world having finite
resources, infinite growth is not possible. Hence, mindless
consumerism is not a good idea.
❖ To arrest the climate change phenomenon.
❖ To stop ethnic conflicts, terrorism, etc.
❖ Hence, today Gandhian philosophy has become much
more relevant than it was in the past.

Dr. B. R. Ambedkar

Theoretical Perspective of Ambedkar

❖ He preferred Constitutional methods and believed in
democratic socialism.
❖ He wanted to achieve the goals of socialism through
democratic means.
➢ Goals of Socialism- Equality is the primary concern of
Socialism.

Answer Structure-
Previous Year Questions
Q.1 Comment: The main political ideas contained in the
Manusmriti. (2003/ 20 marks).
Answer Structure: Introduction: Manusmriti is based on
Vedas and belongs to the tradition of Dharmasastra. It is
addressed to the Rajas and discusses the issue of Dharma at
length. Body: The main political ideas contained in
Manusmriti include:
1. State: It mentions state as rashtra, which are of four
types- Mitra rashtra, Ary or enemy rashtra, Udasin or
neutral rashtra, and Madhyama rashtra.
2. The idea of King: Manusmriti was based on the
contractual theory. It suggests that king should aspire to
achieve the Yogakshema i.e., the welfare of all people.
3. Nature of Authority of king: Unlike the King in the west
who had divine power, the king of Manu had only divine
personality but not divine powers. Therefore, the King does
not have absolute power.
4. Welfare State: The state should perform the following
functions, i.e., acquisition of land and wealth, protection of
land and people, rewarding the deserving people, etc.
5. Pluralist Theory of Law: Manusmriti mentions the various
courses of law which includes the Vedas, Customs and
Usages, consciousness of King, and deeds of great men.
Hence, it can be considered as a pluralist theory of law.
6. Administration of Laws: Laws are administered by the
king with the help of Brahmins and learned councillors.
7. Position of Ambassadors: Manu views ambassadors to be
next to only the King.
8. Four-Fold policy: Manu suggests that diplomacy should
adopt the four fold policy of Sama (settlement of disputes
through negotiation), Dama (Economic diplomacy), Danda
(Army), and Bheda (Espionage). Conclusion: Manu is
regarded as the father of the human race and the founder
of society and moral order. The ideas of Manusmriti laid the
foundation of Indian political thought and are relevant
even in contemporary times.

Q.2. Write a note on Buddhist tradition in Indian Political

thought. (2012/ 20 marks).
Answer Structure: Introduction: The Buddhist tradition in
Indian Political thought is based on the teachings of
Gautama Buddha. It is idealist in nature as against the
tradition of Dharmashastra and Dandashashtra which show
realist tendencies.
Body: Important features of Buddhist tradition are:
❖ Foreign Policy: It is based on the principle of Panchsheel
or the philosophy of Ahimsa or Non-violence.
❖ Egalitarian in Nature: Unlike the Hindu tradition, which is
hierarchical, Buddhist tradition is egalitarian and does not
believe in caste system.
❖ Gender Equality: It gives equal place to both men and
women.
❖ Individualistic in Nature: It gives importance to
individuals and hence is referred to as Shramanic tradition
by Appadorai.
❖ Republican Political Order: Unlike monarchical state, it
was based on republican and democratic nature of state.
Conclusion: According to western scholars like Mathew J.
Moore, western thinkers have a lot to learn from Buddhist
political thought.

B R Ambedkar

Theoretical Perspective of Dr. B. R. Ambedkar

Ambedkar was primarily a liberal thinker, who preferred
Constitutional means for redressal of grievances. Later on,
Ambedkar became inclined towards socialism, particularly
democratic socialism; it means he wanted to achieve the
goals of socialism but only through the democratic means.
The Goal of Socialism is to bring equality and this goal is to
be achieved through democratic means.

Ambedkar’s views on State

Ambedkar has given the functional theory of State. State is
important because it provides internal security as well as
security against external aggression. Ambedkar also
believed in the duty of citizens to obey the state.
He was against civil disobedience, because it can lead to
anarchy. Ambedkar believed in legal and constitutional
methods for redressal of grievances.
Ambedkar favoured separate electorates for untouchables
arguing that those who are socially segregated should also
be politically segregated.

Ambedkar’s views on Democracy

Ambedkar was perhaps the only Indian in the 20th century
who offered a theory of democracy, a theory that can guide
us in the 20th century. According to Ambedkar, democracy
is a form of government whereby revolutionary changes in
the economic and social life of people are brought about
without bringing chaos and bloodshed in society.
Ambedkar significantly made a departure from western
notion of democracy. He puts equality at the heart of
democracy whereas western notion puts liberty at the heart
of democracy.
Ambedkar used to say that democracy is not a plant that
grows. Ambedkar would often cite the cases of Italy and
Germany, where absence of social and economic democracy
led to the failure of political democracy.

According to Ambedkar for the successful functioning of

democracy, he puts forward certain conditions:
There must not be any glaring inequality in society.
There must not be an oppressed class in society.
There must not be a class that has got all the privilege and
a class that has got all the burdens to carry.

Ambedkar also upheld Equality in law and administration.

According to him, likes should be treated alike.
According to Ambedkar, Constitutional morality should be
given importance in democracy. Constitutional morality can
be described as a State marked by selfrestraint, respect for
plurality, and open culture of criticism.

Ambedkar’s views on Women

Ambedkar was a rationalist and a pragmatist thinker. He
advocated Equality of Sexes. He was of the view that the
true measure of the success of any society can be seen with
the kind of rights men have given to its women.
Both male and female should be treated equally in society.
He was also instrumental in bringing the Hindu Code Bill.
The Hindu Code Bill dealt with giving the absolute right to
females over property of the father.

Ambedkar’s Views on Caste and Untouchability

Ambedkar was moved by the inhuman treatment of his
community at the hand of caste Hindus. Ambedkar was of
the view that caste Hindus prevented reforms of Hindu
society and hence, conditions of untouchables could not be
improved.
According to Ambedkar, even Hindus social reformers have
not done enough social reforms to improve the conditions of
Untouchables. Those social reformers focussed on issues
like Child marriage, widow remarriage, abolition of Sati,
etc. They did not try to bring reforms for Hindus social
system and the issue of untouchability and caste system
was not touched upon by Hindus social reformers. Moreover,
they did not try to reinterpret Hindu scriptures either in the
light of changing time.
Ambedkar believed that earlier Hindu society was not rigid
and exogamy was practised by Hindu society.
Ambedkar believed that initially Indian society practised
exogamy and Brahmins were the first group who became
endogamous, this shows that caste system is not a part of
original Hinduism.
According to Ambedkar, the concept of Untouchability is
based on the notion of purity and pollution. As per
Ambedkar’s theory, there were only three varnas i.e.,
Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas originally. Shudras were
originally Kshatriyas.
However, they were those Kshatriyas that did not accept the
hegemony of Brahmins. Hence, Brahmins stopped the
Upanayana sanskara of this group. Upnanayan sankara is
linked to purification. Hence, it was believed that they
remained polluted.
Ambedkar saw untouchability as the social institution
defended by the ideology of Brahmanism. Ambedkar also
said that untouchables were the ones who were living on the
outskirts of villages who due to their refusal to give up
Buddhism and beef eating came to be condemned as
untouchables.
Ambedkar also believed that Hindu society needs radical
restructuring and the caste system needs to be discarded.
Regeneration of Hindu society will not only be good for
untouchables but for the entire nation because Caste
represents inequality, oppression, degradation, etc.
Ambedkar believed that removal of untouchability will
rejuvenate Hindu society wherein respect and rights
towards a person will become a way of life and people will
start treating each other equally.

Ambedkar’s solution to untouchability:

Vedas and Shastras should be destroyed by using dynamite.
These texts are based on the concept of Superman, which
should be destroyed for the annihilation of Caste.

Ambedkar’s solution to Untouchability

Ambedkar in his work, Annihilation of Caste, says that
Vedas should be destroyed and then only the Caste system
can be destroyed.
The presence of the Caste system is undemocratic and
against the spirit of modern society.
According to Ambedkar, Vedas are written by primitive men.
Vedas are not the result of the works of great scholars.
According to Ambedkar, only a selected few have been
permitted to study Vedas, that is why, Vedas lead to
ignorance, hence it must be discarded.

Gandhi-Ambedkar Debate
According to Gandhi, Caste system was not the original
feature of Hinduism rather Varna System was the original
feature of Hinduism, which should be re-adopted because
Varna system is based on functional specialisation and
division of labour which is also the feature of all modern
societies.
Ambedkar rejected Gandhian view and said that Varna
system is not the current reality of Hindu society. It is the
textual view of Hindu society whereas Caste system is the
reality of Hindu society. It is the contextual view of Hindu
society.
According to Ambedkar, untouchability is a by-product of
the Caste system. Hence, the problem of Untouchability
cannot be resolved without annihilation of the Caste
System.
Ambedkar says that the Caste system is not based on
division of labour rather it is based on division of labourers.
Caste system is ascriptive in nature where status of a
person is decided since his birth. His caste decides his status
in society. It is not based on what an individual has
achieved in life.
Ambedkar also rejected the use of word ‘harijan’ for
untouchables rather he preferred to use the term ‘dalit’
because Harijan term can push them into the state of false
consciousness.
Ambedkar also criticised Gandhi by calling him a ‘stunt
man’. He said that Mahatmas will come and Mahatmas will
go but untouchables conditions have not improved.
Ambedkar has criticised Gandhi on many issues. He
criticised and rejected Gandhian ideas like Swaraj, Gram
Swaraj, Non-violence, promotion of Khadi, trusteeship, etc.
Ambedkar advocated a modern society based on modern
economy and polity. Ambedkar was more concerned about
this worldly things rather than other worldly things as
advocated by Gandhi.

Ambedkar’s Ideas of State Socialism

Ambedkar’s idea of State Socialism gives an alternative
approach for the development of all sections of society. It
can provide solutions to the problems inherent in Capitalism
and Socialism.
Ambedkar believed that involvement of the State was
essential for economic development. He believed that the
State should take a proactive role in development so that
the poor can be benefitted.

Ambedkar’s State socialism includes the following:

Agriculture would be a State industry.
Key industries would be owned and run by the State.
A life insurance policy would be compulsory for every adult
citizen.

Agricultural land should be acquired by the State and would

be divided into farms of standard size and then given to
residents of villages as tenants without any distinction
based on caste.
Industry and agriculture should go together in the current
state of development. Agriculture sector is witnessing a low
level of productivity and machines have been taking over
various works done by the labour force leading to
displacement of workers.
Ambedkar rightly advocated that State should address such
issues i.e., while taking into account the needs of the poor
and marginalised, the state has to take initiative in
providing basic resource distribution. Therefore, it can be
said that State socialism can be one of the alternatives to
bring equal distribution of wealth and welfare to the
masses.

B.R. Ambedkar (Part-4)

Ambedkar’s Theory of Dalit Democratic Revolution

Ambedkar championed the cause of Dalits. According to

Ambedkar, the conditions of Dalits cannot improve without
fighting for their regeneration. Ambedkar said that Indian
society is on the verge of collapse, and it will be dangerous
to postpone their moral regeneration. Moral regeneration of
Indian society will be possible only through the most
oppressed section of Indian Society. The basic structure of
Indian society is ideological and not economic. The basic
nature of Indian society is driven by ideology which
advocates exploitation, that is why states can work for the
conditions of Dalits.

Ambedkar preferred State led affirmative action. He also

tried to raise the consciousness of Dalits because Ambedkar
believed that conditions of Dalits would not improve
without having subjective awareness about their objective
reality. Ambedkar’s method for raising consciousness of
Dalit was to agitate, educate, and organise.

Ambedkar’s idea of Social precedes Political conception

According to Ambedkar, rights are protected by the social
and moral conscience of society. Only when society accepts
a particular right given by the State, then it can be
successful. For example, a law made by the State will never
be successful if it is not accepted by society. According to
Ambedkar, social relationships are an important part of
democracy, that is why social reforms must precede
political and economic reforms.
In Ambedkar’s words, social democracy means a way of life
which accepts liberty, equality, and fraternity as the
principles of life. Ambedkar believed that economic and
political issues must be resolved only after achieving the
goal of social justice. Political Emancipation should not
precede social emancipation because it may lead to the
dominance of upper caste Hindus.

Ambedkar’s critique of Marxism

Ambedkar was greatly influenced by Marx because of his

ideas on Social Justice, which was primarily aimed at
ending exploitation of the poor. However, significant
departure can also be seen between the viewpoint of
Ambedkar and Marx because Ambedkar believed that ideas
of Marx are not very relevant in the Indian context. India
faces different types of challenges.

Ambedkar significantly differed from Marx in following

manner: Ambedkar differed from Marx’s views on religion.
For Karl Marx, religion is the opiate of masses which is used
to generate false consciousness and it is also an instrument
of exploitation whereas Buddhism for Ambedkar is a
religion which is based upon the conception of Samta i.e.,
equality, Karuna i.e., compassion. Buddhism is a religion
which treats people equally. That is why, Ambedkar
advocated that untouchables should embrace Buddhism.
Marx’s views on the State were another differing point
between Ambedkar and Karl Marx. According to Marx, the
State is an instrument of exploitation, and it works at the
behest of capitalists whereas for Ambedkar the State
occupies a special position in his scheme of things.
Ambedkar says that State is necessary for ensuring the
following:
For ensuring social justice.
For ensuring affirmative action.
For ending exploitation in society.

Ambedkar’s role as Constitution Maker

Ambedkar is considered as the chief architect of the Indian
Constitution. He has also been called as Modern Manu but
Ambedkar himself has said that “I did not play an
instrumental role in the making of India’s Constitution, in
fact, given a chance, I will be the first person to burn the
Constitution”.
The Constitution of India does not reflect the vision and
ideology of Ambedkar rather it reflects the vision and
ideology of other great personalities of Modern India like
Nehru, Maulana Azad, Sardar Patel, and Dr. Rajendra
Prasad. Many of the prominent ideas which Ambedkar
advocated could not find a place in the Constitution of
India. Those ideas are:
Ambedkar wanted a separate electorate to be included,
which was rejected and instead of a separate electorate,
reservation was given to Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes.
Ambedkar wanted a Presidential form of government, but
Parliamentary democracy was incorporated under the
Constitution because Indians knew about the working of
Parliamentary democracy since Morley Minto Reforms,
1909, that is why, Parliamentary democracy was preferred
over the Presidential form of Government. Nevertheless,
many of the ideas of Ambedkar were incorporated under
the Constitution of India. For example, the Right to Equality
was granted to people under Article 14 to 18.

Ambedkar and Constitutionalism

The concept of constitutionalism refers to limited
government, rule of law, regulations, and democratic
values. It was pivotal during India's freedom movement
and significantly shaped by leaders like Nehru and
Ambedkar. Ambedkar believed in the evolutionary nature of
the Constitution, emphasizing its adaptability to changing
times. He critiqued the Government of India Act 1935 for
lacking true federal spirit and favored a democratic
political world where public opinion acts as a tool to
restrict government powers.
Ambedkar advocated for a democratic principle,
demonstrated in his support for free votes and elected
representation over nominations. He opposed bureaucratic
control of society, advocating for democratic control of the
bureaucracy within a representative democracy.
He viewed democracy as essential for constitutionalism,
emphasizing that the people's consent is crucial for the
working of the Constitution. Parliamentary democracy, with
separation of powers and constitutional morality, was
central to Ambedkar's vision for India. He advocated
fundamental rights and directive principles as mechanisms
to limit government authority.
Hence, Ambedkar's contributions to constitutionalism,
including adaptability, democratic control, and the
importance of parliamentary democracy, fundamental
rights, have left a lasting impact on India's governance and
continue to shape India’s constitutional framework.

Concluding Remarks
Ambedkar has often been portrayed as a leader who upheld
the partisan cause of the untouchables, due to which Arun
Shauri in his book, Worshipping False Gods has called
Ambedkar anti-national. Shauri argues that Ambedkar
emerged as the leader of the community rather than leader
of the nation. Ambedkar himself held that between the
interests of the Dalits and the interests of the nation, he
would give preference to the interests of the Dalits.
But such partisanship was grounded on a body of thought
and ideas built on defensible arguments which he very ably
and effectively deployed. However, according to Arundhati
Roy and Christophe Jeffrelot, it would be wrong to call
Ambedkar antinational.
Ambedkar represented the largest section of Indian society
(Bahujan samaj). A person representing the largest section
of the nation cannot be regarded as anti-national.
On the status of India as a nation, Ambedkar’s approach
was as practical as that of Jyotiba Phule. It was difficult for
Ambedkar to accept a society divided into castes as a
nation. The concept of nation, according to Ambedkar, is
based on the trinity of liberty, fraternity, and equality.
There can be no nation without this trinity. However, it does
not mean that there was no desire in Ambedkar that India
should not emerge as a nation.
Questions asked
1. Ambedkar’s ideas on constitutionalism. (2020)
2. Discuss Ambedkar’s ideas on annihilation of caste. (2018)
3. Political democracy could not last unless social
democracy lay at its base. Comment. (2017)
4. Comment: Ambedkar’s idea of state socialism. (2016)
5. Comment on views of Gandhi and Ambedkar on social
justice. (2011) 6. Comment: Ambedkar’s concept of social
justice. (2006)

M N Roy

General Introduction of M N Roy

❖ M N Roy had the unique distinction of having worked
with Lenin, Stalin, and Trotsky. He started his life as a
militant nationalist who believed in the cult of bomb and
pistol but soon he realised that this path is not going to
yield results and he became a communist.
He had a tendency of embracing new ideas and a quest for
freedom. That is how, M N Roy drifted away from being a
revolutionary terrorist to a Marxist and then to a Radical
Humanist.
M N Roy was greatly influenced by the ideas of following
thinkers:
➢ Hobbes: Matter is the ultimate reality.
➢ Descartes: He was influenced by his ideas on Science.
➢ Locke’s idea of Secularism influenced him.
➢ Bentham’s concept of utilitarianism greatly influenced
him.

Phases in M N Roy’s life

❖ M N Roy passed through three phases in his career.
❖ In the first phase, he was a militant revolutionary. In the
second phase, he became a Marxist and in the final phase of
his career, he became a Radical Humanist.
❖ It can be said that M N Roy completed his journey from
Nationalist to Communism and from Communism to Radical
Humanism.

Ideational Journey of M N Roy

❖ As a thinker, we see transformation in M N Roy’s views.
His political philosophy shows connection with events in his
political life.
❖ M N Roy began his career as a revolutionary nationalist.
He was a member of Yugantar and he was jailed in Howrah
conspiracy case. In this phase, M N Roy was a staunch critic
of Gandhi. M N Roy called Gandhi as a leader of the
capitalist class and Gandhi is fooling the masses. He has
criticised Gandhi for calling off the Non-cooperation
Movement. He termed Gandhi’s technique of non-violence as
violence on masses.
❖ Later on, M N Roy got influenced by Marxism when he
moved to Mexico. He was also acknowledged as an
important authority on Communism and Colonial issues. M
N Roy was then invited by Lenin to attend Communist
International to outline his strategy with respect to the
issue of colonialism. M N Roy called himself an orthodox
Marxist.
M N Roy also believed in the inevitability of class struggle.
He talked about bringing communist revolution as the
responsibility of Communist party of India, which
represented the working class.
❖ M N Roy developed differences with Lenin on colonial
questions and the techniques of revolution following which
M N Roy was expelled from Communist International.
❖ After this incident, M N Roy critically examined the
principles of Marxism and joined the Indian National
Congress with the aim of radicalising the Congress from
within and became sympathetic to Gandhi.
❖ When M N Roy was a staunch Marxist, he was a critic of
Gandhi. He considered Gandhi as a weak and a watery
nationalist and supporter of the Capitalist class but later on
he changed his views with respect to Gandhi and he became
an admirer of Gandhi in the later part of his career.
❖ Later on, when he was sidelined in Indian Politics, he
gave his theory of Radical Humanism.

M N Roy’s Critique of Karl Marx

❖ Marx believes in class consciousness and not the
consciousness of any individual. He said that the working
class will develop subjective awareness of their objective
reality. It means when the working class would become
aware of their objective reality, i.e., the exploitation by the
capitalist, it is when the changes would happen.
❖ M N Roy held that Marx has completely ignored
Individual consciousness.
❖ Marx held that Religion is the opium of the masses.
Religion creates false consciousness and people tend to
forget about their own reality. M N Roy held that Marx’s
supporters treat him as prophets and have ascribed a
religious status to his book, Das Kapital. This is in
contradiction to Marx’s views on religion.

M N Roy’s Views on Education

❖ To achieve democratic spirit and outlook, M N Roy
emphasised on Education. Education in democracy makes
people conscious of their rights to exist as human beings
with dignity. It inculcates rationality in the human mind.
Education will make democracy more vibrant. He also
advocated Universal Adult Suffrage.
❖ M N Roy did not want the scheme of Education to be
managed by the State because it creates a high degree of
conformism to the established order.

Question: ❖ Comment on the Marxist and the Radical

Humanist phases of M N Roy’s thought.

Humanist Critique of Marxism

According to Roy, Marx’s theory of class struggle has
subordinated individual consciousness. Roy argued that
various classes of society can live in cooperation and Marx
ignored the significance of the Middle class. It is in the
middle class which produces revolutionaries. Lenin did
recognise this fact but failed to recognise the middle class
as a class. Thus, Roy denounced the theory of class struggle.
As a radical humanist, he thought that revolution was to be
brought not through struggle or armed violence, but
through proper education. He also denounced the theory of
dictatorship of the proletariat as dictatorship of proletariat
become dictatorship on proletariat.
In the context of the religion, Roy said that Marx himself
criticised the religion as opiate of masses but in due course
of time, Marxism itself became a religion, „Das Capital‟ as
its bible and „Marx‟ as its prophet. M. N. Roy is criticised as
Indian Bernstein as there is nothing new in Roy’s criticism
of Marxism. Most of the criticisms of Marx were already
formulated by German philosopher Eduard Bernstein.

Origin of Radical Humanism

Scientific or Radical Humanism traces its origin to
renaissance which focussed upon:
Spirit of Inquiry
Rationality
Logic
An Individual was considered as a primary unit of society.
Scientific belief was given primacy over superstition.
Radical Humanism rejected Marxism. Radical Humanism is
also known as New Humanism because it is different from
Liberalism and Vedantic philosophy.
Radical Humanism is also known as scientific integral
Humanism since M N Roy believed in scientific temperament
and wanted to change society through scientific tools.
Radical Humanism as described by M N Roy is a philosophy
of freedom. Radical humanism grew out of dissatisfaction
with existing major philosophies.
Radical Humanism aims to establish sovereignty of
individuals. It is a philosophy of humans. It aims to liberate
man from the chains of nation or class. From the radical
humanist perspective, neither a liberal democracy nor a
communist model can achieve freedom for individuals.

Philosophy of Radical Humanism argues the following:

Parliamentary democracy is inadequate because it does not
give the opportunity to the masses for direct participation
in governance. Hence, there is no real freedom until there is
radical democracy. Fascism needs to be rejected because it
subsumes man under the collective ego of nations.
Communism is also not liberating because it subsumes man
under the collective ego of class.
Hence, we need a philosophy which gives real importance to
man as an individual and which aims to achieve freedom of
man.

Freedom of Man Means What?

Real freedom means freedom from all sorts of fears, this
includes freedom from religion. According to M N Roy,
freedom does not lie in choosing religion, rather freedom
lies in man’s capacity to reject religion.
Radical Humanism of M N Roy aims to liberate man even
from supernatural fears.

How would Man be able to achieve this Freedom?

According to M N Roy, freedom will come with the
promotion of scientific rationality. He looked at science as a
liberating force. He believed that there should be promotion
of scientific education. Hence, believed that intellectual
revolution has to proceed over political or economic
revolution.
M N Roy‟s Radical Humanism is also called as New
Humanism Meaning of Humanism: Humanism is a
philosophy that gives primacy to human beings. This
philosophy emerged during the period of renaissance, but M
N Roy‟s philosophy is called Radical Humanism or New
Humanism. It provides a radical interpretation of human
beings. It treats human beings in a radical sense. It means
a human being is treated as an individual or a human being
and not as a member of caste, class, religion, nationality,
etc.
 Comparison between Gandhi and M N Roy
dhi
was successful.
e central principle to religion
s philosophy.
dhi was greatly influenced by
an philosophy and Epics- He
influenced by the teaching of
gwat Gita, Lord Krishna and
d Buddha as well as Quran.
Roy
He was a failure in promoting his
philosophy.
He did not give central position to
religion in his philosophy; rather h
focussed upon matter, that is, this
worldly thing.
M N Roy was greatly influenced by
Western philosophy.
 dhi did not advocate changes He changed existing ideas and gav
he existing ideas but only radical interpretation of the idea o
ssed on the refinement of human beings.
niques like Ahimsa.

Concluding Remarks
It can be said that Roy has been considered as the most
influential political thinker of modern Indian political
thought. His eminent work “Reason, Romanticism and
Revolution” is a noteworthy contribution to the history of
western thought.
He began his theoretical chase as a Marxist, but gradually
restated all the propositions of Marx. He gave a moral
reaffirmation of Marxism and developed radical humanism.
He can be classified as a utopian or romantic thinker. But
still humanistic and moralistic in his thinking. He was an
ethical revisionist in the history of socialist thought.
Note: Roy made a very serious observation about India’s
polity. He remarked that the Indian traditions of leadership
lend themselves to authoritarianism. The leader is
considered infallible. The presence of a charismatic
leadership indicates the fascist tendency in Indian politics.
One may agree with Roy that India lacks a democratic
tradition and existence of a peculiar social structure and
the tendency to hero worship makes for authoritarian
tradition. His warning about the Fascist danger in Indian
politics has proved to be true time and again.

Questions Asked
1. Comment on the Marxist and Radical Humanist phases of
M. N. Roy’s thoughts. (2012)
2. Comment on Radical Humanism. (2009)
3. Analyse M. N. Roy’s ideational journey from Marxism to
Radical Humanism. (2002)
4. What are the major components of Modern Indian
Political Thought? Examine them with reference to Gandhi
and M. N. Roy. (2001)

Sri Aurobindo Ghosh

General Introduction to Aurobindo Ghosh

❖ Aurobindo Ghosh was instrumental in giving a
religio-mystical approach to nationalism in India.
Aurobindo Ghosh provided radical content to Indian
Nationalism. He burst onto the scene in the last quarter of
the 19th Century, and he went on to become a great
exponent of Indian philosophy.
❖ In his brief political career, Aurobindo Ghosh deepened
the concept of spiritual nationalism, that is, roots of
Nationalism are to be traced through spiritual integration
of Indians.
Political Ideas of Aurobindo Ghosh
❖ Political Ideas of Aurobindo Ghosh can be divided into
two phases: ➢ First Phase: He developed the theory of
Passive Resistance and gave the Concept of Indian
Nationalism.
➢ Second Phase: As a great sage of India, he wrote
extensively about the ideal of Human unity and the
essential characteristics of the Indian Model of State
building.

❖ Thus, Aurobindo Ghosh as a militant nationalist was

eager to liberate India from British rule. In the second
phase, he gave the message of spiritual unity of mankind as
a great sage, and he also gave the message of spiritual
nationalism.

Shri Aurobindo on Evil Effects of British Rule

❖ Aurobindo Ghosh was a critic of British Rule in India. He
was a militant nationalist in the first part of his career.
According to him, British Rule has crushed the soul of India.
Aurobindo Ghosh did not agree with Moderates that British
Rule is a blessing in disguise. According to Aurobindo
Ghosh, British Rule was a curse for a majority of the Indian
people because British Rule had ruined the Indian economy
and did not allow the Indian economy to develop.
❖ British rule disorganised Indians into a crowd. India’s
industry and trade were ruined, and agriculture devastated.
The British Government in India was the worst type of
bureaucratic despotism motivated by plunder and
domination. According to Aurobindo Ghosh, the spirit of
India could be freed only by securing complete
independence of the country. Freedom from foreign rule was
an inalienable right of the people.

Aurobindo’s Critique of the Moderates in India

❖ He wrote a series of articles in the Indu Prakash under
the title ‘New Lamps for Old’ and severely criticised the
politics of petitions and prayers of the moderate leaders. He
said that the Congress leaders lacked the spirit of sincerity,
wholeheartedness, right type of methods and right type of
leaders because when the blind lead the blind both were
found to fall in the ditch.
❖ He called for a complete change in the policy of the
Congress party because under the moderate leadership, the
Congress confused sufferance with freedom and favour of
foreign despotism with the citizenship right.

Aurobindo Ghosh on Swaraj

❖ For him, Swaraj meant complete independence because
Aurobindo Ghosh argued that a political agitation was not
launched to secure a few seats in bureaucracy and in
Assembly but to secure Right of Self-Government to the
people.
❖ Writing about Swaraj in Bande Mataram, Shri Aurobindo
wrote- “We of the new school would not pitch our ideal one
inch lower than absolute Swaraj, selfgovernment as it exists
in the United Kingdom.” To strive for anything less than
Swaraj, he argued, would be an insult to the greatness of
our past and the magnificent possibilities of our future.
❖ Aurobindo Ghosh considered the idea of Swaraj and
National Education inseparable from each other. His idea of
National Education included the elements of inheritance of
the past and widening gains of the present and the large
potential of the future.

Aurobindo Ghosh’s idea on Nationalism

❖ Shri Aurobindo Ghosh is considered as a prophet of
Indian Nationalism. His theory of Nationalism was based
on Vedantic philosophy which advocates for oneness and
unity in Man and God.
❖ Aurobindo’s concept of Nation was deeply influenced by
Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, a great Bengali novelist. He
believed that Nation is not just a piece of land, nor a figure
of speech, nor a mass of human being, nor the figment of
one’s imagination, that is, not a creation of mind.
According to Aurobindo Ghosh, India is a mighty shakti
composed of billions of shaktis and he called India a divine
entity, that is, Bharat Mata. Thus, his concept of Nation is
profound and very different from the commonly held
patriotic notions about the nation.
❖ Aurobindo Ghosh argues that colonial masters have
challenged the identity of India as a Nation. According to
them, India is not a Nation. It is nothing more than a
geographical expression. Aurobindo Ghosh held that it is
irrelevant to understand Indian Nationalism through the
western ideas put forward by the colonial masters.
❖ According to Aurobindo Ghosh, we need to look at
historical processes which are taking place within India in
order to understand nationalism. Moderates are unable to
see the spirit of nationalism among youth and to meet the
spirit, we need a bold theory of nationalism.

Aurobindo Ghosh (Part-2)

Aurobindo’s Theory of Passive Resistance
❖ Aurobindo thought that the method of passive resistance
which was used by Irish Nationalist would be ideal for
India.
❖ Passive Resistance means Resistance to the Authority of
the Government in an organised manner through peaceful
means. Its main objective is to paralyse the functioning of
the Government by withdrawing the support and
cooperation to the Government.
❖ According to Aurobindo, Passive Resistance works at two
levels:
➢ At First Level, it encouraged the people to pursue the
methods of self-development, such as Swadeshi and
National Education.
➢ At the Second Level, it sought to exert pressure on the
Government to concede the demands of the people.
❖ Measures that shall be taken to achieve success in
Passive Resistance:

Aurobindo’s Views on Indian Theory of State

❖ Shri Aurobindo acclaimed that Indians did not want to
establish a mechanical state, that is, too much dependent
on Legislature, Executive, Police, Army, etc.
❖ The Western idea of state was artificial, and State in the
West was imposed upon the people. On the contrary, the
Indian system is flexible and is built up from within. In the
Indian system, new elements got harmonised without
destroying the original element and existing institutions.
❖ Aurobindo’s Views on Science:
➢ Aurobindo argues that the western world glorifies science
but science is a light within a limited room and not the sun
which illuminates the world.
➢ Shri Aurobindo was of the opinion that a rich and a
necessary thought was necessary, and Indians did not
develop creative thoughts and hence lost their
independence. According to him, Indians should not imitate
and reproduce the ideas from the West because it is not
creative; rather Indians should try to recover India’s
ancient creative power.
➢ Indians should reorganise the state in the light of
Dharma and utilise the spirit and form of Dharma in Indian
Polity.
❖ In his theory of State, Aurobindo has tried to represent
Indian tradition to the world and claimed to the world that
Indian theory of State building is superior to the western
theory of State building.

Aurobindo’s Views on Liberty and Freedom

❖ In the words of Aurobindo, the craving for freedom is so
deep in the human heart that even thousands of arguments
are powerless to disprove it.
Aurobindo’s Views on Liberal View of Freedom
❖ According to Aurobindo, liberal view of freedom is
mechanical. It ignores the importance of society. Liberty
should not be seen as a device to satisfy one’s own impulse
without taking into consideration the impulse of others. The
biggest flaw of this concept is that it puts individuals
against society.

Socialist View of Freedom

❖ It gives primacy to Society but completely ignores the
individual. It forces individuals to give up freedom.
❖ According to Aurobindo, freedom is in obeying the law of
our existence. We are humans and we should not live like
animals. We should live in harmony with others, including
the environment.
❖ The real freedom is inner freedom. The real power is
spiritual power. It is the power to grow, it is the power to
move towards perfection.
❖ According to Aurobindo, freedom is not just the fulfilment
of our physical and mental needs. Freedom is the flowering
of the divine within us. When we follow this inner freedom,
we will be able to create a perfect social order and ideal
society. Thus, liberty is the law of the spiritual society.

Critical Evaluation of Shri Aurobindo

❖ Critics of Shri Aurobindo have argued that mixing
religion and politics in the name of spirituality is dangerous
in a diverse country like India.
❖ Aurobindo did not focus much upon the issue of social
reforms.
❖ Aurobindo subscribed to the violent methods against
British, but supporters of Shri Aurobindo say that he
advocated violent means against British Rule as a reaction
against the methods adopted by British to crush Indians.
For example- During the Partition of Bengal, Shri
Aurobindo’s reaction was an emotional outburst against the
British on account of the methods adopted by the British for
crushing Indians.

Questions Asked
1. According to Sri Aurobindo, Swaraj is a necessary
condition for India to accomplish its destined goal.
Comment. (2017)
2. Discuss Sri Aurobindo’s views on cultural nationalism.
(2016)
3. Comment: ‘Nationalism is not a mere political program,
but a way of life like religion’. (Aurobindo). (2014)
4. Comment on Sri Aurobindo’s idea of freedom. (2013)

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan

General Introduction of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was a great intellectual and
enlightened and forward-looking educationist. He was an
outstanding literary genius. He was a pragmatic social
reformer. He advocated Hindu-Muslim unity, and he was one
of the distinguished architects of modern India.
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan is referred to by many as the man
who knew tomorrow. He played a very influential role in
bridging the gap between the oriental and western world.
He knew what changes were required in society in order to
move forward and to keep up with the rest of the world.

Vision of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan

The supreme interest of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was
education in its widest possible sense. He wanted to create
scientific temperament among the Muslims so that they can
avail the modern knowledge of science.
He championed the cause of Modern Education at a time
when Indians in general and Muslims in particular
considered Modern Education a sin. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan
argued that people should not disregard a whole treasure of
knowledge in English just because English was a language
adopted by westerners.
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan also had forward looking views on
women and their rights. He was a strong voice defending
women’s rights and recognised their potential to contribute
to society.
He successfully managed to take up the roles of a free
thinker and administrator, a reformer, an educationist, a
religious scholar and a dedicated family man.

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan as a Rational Thinker

Muslims were at the forefront in the freedom struggle. They
suffered a lot, and many Muslim scholars were hanged at
many places after the 1857 revolt. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan
was of the view that Muslims should not be very critical of
the British otherwise they would be completely sidelined in
Indian politics. After the 1857 revolt, the British started
suspecting Muslims that Muslims at large were violently
opposed to them. As a result, Muslims were treated more
severely than other groups involved in the revolt.
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan wanted Muslims to have friendship
with the British if they want to have their due rights in
Indian politics. He gave the example of other religious
communities who are getting benefits from the government.
He tried his best to convince the British that Muslims were
not against them. He wrote many books to clear the
misunderstanding between Muslims and British- Loyal
Mohmmedans and Causes of Indian Revolt. The central
argument of Sir Syed was that the British were completely
unaware of the Indian opinion since Indians were kept out
of the governance of their country.
After having convinced the British that it would serve their
interest to take Indian opinion too in the governance of
India.

From an Advocate of Hindu Muslim Unity to the Originator

of Two Nation Theory-
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was a champion of Hindu Muslim
Unity. Earlier, he had once described the Hindus and
Muslims as the two beautiful eyes of a beautiful bride, that
is, Hindustan.
However, later on he changed his views. The reason for the
change was language controversy in Awadh province. So
far, Urdu in Persian script has been the official language. By
this time, there was growth of the movement in Hindi. The
supporters of Hindi felt that Hindi has become the language
of masses. Hence, Hindi should replace Urdu as the official
language. The controversy took an ugly turn. Neither
Muslims were ready to accept Hindi nor Hindus were ready
to continue Urdu as the official language.
The entire controversy disappointed Sir Syed Ahmed Khan.
He said that “now I am convinced that these two
communities will not work unitedly in any cause. At present,
there is no hostility between them but on account of the
so-called educated people, it will be 100-fold in the future.”.
According to him, in the interest of peace, it is better if both
the communities live as separate communities. It is because
of such thinking, he has been called the “Originator of Two
Nation theory”.

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan as a Social Reformer

To the Muslim community, he was and is like the eye which
cries for the suffering for any and every part of the body.
The suffering of his community worried him. He took an
oath to reform, educate, and empower his community.
Sir Syed felt that the future of the Muslims would be in
jeopardy if they continued to avoid modern science and
technology. He argues that acquisition of knowledge of
science and technology is the only solution for the problems
of Muslims.
According to him, Muslims will remain humiliated and
rejected if Muslims do not progress in the field of science.
He further said that learn modern knowledge and do not
waste time in the studies of old subjects of no value. He
used to say that Muslim youth should hold a book of science
in one hand and the Quran in the other hand. His status
among Muslims is at par with Raja Rammohan Roy among
Hindus. Though he became controversial, yet he emerged as
the tallest leader among the Muslims in the subcontinent.

Questions Asked
1. Comment: Sir Syed Ahmed Khan as a moderniser. (2013)
2. When a nation becomes devoid of arts and learning, it
invites poverty. In the light of this statement, assess the role
of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan as a reformer in Modern India.
(2021)
Political Theory

Meaning of Political Theory

The term Political Theory has been defined in both the
broad sense and the narrow sense.
According to Sabine, in the broad sense, it means
everything relevant to politics whereas in the narrow sense
of the term, it is a disciplined investigation of political
problems.
Political Theory is a part of political science which explores
what a better political world would look like and how we
can create it.
Andrew Hacker defines political theory as a never-ending
conversation among theorists. And while the greatest of the
debates are never resolved, the criticisms which the writers
make of each other are always the most illuminating.
Political Theory supplies ideas, concepts, theories for the
purpose of analysis, description, explanation, and criticism
which are eventually incorporated in political science.

Approaches in Political Science

Approaches in Political Science means:
a. Way of looking at phenomena
b. Orientation to look at the politics
c. It tells us about the manner in which a researcher is
trying to understand Political phenomena.

Approaches are broadly of two types:

1. Traditional Approaches
2. Modern Approaches

Traditional Approaches:
Traditional Approaches use philosophical, historical,
legal-institutional analysis for the study of politics.
Traditional Approaches focus on values, that is, standards
of desirability in society- what is worthwhile and what is
not so worthwhile.
Traditional approaches do not focus on facts. Scholars of
this approach believe that since facts and values are closely
interlinked therefore studies in political science can never
be purely scientific.
Traditional approach includes in its ambit the following
approaches to study politics:
Philosophical Approach
Historical Approach
Legal Institutional Approach
Empirical Approach

Philosophical Approach
This is the oldest approach in the discipline of political
science. The development of this approach can be traced
back to the Ancient Greek period- during the times of Plato
and Aristotle.
The Philosophical Approach aims at evolving standards of
Right and Wrong for the purpose of critical evaluation of
the existing institutions, laws, and policies.
The Philosophical Approach is prescriptive in nature, which
aims at improving the existing social structure which is
considered to be unjust. It is mainly an ethical study of
politics and thus idealistic. Philosophical Approach has
been criticised by scholars as being arm-chair theories.
They are not verifiable and observable and thus, they are
not a reliable source of knowledge. They are divorced from
reality. They are highly subjective and lack universal
validity.
However, scholars like John Rawls, Leo- Strauss, and Isiah
Berlin believe that the philosophical approach is most
suitable for the discipline of political science.
Examples of Philosophical approaches are- Rawls Theory of
Justice, Gandhi’s concept of Ram Rajya, Marx’s Communist
Manifesto, and Plato’s Republic, etc.
According to Sabine- “Without Philosophy no political
theory can ever hope to exist; without an eye on the future,
no present can ever afford to stay as no present stands
without its past.”

Political Theory- Approaches

Historical Approach
❖ Traditional Political scholars have looked upon history as
a primary source of political analysis. They did not
characterise any difference between politics and history.
They have regarded history as past politics and politics as
present history.
❖ Historical approach tries to find the answer of what
institutions are more in the light of what they have been,
how they came to be, and what they are than in the
analysis of them as they are today.
❖ It was Machiavelli who strongly advocated the study of
history to understand politics. According to him, history
rather than philosophy is a better guide for the prince.
❖ Historical approach is best represented by Sabine. The
major exponents of this approach are Machiavelli, Laski,
Montesquieu, etc.
❖ Historical approach is the common sense based
approach. It is a sound because it is based upon facts,
causal, evaluative approach.
❖ Historical approach came under criticism by James
Bryce, Ernest Parker, and David Easton.
Critics argue that by historical approach it is not possible to
understand the ideas of past ages in terms of contemporary
ideas and concepts.

Challenges associated with Historical approach

❖ Problems associated with one generation are different
than that of other generations.
❖ There are high chances that political scholars might
make politics out of history.
❖ History is too vast. It is challenging to find out relevant
data.
❖ Scholars might turn out to use history in a selective
manner. Machiavelli himself has done the selective use of
history. He used only those examples which served his
political purpose.
❖ Therefore, the utility of this approach in political theory
beyond a certain level is doubtful as it is always related to
outdated ideas from outdated ages. For example, Plato’s
Communism is different from what it is claimed to be Marx’s
Communism. One can understand the Communism of both
Plato and Marx depending upon the understanding of the
history of their respective times. Every thinker is the child of
his age which makes one thinker give a particular theory.
Therefore, it can be said that history shapes and reshapes
political theory.

Empirical Approach
❖ The drive for value free theory started in order to make
the field of political theory scientific and objective. This new
orientation has been called by scholars a positive approach.
❖ Under the influence of positivism, political theorists tried
to gain scientific knowledge about political phenomena
based on observable and verifiable facts.
❖ Empirical approach is based on observation whereas
philosophical approach is based on ideas which cannot be
observed.
❖ Examples of Empirical approach:
➢ Aristotle’s work on Revolution.
➢ Machiavelli’s book The Prince, in which he has used
Empirical approach to a great deal.
➢ Locke’s argument is that Mind is a tabula rasa, that is, it
receives only those things which it experiences.
❖ Empirical approach has given way to behavioural
approach.
Differences between Empirical and Philosophical
approaches:

Legal- Institutional Approach

❖ Legal approach is an attempt to understand politics in

terms of Law. Chief proponents of Legal institutional
approach are: Jean Bodin, A V Dicey, Austin, etc. But the
Legal approach fails to describe the role of those factors in
politics which are beyond the ambit of law.
❖ Traditionally, politics has been defined as the study of
state and government. Institutional approach is closely
related to legal approach. The institutional approach
studies the structure and functions of the government and
its various organs as well as political parties.
❖ Legal- Institutional approach neglects the individual
while at the same time focus on legal provisions and
institutions. It fails to take into consideration the role of
movements, revolution, violence, etc. It primarily focuses
upon the evolution of Legal aspects over the period of time.
It primarily studies the evolution of laws.
Decline of Political Theory
❖ After the Second World War, efforts were made to base
political theory upon the foundations of empirical research
and to scrutinise political principles by data and facts.
❖ In the mid-20th century, many scholars wrote about the
decline of political theory. Others proclaimed its death. This
depressing view arose because classical tradition in
political theory is loaded with value judgements.
❖ According to David Easton, Political Theory today is
interested primarily in the history of Ideas.
❖ David Easton asserts that since traditional political
theory is concerned with some kind of historical forms, it
has lost its constructive role.

Reasons given by Easton for Decline of Political Theory

1. Historicism: Easton argues that scholars like Sabine and
C L Wayper have made the discipline of Political Science
interdependent on history. 2. Moral Relativism: It means
relative attitude towards values. For example, American
values and African values were looked at differently or
Western values and Eastern values were looked at
differently by scholars.
3. Excessive Dependence upon Facts: This is called Hyper
Factualism.
4. Dante Germino says that the craze for science was the
major cause for the decline of political theory.
5. Another set of scholars are of the view that political
theory has changed with changing times and demand and
this change cannot be called the end of political theory
because every theory has to change with the passage of
time in order to keep itself relevant.
Resurgence of Political Theory
❖ The Resurgence of Political Theory refers to the revival of
normative or value based (philosophical) political theory in
political science.
❖ The main resurgence of Political Theory happened in the
USA where the American Political Science Association
played the pioneer role.
❖ In the second half of the 19th century, value-based or
normative or philosophical tradition got revived in Political
Science with the efforts of scholars like- John Rawls, Robert
Nozick, Habermass, etc.
❖ According to Isaiah Berlin, Political theory is neither
dead nor in the stage of decline. He says that there cannot
be an age without political theory. Political theory will stay
relevant as long as rational curiosity exists.
❖ Behavioural approach led to a race for facts and scholars
overlooked the critical analysis of political values
associated with the discipline. Political Science as a
discipline can never be separated from values. Fact-value
dichotomy in Political Science will not be possible
completely.
❖ According to David Easton, Fact-value dichotomy is not
possible, and he tried to make conciliation between Facts
and Values. He emphasised the importance of values in his
post-behavioural approach.
❖ Hannah Arendt emphasised upon the uniqueness and
responsibility of human beings. She criticised
behaviouralism and highlighted the role of human beings
working for a common goal. Her thoughts on
totalitarianism and modern democracy revived the tradition
of political theory.
❖ In the book ‘Human Condition’ Hannah Arendt
emphasised upon the uniqueness and responsibility of the
human being. She criticised behaviouralism and highlighted
the role of human beings working for a common goal. Her
thoughts on totalitarianism, power and modern democracy
revive the tradition of political theory.
❖ Further Robert Nozick in his book “Anarchy, State, and
Utopia” revived political theory. This revival has been a
return to the true tradition of the classics in which
normative analysis uses empirical findings. Thus political
theory has not been killed by empirical analysis but has
helped to progress better.
❖ Leo Strauss focuses on the importance of
traditional/normative political theory in dealing with
modern-day problems.
❖ There are a number of issues that need to be addressed
in the construction of theories. Notable among them are
welfare rights and social justice, democratic theory and
pluralism, utilitarianism, postmodernism, feminism,
neo-social movement, etc. Each of these concepts is based
on values.
❖ There is no finality in the discipline of political science;
there is thesis, antithesis and synthesis. This keeps the
discipline open to falsification (Karl Popper), dynamic and
relevant- making the resurgence of political theory a
cyclical and inevitable phenomenon.

Political Theory- Approaches (Part-3)

Modern Approaches
❖ To minimise the deficiencies of traditional approaches,
new approaches to study the political phenomena have
been suggested by the political thinkers. These new
approaches are regarded as modern approaches to the
study of political science.
❖ Modern approaches are fact-based approaches. They
emphasize on factual study of political events and try to
arrive at scientific and definite conclusions. Modern
approaches believe in interdisciplinary study. The goal of
Modern approaches is to replace normativism in Political
science with empiricism so that it can be more precise.
❖ Modern approaches to the study of political science
includes:
➢ Behavioural approach
➢ Post-behavioural approach.

Behaviouralism
❖ Charles Merriam is regarded as the “Father of
Behaviouralism.” The Chicago School of Political Science
played a significant role in promoting Behaviouralism.
Behaviouralism advocates for the study of politics in a
scientific manner. The core idea behind the development of
this approach was to make political science pure science.
❖ Kirk Patrick stated that while the traditional approach
accepted institution as the basic unit of analysis whereas
behavioural approach considered the behaviour of
individuals in political situations as the basis of political
research.
❖ Behaviouralism denotes a complete change in the
discipline of political science and its study. It led to a
change in the perspective of looking at the discipline. When
we change the method, it also changes the basic
assumptions, goals, methodology, nature, and scope of the
change. Thus, behaviouralism is often called the “Revolution
in Political Science”.
Though, some scholars prefer to call it movement within
political science. For example- Heinz Eulau says that
Behaviouralism is a renaissance movement and not a
revolution.

David Easton has given the 8 features of Behaviouralism,

which he calls as intellectual foundation stone of
behavioural approach:
1. Regularities: We need to observe regularities in human
behaviour. Traditionalists believe that regularities are not
possible in human behaviour because there is no guarantee
that the same person will behave in a similar manner under
similar conditions repeatedly.
2. Verification: If political science has to become science its
theories shall be in a position that they can be verified.
Traditionalists argue that verification will reduce the scope
of the subject.
3. Techniques: We need to adopt mathematical and
statistical techniques so that data can be easily quantified.
Traditionalists argue that there are very limited areas of
research where we can adapt quantitative techniques.
4. Quantification: Political Research should also be
represented in the form of quantitative data for better
precision. Traditionalists argue that we are limiting the
scope of the subject as there are very few things which can
be quantified in the political world.
5. Systematization: Theory and Research should go together
so that the discipline can be more systematic.
Traditionalists argue that social sciences are analytical in
nature.
6. Value-Neutral: Values distort results so we need to
discard values and emphasize upon facts. Traditionalist Leo
Strauss says that “when we ignore values, it is like not
making any difference in pure water and dirty water”.
7. Integration: Political events are shaped by various other
factors in the society and therefore, it would be wrong to
separate political science from other disciplines.
8. Pure Science: When we would be able to adopt above
mentioned criteria, political science will become pure
science. Traditionalists argue that behaviouralism is
nothing but mad praise for scienticism.

Contribution of Behaviouralism
❖ Political Science before the advent of behavioural
approach was in the state of decline, behavioralism was
able to arrest the decline.
❖ Behaviouralism made significant contributions in the
field of the analysis of electoral behaviour. This approach
makes political science more scientific and brings it closer
to the day-to-day life of the individuals.
❖ Contribution of behavioural approach to political science
needs to be acknowledged in certain areas. For example-
Voting Behavior, Inquiry into political process etc. have
been benefited greatly by the behavioural revolution.

Critical analysis of Behaviouralism

❖ Behaviourists attach too much importance to the
techniques and methods and do not worry at all about the
theoretical importance of the subject. They reduced the
scope of the subject, and they assert to a higher degree of
reliability.
❖ It is very difficult to study the ever-changing behaviour
of man because the emotions, ideas and thinking go on
changing continuously. Therefore, no correct prediction can
be made about the behaviour of man.
❖ Behaviourists tend to study only those phenomena which
are observable and verifiable rather than focusing on what
is actually important.
❖ John Plemenatz stated, “Political theory is not an escape
mechanism but an arduous calling."
❖ Dante Germino criticised behaviouralism for over
quantification and under theorizing.
❖ Behaviouralism was started as a challenge to traditional
political analysis but behaviouralism itself has not gone
unchallenged.

Post Behaviouralism
❖ It is a reform movement within the discipline of political
science. The 1950s and 1960s, is the phase of activism in the
U.S.A There have been various types of protests like the
Civil Rights Movements, Women Movements, Environmental
Movements, etc. which necessitated – How to address these
crises.
❖ Relevance and Action were the main slogans of
Post-behaviouralism. Relevance means developing such
theories which can be used for the good of society and the
Action part talks about bringing changes in the society by
social action.
❖ David Easton clarifies that it is not rejection of
behaviouralism rather we are taking behaviouralism
forward. It can be argued that Traditionalism is Thesis and
Behaviouralism is Antithesis and Post- Behaviouralism is
Synthesis.
❖ Post- Behavioural approach maintains the following:
➢ Technique can be compromised for the sake of relevance.
➢ There is no need to be value neutral, values are needed.
❖ David Eston has given seven major traits of
Post-Behaviouralism which he termed as “Credo Of
Relevance” which are following as:
➢ Substance must have precedence over technique.
➢ Values need to be reconciled with the fact we cannot
reject the values altogether.
➢ Political science should aim at social change.
➢ Political science should be able to preserve the Human
Values of Civilization.
➢ Political science shall be an applied science rather than
that of pure science.
➢ The responsibility of social scientists is bigger than that
of the responsibility of natural scientists.
➢ Crisis solving approach should be followed to make the
discipline relevant.

Difference between Behaviouralism and

Post-Behaviouralism
Concluding Remarks
Political Theory is used to either defend or challenge the
status quo. It is the duty of the political scientists to find
solutions to contemporary problems. If the present crisis in
society may arise due to deep social conflicts, these
conflicts need to be resolved. If the resolution of the
conflicts needs breaking up of the existing political order,
the political scientists should fairly and boldly ask for that
and they must not only rest being content with suggesting
reforms but also contribute their best for the reshaping of
society in the direction in which it could serve the desired
goals more effectively.
Thus, it can be concluded that from the traditional
approaches to the post behavioural approach, there is not
only change but also continuity.
Political Theory is a continuous exercise in theorizing,
applying, revising. The present age of communication and
globalisation demands newer insights into old political
questions. Hence, the significance of Political theory is
eternal.

Questions Asked Political Theory

1. Comment: Resurgence of Political Theory. (2019)
2. Comment: Decline of Political Theory. (2018)
3. Comment: Political Theory is not an escape mechanism
but an arduous calling. John Plamenatz. (2014)
4. Comment: “Political theory is quite simply man’s attempt
to consciously understand and solve the problems of his
group life and organisation… It is the disciplined
investigation of political problems…not only to show what a
political practice is, but also to show what it means. In
showing what a practice means, or what it ought to mean,
political theory can alter what it is.” Sabine. (2009)
5. Explain the changing analytical perspectives in the
development of Political Theory. (2008)

Traditional Approaches
1. Discuss the significance of Normative approach to
political theory. (2020)
2. Comment: Difference between Normative and Empirical
theories. (2012)

Modern Approaches
1. Examine the importance of behavioural approach in
political theory. What led to its decline? (2021)
2. Comment: The post-behavioural approach. (2016)
3. Examine the significance of behavioural revolution in
politics. (2011) 4. “Post-behaviouralism is not a negation of
behavioural revolution but only its corrective”. How does it
seek to raise the status of discipline of Political science?
(2000)
5. Examine the limitations of behaviouralism as an
approach to the study of politics. (1992)
6. Examine the fact-value dichotomy in political science. To
what extent has post behaviouralism resolved the conflict in
the dichotomy? (1995)

Perspectives on Indian National Movement (INM)

Introduction
❖ The Indian National Movement was a grand struggle
launched against British imperialism. In the context of the
Indian National Movement, Indian Nationalism represented
two ideas:
➢ Anti-Imperialism
➢ National Unity
❖ The Indian National Movement was one the biggest
movements the world has witnessed, the presence of various
leaders and their analysis of the Nationalist Movement has
made it quite puzzling and thus there is no consensus on
one single perspective to describe the movement. Therefore,
there exists as diverse perspectives on the Indian National
Movement as diverse the country is.

Note:
❖ Meaning of perspective: Perspective means way of
looking at reality, it means the way different sections of
scholars looked at Indian National Movement.
❖ We study different perspectives on Indian National
Movement to get the complete picture of reality called
Indian National Movement because Indian National
Movement represented different schools of thoughts which
looked at Indian National Movement through different
perspectives.

Colonial Perspective
❖ Colonial scholars wrote about colonial countries with the
desire of domination and justification of their rule. They
criticised Indian society, Indian culture and India’s
tradition of unity in diversity.
❖ Scholars like J.S Mill wrote about India from a colonial
perspective. J.S Mill and Vincent Smith argued that it is
because of British efforts that unity was brought to India
and they viewed India as a stagnant society which required
guidance from the British. According to them, the British are
on a civilising mission. They talked about “white man’s
burden”.
❖ The British did not accept the diversity of India. They
always emphasised on India’s diversity and disunity and
this emphasis on diversity and disunity were emphasised by
colonial historians for justification of British rule. They
rejected the idea of India as a nation. ❖ Colonial historians
gave the following arguments for not accepting India as a
Nation:
➢ Indians are divided on the line of races.
➢ Indians are divided on the line of languages.
➢ Indians are divided on the lines of caste and religion, etc.
❖ British historians such as Malleson, Elphinstone, Dowson,
etc. presented a colonial view of history and rejected the
ideas of India as a nation.
❖ With the rise of Nationalist Movement and Nationalist
assertion of existence of India as a Nation, it became
necessary for colonial historians to counter this attempt to
bring Indians together, thus, they criticised Indian National
Movement as an agitation by selfish members of middle
classes or Bengali Babus. According to colonial historians,
India is merely a geographical expression.
❖ Imperialist historians of Cambridge School criticised the
Indian National Movement as a communal movement and
its leaders as Power Brokers.
❖ Colonial scholars asserted that political leaders of
community or political activities were not inspired by any
grand ideas like that of French Revolution-liberty, equality
and fraternity but political leaders were driven by instinct.
❖ In fact, British historians went on to the extent of calling
Indian Nationalists as selfish. These leaders were not
interested in the ideas of Nationalism. Moreover, different
communities used the Indian National Movement for their
own class interests.
According to British historians, these leaders were not
interested in the larger goal of India’s freedom rather they
were interested in the selfish and narrow goal of their own
community.
Liberal or Nationalist perspective

This approach was developed as a response to the colonial

approach. Nationalist perspective on Indian National
Movement looks at the National Movement as a movement
of Indian people which grew out of the growing awareness
of exploitative nature of colonial rule.
The liberal perspective was developed during the time of
Raja Ram Roy. Early nationalist or liberal had a genuine
feeling for British political institutions and values. During
this phase, nationalist leaders and scholars restricted their
criticisms of colonial rule to the economic aspect. Early
Nationalist like Surendra Nath Bannerji accepted that
“India was not a nation but a nation in the making”.
Cultural Nationalists like Aurobindo Gosh were not satisfied
with the mild and defensive approach of early nationalist.
He rather established that India was not a nation in the
making but India was a nation from the beginning. The
idea of India has been existing since time immemorial.
(Also refer to Aurobindo Gosh in Indian political thought).
According to Bisheshwar Prasad, the Loss of freedom and
the Fear of Domination by alien rulers rankled in the hearts
of Indians and this intense feeling was expressed in
numerous revolts since the establishment of British rule
culminating in the Great Revolt of 1857. Nationalist
historians like R.C Majumdar argued that the conception of
India as a common Motherland was still in the “Realm of
infancy”. There was no India as it is understood today.
According to R.C Majumdar, it was Congress which gave
reality to the ideal of Indian unity through various
movements.
Nationalist historians, Tarachandra also thought that
creation of an Indian nation was a recent phenomena
which emerged due to combined Economic and Political
changes.
According to modern scholars like Shashi Tharoor, the Idea
of India emerged from Ancient Civilization united by a
shared history and sustained by modern democracy.
According to scholars, the process of nation building in
India is still going on and there are many challenges that
still exist but despite these challenges the Spirit of India
survives and emerges more and more stronger.

Criticism of Liberal Perspective

Liberals were criticised by cultural nationalist like
Aurobindo Gosh and militant nationalist like LAL-BAL-PAL.
Aurobindo Gosh believed that we cannot attain swaraj by
praising the British. The Indian Nationalist Movement
should not be confined only to elites. According to
Aurobindo Gosh, India was a nation from the beginning.
There has been a cultural and spiritual unity throughout the
Indian sub-continent. They wanted to prove that Indian
culture values and civilizational achievements have been
much ahead of the West.
Some scholars also argued that India was much ahead of
Britain even during the Ancient Period - India had
representative institutions, the tradition of Sabhas and
Samitis, successful Republics in the past when Britain was
still living in dark ages.

Marxist Perspective on Indian National Movement

The Marxist historians have been critical of both the
colonial and liberal perspective on Indian nationalism.
They criticised the colonial perspective for holding a
discriminative view on India and its people while they
criticised the nationalist commentators for following
reasons:
For seeking the roots of Nationalism in India’s past.
For invoking ancient India’s Civilizational Values.
For using religious symbols.
They criticised both British and Indian nationalist for not
paying attention to economic factors and class
differentiation in their analysis of the phenomena of
nationalism.
The beginning of Marxism perspective is traced to the work
of R.P Dutt’s “India Today” and R.C Dutt’s “the Economic
History of India”. R.P Dutt’s book initiated Marxist thinking
on Indian National Movement. They presented it as a
movement dominated by bourgeoisie i.e.,Capitalist. The
main argument is that although various classes including
the peasantry participated in the Indian National
Movement but its basic character remained capitalist.
R.P Dutt is particularly harsh on Gandhi whom he called
Mascot of bourgeoisie. He asserts that Non-Cooperation
movement was withdrawn because masses were becoming
too militant and there was a threat to the propertied classes
within and outside the Congress. The Civil Disobedience
Movement met with similar fate when it was suddenly and
mysteriously called off at the moment when it was reaching
its height in 1932.
Therefore, the Marxist perspective on Indian National
Movement is informed by a class approach related to
politics and ideology. The basic position is that the
nationalist leadership and the nationalist ideology
objectively or subjectively represents the Indian capitalist
class and wanted that India should evolve on the path of
independent capitalist development.

Critical Analysis of Marxist Perspective

S.N Mukherjee has argued that Indian nationalism was a
complex phenomenon with multiple layers and meaning
and cannot be understood merely by class analysis.
He pointed out the importance of caste as a crucial factor
along with that of class and showed that traditional
languages of politics were simultaneously used.
It means caste, religion, language along with class made an
important role in organising the nationalist movement of
India. Sumit Sarkar has also criticised Marxists scholars
for taking a casual approach in describing such complex
phenomena.
According to Sumit Sarkar, Congress had no planned
strategies against the masses. Moreover, Indians were not
very sharply divided which could have prevented their
unity.

Dalit perspective or Subaltern perspective

❖ This school of thought looks at nationalism in

exploitative terms of caste, gender, religious division, etc.
Subaltern argued that Nationalism ignored the internal
contradiction within Indian society.
❖ Scholars on Dalit perspective are Jyotiba Phule,
Ramaswami Naicker or Periyar, Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar,
Narayan Guru, etc.
❖ According to Jyotiba Phule, the British were the first ones
to establish the “rule of law” in India. He also appreciated
British rule for ensuring rule of law.
❖ Dr. B.R Ambedkar was also influenced by the idea of
Jyotiba Phule. He rejected the idea of India as a nation. He
also did not accept the claim of the Indian National
Congress that the Congress-led movement was a national
movement. Dr Ambedkar’s idea of nationalism was
influenced by the French Revolution.
According to him, the Nation is built on the feeling of
fraternity which is missing in India because of the presence
of inherent contradiction of Indian Society. (Also refer to
Ambedkar notes on Indian Political Thought).
❖ E.V Ramaswami Naicker, popularly known as Periyar,
views can also be highlighted. He joined Indian National
Congress initially but left the Indian National Congress in
1925 on the presumption that Congress is the party
dominated by Brahmins. There is no scope for the members
of other communities in the congress party. He formed the
Justice Party and initiated the Self-Respect Movement
against Brahmanism.
❖ Ranjit Guha in his subaltern studies declared that the
historiography of Indian Nationalism has for a long time
been dominated by elitism, first by colonialist elitism and
later by bourgeoise Nationalist Elitism.
❖ According to Guha, all types of Elitist history have one
thing in common that is the absence of politics of people
from their account. Ranjit Guha has criticised three main
trends in Indian historiography, ➢ First, Colonialists, which
saw colonial rule as the fulfilment of a mission to enlighten
the ignorant people of India.
➢ Second, Nationalist, which visualised all the protest
activities as part of making of the nation state
➢ Third, Marxist, they subsumed people’s struggle under
progression toward revolution and socialist state.
❖ Subaltern perspective earlier stood for- Oppressed
classes in opposition to the dominant classes but later it
was conceptualised in opposition to Colonialism, Modernity
and Enlightenment.

Socialist perspective (Also refer to Gandhi under Indian

Political Thought)
❖ The 1930s was the time when the world witnessed the
Great Depression, this led to worldwide criticism of the
capitalist system and it led to growing attention towards
socialism.
❖ Socialist perspective was influenced by the Russian
Revolution. It was also influenced by the ideology of
Gandhi. Leaders like Nehru and Subhash Chandra Bose
introduced socialism in congress.
❖ Radical leaders also known as young Turks- Jay Prakash
Narayan, Acharya Narendra Dev, Meenu Masani etc. led the
foundation of Congress Socialist Party in 1934 they wanted
to radicalise the program of Congress.
❖ Jawahar Lal Nehru, who was a great admirer of
Socialism, in the Lucknow Session of the Congress said that
the only solution to the world's problems lies in socialism.
❖ Jay Prakash Narayan was of the view that India needs
Socialist Revolution. According to him, any sort of freedom
can be realised only in an atmosphere of Economic Equality.
❖ Subhash Chandra Bose was of the view that bondage of
any form robs man of their freedom and it gives rise to
various forms of inequalities.
❖ After independence, India adopted Democratic Socialism,
that is, the goals of socialism is to be achieved through
democratic means which has many benefits which are
following:
1. Reduction of Poverty has been one of the greatest
achievements of modern India
2. The System of progressive taxation has helped in
reducing inequality in Indian society.
3. Monopoly has been abolished in India and the Indian
state has promoted a spirit of competition.

Radical Humanist perspective (Also refer to M.N Roy under

Indian Political Thought)
❖ The ideology of Radical Humanism was propounded by M
N Roy. Radical Humanism is radical in the sense that it
rejects various political and philosophical assumptions and
humanist in the sense that it is completely focussed on the
needs and requirements of human beings and their
conditions.
❖ Radical Humanism aimed at the foundation of radical
democracy meaning party less democracy. Radical
humanism advocates for a scientific approach to politics.
❖ He believed that democracy can not be sustained without
democratic culture even when democratic institutions are
introduced, as long as people running these institutions are
not democratic there will be no real democracy.
❖ In 1945, Radical democrats drew up a draft Constitution
for independent India. It envisaged the dissolution of
feudal provinces and integration based on linguistic and
cultural homogeneity.
The village committees and gram sabhas were given
extensive powers such as initiating legislations, recall of
representatives. (Also refer to the MN Roy notes under
Indian Political Thought)

Concluding Remarks
Not any single perspective to gain wider understanding of
the Indian National Movement was completely and
holistically successful. Different perspectives on the Indian
National Movement implies different approaches adopted
by different scholars; at times their goals differed, their
strategies differed and their understanding of the Indian
National Movement differed.
But we have to keep our minds and arms open to
acknowledge the interplay of various forms of struggles
with varied social backgrounds and differences in
methodologies and particular goals, working at the same
time.

Questions Asked
1. Analyse the Marxist perspective of the nature of Indian
National Movement. (2021)
2. Comment: Role of Socialists in Indian National Movement.
(2020)
3. Dalit perspective on Indian National Movement. Discuss.
(2019)
4. The National Movement in India was anti-imperialist and
increasingly radical in its socio-economic and political
programmes. Discuss. (2019)
5. Critically examine the radical humanist perspective on
Indian National Movement. (2016)

Making of the Indian Constitution (Legacy of the British

Rule)
Legacy of the British Rule
India represents a classic case of a country which still
reflects its colonial past. India’s colonial past can be seen
in all walks of India’s life. This impact is all pervasive on
the Indian Economy, Indian Political System, Indian
society and also on India’s Foreign Policy.

Colonial legacy in Political System

❖ It is argued that India adopted more than 75 percent of
provisions of the Government of India Act 1935. There is a
visible legacy of colonial rule in India’s political system
which are following:
➢ India adopted a parliamentary form of government and
federalism simultaneously. Whereas in classic
parliamentary form of government like the one in Britain,
the Prime Minister along with his cabinet enjoys central
position and in federalism, Presidential form of government
is more suitable like that in the U.S.
➢ In India’s Parliamentary form of government, the Lower
House is more powerful than the Upper House whereas in a
federal set up, the upper house is more powerful than lower
house e.g., Senate is more powerful in the U.S than the
House of Representatives.
➢ India’s civil bureaucracy is another colonial legacy which
is called the “steel frame of India”.
❖ According to former Prime Minister, Dr. Manmohan Singh,
British rule in India gives so many things to India. This
legacy is still visible in India in the form of –
➢ India’s civil bureaucracy
➢ India’s parliamentary form of government
➢ Rule of law etc.
❖ British rule in India introduced a representative form of
government in India. However, this was not truly a
democratic system on account of limited voting rights or
limited franchise, on the basis of educational qualification,
property, etc. and nominated Indian members.
Nevertheless, Indians got to know about the working of
democratic institutions which finally paved the way for
democracy becoming successful after independence.
❖ The British system of Divide and Rule can also be seen in
India’s political system before independence in the form of
a separate electorate which India did not continue after
independence and rather granted reservation to its people.
❖ Therefore, we can see that colonial legacy has helped in
shaping major political institutions and their functioning in
India. In fact, India rejected regressive features of British
rule, but India continued with progressive features of
British rule. India also modified some of the features and
adopted it under India’s Constitution. For example, a
separate electorate granted by the British gave way to a
system of reservation incorporated under the Indian
constitution.

Colonial impact on Social System

❖ Colonial rule or colonial legacy can also be seen in
India’s social system. This colonial legacy can be seen not
only in social relations but also in the educational sphere.
British colonial rule impacted Indians in both positive and
negative sense of the term. The positive impact of British
rule can be seen in the one hundred years of social reforms
that started with abolition of Sati and culminated with
Sharda Act under which the marriageable age of Indian
girls was raised (this act was named after the great social
reformer - Har Vilas Sarda).
❖ Colonial rule can be also seen in the educational sphere.
The British introduced a modern system of education in
India. The British introduced Modern Education Modern
arithmetic, science etc.
❖ The British system of education of India neglected
Education for masses. The purpose of introducing the
modern educational system was not to make Indians
educated; rather, the British wanted to create a class of
Indians which will be “Indians only in colour and British in
taste”. The British believed that this class of Indians will
remain connected to British rule, and they will owe their
allegiance to the British for decades to come.
❖ Through their Educational system they wanted to create
a clerical class to serve the British. They made no attempt
to develop the scientific temper of students.
❖ In fact, the British scheme of education was not meant
for masses which resulted in mass illiteracy in India and
even this system of education was heavily skewed in favour
of males, which resulted in gender disparities.

British policy of Divide and Rule

❖ Divided Indian people on multiple lines and
communalism was deliberately promoted. According to
Bipin Chandra, the rise of communalism in India can be
directly attributed to British rule.
After India’s independence, India made serious attempts to
reconcile the interests of various communities. India’s
constitution adopted the ideals of secularism. India also
gave rights to minorities and made systematic attempts to
reconcile the interests of various communities. ❖ Therefore,
it can be said that the positive impact of British rule was
continued but negative impacts were discontinued.
After independence India embarked on a path of
modernization. P. Nehru in his epochal speech "Tryst with
destiny” talked about awakening of India, and since then
India has made remarkable progress.

Legacy of the British Rule (Different Social and Political

Perspective)

Impact of colonial legacy on Economy system

Impact of colonial legacy can be seen on India’s economy,
India’s agriculture and Local handicraft’s Industry. During
the Colonial period, the Indian economy was completely
subordinated to the British Economy. India became a
classic colony to source raw materials and foodstuffs at
cheap prices and a market for British Machine-Made Goods.
This system of exploitation completely destroyed the Indian
economy to the extent that India was turned into a dead
house of famine, malnutrition, hunger, poverty and death.
At the time of the advent of the British, both India and
China used to account for almost half of the global trade
but at the time of India’s independence, the Indian
economy was growing at the rate of barely 1% and
population was growing at the rate of 2.8%. So, it was a
virtually Non-Existent Economy at the time of India’s
independence and the Indian economy completely
collapsed.
It is argued by British scholars that roughly 200 years of
British rule helped India’s economic integration with the
World Capitalist System but India’s relationship with the
world and specially Britain was not based on the principle
of mutual reciprocity.
It was one of the reasons, that, after independence, when
India became a leader of third world countries, following
demands were made before colonial powers:
1. Demand for a New International Economic Order that is
an equitable distribution of economic resources of the
world.
2. Revaluation of the prices of raw materials

Impact of colonial legacy on agriculture and handicraft

During the British period, India witnessed complete

devastation of India’s Local Industries, so much so that,
Indian agriculture went into a State of depression and
India’s local industry specially handicraft were completely
destroyed.
Moreover, self sufficiency of Indian villages was destroyed
forever due to the New Land Revenue Policy adopted by the
British, which caused havoc in rural India, it brought
deadly famines and also created New Social Relationships
in rural India.
British land revenue policies created a New Class of
Money-lenders and Zamindars, leading to impoverishment
of Indian peasantry. Peasants became landless labourers
with each passing year and India became classic land of
famine which started witnessing frequent famines, which
was almost unknown to Indians before the British.
With each passing year, the ferocity of famines kept on
increasing and there was no-one to look after India
agriculture. It became an orphan leading to agricultural
depression.
Impact on Handicrafts Industry

Impact of British rule can also be seen in India’s

handicrafts industry, which was destroyed by the British
systematically. Handicraft workers lost the patronage of
Indian royalties and nobles leading to their skills rendered
useless. Hence, handicrafts men were forced to migrate to
rural areas thereby putting tremendous amount of pressure
on Indian agriculture which was already passing through a
State of depression.

Concluding remarks
After India’s independence, India took necessary measures
for ensuring Economic Growth. India adopted a centralised
planning system to achieve Balanced Development.
Economic reforms adopted by India in 1991 has further
transformed India to a great extent.
Today, India is considered one of the leading emerging
economies of the world and experts are of the view that the
Indian economy has got the potential to become one of the
leading economies of the world in the coming decades.

Impact of colonial rule on Foreign Policy

Since the time of Lord Dalhousie, British India was nursing
the desire to become the Centre of Gravity in International
Politics. Dalhousie‘s ambition to create a panAsiatic empire,
was taken forward by subsequent Governor Generals and
final seal of approval of this ambition was given during
times of Lord Curzon.
During British rule, India’s foreign policy remained bold
and confident. India continued with this legacy even after
India’s independence when India became a leader of third
world countries, which gave India visibility in Global
Politics. According to strategic experts like Brahma
Chelani, India’s foreign policy has become very confident
and bold in recent times. This boldness of India’s foreign
policy is reflected in various decisions like nuclear test 1998,
revoking special status of Jammu and Kashmir given under
Article 370, bifurcating Kashmir into two Union Territories,
and also in Russia-Ukraine war. He believes that India’s
foreign policy has adopted Ultra-realist posture in recent
times.

(Making of Indian Constitution- Different Social and

Political perspective)

Making of Indian Constitution- Different Social and Political

perspectives
Indian constitution is different from other Constitutions of
the world like:
1. American Constitution
❖ The American constitution is the result of the Political
Revolution, and it is fundamentally different from the
Indian constitution. Indian constitution is result of debates,
discussions and deliberations among different ideological
shades which were present in India’s Constituent Assembly.
2. British Constitution
❖ The British Constitution is also fundamentally different
from the Indian Constitution. The British Constitution is the
result of evolution of hundreds of years, starting from the
“Treaty of Magna Carta” till present time.
❖ The Indian Constitution is the result of deep
deliberations of the Constituent Assembly which was
responsible for not only enacting India’s Constitution but
also how to achieve Economic Revolution, Social Revolution
and Political Revolution.
❖ Framing of the Indian Constitution was a difficult task
because of the presence of people belonging to different
Ideological Schools of Thought. People belonging to
different schools influenced the Indian Constitution greatly.
Those different ideological and intellectual shades were
following:
➢ Presence of Gandhian School and Modernist.
➢ Presence of Liberals and Socialists.
➢ Debate for Strong Centre Vs Strong State
➢ Parliamentary form of government vs Presidential form
of government
➢ Fundamental Rights Vs Directive Principles of State
Policy
➢ Separate electorate Vs Reservation
❖ According to Granville Austin, three revolutions were
simultaneously happening in India:
➢ Political Revolution
➢ Economic Revolution
➢ Social Revolution
❖ According to him, the Political Revolution has already
ended with India’s Independence. Economic revolution will
happen when India will adopt a modern economy but social
revolution is the most important revolution, which India is
trying to achieve. The purpose of social revolution is to
make India a modern society. It means abolition of status,
ending discrimination, ending untouchability and giving
social equality to a large section of Indian society.
❖ According to B. R. Ambedkar, social liberty is most
important for people. According to him, whatever forms of
liberty has been given to you will be of no avail or no
meaning to you, it was this social revolution which will take
India out of medievalism and make India a modern society.

Different Social and Political perspectives

1. Gandhians Vs Modernists
❖ Gandhi wanted:
➢ Introduction of Panchayati Raj Institution.
➢ Decentralisation of Power.
➢ Ensuring Gram Swaraj.
➢ Central position should be given to Villages in India’s
future development.
❖ Gandhian Model in Constituent Assembly was proposed
by S.N Aggarwal who drafted the Gandhian Constitution
and made village panchayat as primary political unit.
❖ According to him, members of the panchayat will be
elected by adults of villages. Panchayats will supervise
cooperative farming, irrigation, khadi and village
industries.
This Gandhian Constitution was contested by modernists
present in the Constituent Assembly and most prominent of
modernists were Nehru, Patel and Ambedkar who contested
the Gandhian Constitution. Ultimately, the Gandhian
proposal was accommodated under the Directive Principles
of State Policies of the Indian constitution.

2. Liberalism Vs Socialism
❖ In the constituent assembly there was a strong presence
of both the schools and both liberal and socialist groups
were very strong. There was a disagreement with respect to
the mechanism to be adopted to achieve socialistic goals.
❖ There were the presence of different brands of socialism
in the Constituent Assembly, ranging from Marxism to
Gandhian model to Fabian Socialism. Most of the
Constituent Assembly members were Fabian socialist and
the most prominent one was Pt. Nehru.
❖ In the context of India, the ultimate goal of socialism,
that is, how to bring equality was important. But different
groups differed on the method to be adopted for achieving
the goals of socialism.
Hence, a compromise was made and India adopted
democratic socialism-It means the goals of socialism were
to be achieved through democratic means. For this purpose
Article 39 clause (b) & (c) were incorporated under the
Constitution of India.
❖ Article 39(b) says, State shall try to ensure equitable
distribution of resources among people, Article 39(c) says,
State shall endeavour to prevent concentration of wealth
into few hands. These are the most important socialistic
ideals provided under the Constitution (Details will be
discussed in Preamble Chapter).

Making of Indian Constitution (Different Social and political

perspective: (Part-2)

Various Social and Political perspective

3. Parliamentary Form of Government Vs Presidential form

of Government
There were strong currents in the Constituent Assembly in
favour of both Parliamentary and Presidential form of
government because the Presidential form of Government is
more suitable to federal set up. In a classic federal set up
like the USA, the Presidential Form of Government is more
suitable.
In the Constituent Assembly, people like K.M Panikkar
favoured Parliamentary form of government whereas
people like Krishna Swami Iyer favoured Presidential form
of government. However, given the experience of India with
Parliamentary Form of government, Pt. Nehru favoured
adoption of Parliamentary Form of government.
Indians were known to the working of Parliamentary form
of Government since Indian Councils Act, 1861 (although
Indians were nominated by British for the management of
Administration)
Since Morley-Minto reforms 1909, Indians had first-hand
experience of Parliamentary form of Government that is
why Parliamentary form of government was adopted in
Indian context.

Separate electorate Vs Reservation

Leaders like Pt. Nehru were not in favour of adoption of a
separate electorate in independent India because they were
of the view that any arrangement like separate electorate
will create the condition for partition of India in future.
Since India had already witnessed a painful partition, that
is why, the proposal for separate electorate was rejected
and reservation was granted to the vulnerable section of
society like Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.

Debate between Strong Centre Vs Strong State

Some members of the Constituent Assembly were in favour
of strong states. However, looking at India’s historical
experience, it was realised that it would not be prudent to
have strong States and weak Centre, given India’s historical
experiences and separatist tendencies.
Indian Constitution reflects a unique constitutional design
and establishes a strong Centre. In fact, several provisions
of the Indian Constitution like Article 3 establish that India
has strong Centre and weak states. For e.g., Under Article 3,
the Name, Area and Boundary of State can be changed
without the consent of states. If the central government
today decides to merge Uttarakhand with Uttar Pradesh,
then from tomorrow onwards Uttarakhand will disappear
from the map of India.

Parliamentary Supremacy Vs Judicial Supremacy

In a federal set up, the Constitution is treated as Supreme
which has resulted into supremacy of the judiciary.
Supremacy of judiciary is the result of following factors:
Differences may arise between Centre and States or among
States themselves.
There may be differences with respect to interpretation of
the Constitution.
In order to resolve the differences on above issues, there
must be an authority endowed with Power to Resolve the
disputes and there must be an authority which shall be the
final interpreter of the Constitution. This power in India is
vested with the Supreme Court.
India also adopted a Parliamentary form of government.
This works on the principles of Parliamentary Supremacy.
The two principles came into conflict i.e., federalism and
Parliamentary form of government. Ultimately a
compromise emerged in the Indian context, leading to the
concept of independent and impartial judiciary coming into
existence.
Fundamental Rights Vs Directive Principles of State Policy
(DPSPs)
In the Constituent Assembly, a large number of people
favoured that DPSPs must be justiciable, that is, enforceable
in court of law. According to them, if DPSPs are not made
justiciable then they are nothing more than pious
declarations.
However, it was decided to keep it non-justiciable, not
because these principles are not important but because they
required material resources at the disposal of State, that is,
States will try to implement DPSPs when there will be
availability of material resources at disposal of State.
For example, under Article 21A, the Right to Free and
Compulsory Education to children between the age group of
6 to 14 years has been made a Fundamental Right.
Therefore, it can be said that the Constituent Assembly
attached equal importance to both Directive Principles and
Fundamental Rights.

Preamble

General Introduction to the Preamble

❖ A preamble is an introductory statement in a document
which explains the philosophy and objectives of the
document.
❖ In a Constitution, it presents the intention of its framers,
the history behind its creation and core values and
principles of the Nation.
❖ The preamble can be referred to as the preface which
highlights the entire Constitution.
❖ K.M Munshi opines that the preamble is like a horoscope
of the nation which makes predictions about the future,
time of birth and nature of the nation.
❖ It is customary that a Constitution should have a
preamble but not compulsory.
❖ Preamble helps us to understand the intention behind the
creation of the Constitution.

Nature of Preamble
❖ Preamble is non-justiciable in nature and cannot be
enforced in court of law. In other words, the Preamble is a
non-operating part of the Constitution, that is, the Preamble
cannot override specific provisions of the Constitution. For
example, if there is a clash between the Preamble and
Article 21 of the Constitution then it is Article 21 that will
prevail over the Preamble.
❖ According to the Supreme Court, the Preamble helps us in
legal interpretation of the Constitution. If a provision of the
Constitution is capable of providing two or more
interpretations, then interpretation that tallies with
Preamble, shall be given preference by the court but it is
not mandatory.
❖ Preamble is called an ornamental part of the Constitution
and it is in the form of a declaration.

Purpose of Preamble
❖ The Preamble declares that the Constitution emanates
from the People and all authority enjoyed by the
Constitution is derived from the people themselves. The
Constitution locates sovereignty into the hands of people of
India.
Kehar singh Vs Union of India case, 1990
❖ In this case, the Supreme Court held that the constitution
emanates from the people, is a legal fiction and conclusive
assumption which cannot be tested in a court of law
because questioning this legal fiction will destroy the
Nation and Constitution.
❖ Preamble contains the enacting clause where it is stated
that the Constitution was enacted and adopted on 26th
November 1949. However, the Constitution commenced on
26th January 1950.

Landmark Case related to Preamble

S.C. have to deal with three basic issues related to Preamble
of Constitution of India:
1. Whether the Preamble is part of the Constitution or not?
2. Whether Preamble can be Amended?
3. Whether the Constitution has to be interpreted in light of
the Preamble?

Whether the Preamble is Part of the Constitution or not?

Traditional View:
❖ The Traditional view is that it is not a part of the
Constitution as the Preamble is not justiciable i.e., cannot be
enforced in a court of law. If the Preamble were to be
dropped, then it will not affect the functioning of the
Constitution.
❖ In the Berubari Case 1960, the Supreme Court held that
Preamble is not a part of the Constitution. According to
Pratap Banu Mehta, Preamble is not part of the
Constitution, this verdict was given by the Supreme Court
because the Indian Constitution also got influenced by a
number of Constitutions of the world and here in, the Court
took precedence from the USA. In the case of the USA, the
Supreme Court of USA did not accept the preamble as part
of the Constitution.

Modern View:
❖ On the other hand, the modern view is that the Preamble
is a part of the Constitution because the Parliament can
amend only part of the Constitution.
❖ But, in Kesavananda Bharati case, the Court held that
Preamble is an integral part of the Constitution of India.
The court also accepted the fact that earlier it had
overlooked an important fact that the preamble was
adopted by the Constituent Assembly by the motion after
the whole constitution was passed.

Whether the Preamble can be amended or not?

❖ The preamble is like the soul and spirit of the
Constitution, but it is not free from controversies. One of the
controversies about the preamble is its amenability. Article
368, which deals with the procedure of amendment, only
mentions about the amendment of the provision and not
part of the Constitution. Preamble is part but not provision.
❖ In opinion of Justice H.R Khanna, Preamble is a part of
Constitution whereas an interesting argument was
advanced by Justice Y.V Chandrachud, that Preamble may
be a part of Constitution, but it is not a provision of
constitution therefore we cannot amend the Constitution so
as to destroy the Preamble.
❖ The majority of Keshavananda Bharati case bench has
held that Preamble is the part of Constitution, and it can be
amended but the Parliament cannot amend the basic
features of Preamble because if these basic elements are
removed then structure will not survive and it will not be
the same Constitution and will not be able to maintain its
identity.
❖ The Preamble to Indian constitution was amended by
42nd Amendment Act 1976, wherein the words socialist,
secular and integrity were added to the Preamble to ensure
economic justice and elimination of inequality in income
and standards of life.
Secularism implies equality of all religions and religious
tolerance and does not identify any State Religion.
The word integrity ensures one of the major aims and
objective of the Preamble is ensuring unity and fraternity of
the State.

Whether the Constitution has to be interpreted in the Light

of Preamble?
❖ In A.K Gopalan Case 1950, the Supreme Court held that
the Constitution need not to be interpreted in the light of
preamble; it is to be used only when there is ambiguity
(when more than one case is possible.
❖ In Berubari Case 1960,
➢ The S.C held that the preamble is like a lighthouse.
➢ The Preamble is key to open minds of constituent
assembly when there is ambiguity.
❖ In Keshavananda Bharati case 1973, the Supreme Court
held that the Constitution has to be interpreted in light of
Noble Vision expressed in the Preamble.

Preamble (Part-2)

Ideals of Preamble
1. Sovereignty
➢ Sovereignty means uncontrolled and unlimited powers
while taking decisions. It means India does not recognize
any other powers while taking its decisions.
➢ It is often said that globalisation has impacted the
sovereignty of the nation state. In fact some experts also
say that globalisation has also diluted the sovereignty of
countries but it is not completely true that globalisation has
diluted the sovereignty of a country.
➢ It has certainly impacted sovereignty to a great extent
but sovereignty of a country largely remains intact.
➢ External sovereignty of a country in some cases is
certainly impacted under influence from external powers.
For example, India’s decision not to purchase crude oil
from Iran under American pressure is an example of impact
on Sovereignty by external powers.
➢ On the other hand, internal sovereignty refers to the
relationship between State and Individual within its
territory. Internal sovereignty relates to internal and
domestic affairs and by large, India’s internal sovereignty
is intact.
➢ In economic matters, sovereignty of nation has certainly
been impacted-
✓ For example, in any trade agreement between two
countries, interests of both the countries are to be taken
into account.
✓ For example, the economic sovereignty of a country gets
impacted under pressure from external agencies like the
IMF, World Bank etc.
➢ Globalisation has certainly impacted to a great extent
but the sovereignty of the nation still remains intact. India’s
decision to purchase crude oil from Russia despite pressure
tactics of the USA, is an example of exercise of India’s
sovereignty.
➢ Ability to exercise freedom depends on power and today
there is a significant increase in the power of India. India,
today, is recognized as the Engine of the Global Economy.
➢ According to IMF Chief Economic Adviser, Geeta Gopi
Nath, India contributes 15% to global GDP today. India is
the fastest growing emerging economic market, a nuclear
power and one of the strongest contenders for a permanent
seat in UNSC.
➢ All these factors make India’s position very strong and it
can be said that the majority of India’s decision is being
taken by India on its own.

2. Socialist ➢ According to the Supreme Court, in Samatha

Vs State of Andhra Pradesh case 1997, Socialism in India
means following:
✓ Reducing inequality in income.
✓ Reducing inequality in status.
✓ Providing equality of opportunity.
✓ Providing a life of dignity.
➢ India accepted the concept of Inclusive growth in 11th
and 12th five years plans to address the issue of inequality
and poverty.
➢ The Preamble seeks to establish democratic socialism
which is also known as Fabian Socialism. It means
socialistic goals are to be achieved through democratic
means. The socialistic goals are included under the
Directive Principles of State Policy. These goals are given
under two articles,
✓ Article 39(b) – It mandates that the State shall take steps
to ensure equitable distribution of resources so that
material resources of the country must be used for the
benefits of the common good.
✓ Article39 (c) says that the State shall take measures to
prevent concentration of wealth into few hands.
➢ Democratic socialism holds faith in a Mixed economy
where both the public and private sector co-exist
simultaneously.
➢ Democratic socialism is also called Fabian Socialism.
Fabian Socialism regards the transition from capitalism to
socialism as a gradual process through peaceful use of
Economic and Political agencies.

Impact of economic reforms on socialistic goals

Has India deviated from its socialistic goals?

❖ Argument against:
➢ According to some experts, India has deviated away
from its socialistic goals. Economic reforms of India have
created inequality in society. Economic reforms have also
resulted in regional disparity e.g., southern states and
western states are economically more successful than
Northern states.
➢ It is also said that those who are educated are more
successful than others who are not so educated.
❖ Counter arguments: ➢ It is wrong to say that Indian
states has deviated from socialistic principles because of
following reasons:
✓ India has been trying hard to reduce inequality in
society. The Indian state has been actively trying to ensure
minimal inequality in society. For example, Under Prime
Minister Jan Kalyan Yojana, the Indian state has provided
free ration to almost 800 million people during Covid-19
period.
✓ Through mechanisms like Progressive Taxation, the
Indian state has been trying to reduce inequality.
✓ The Indian State has recalibrated its strategy to reduce
inequality in India and it has been fairly successful in this
regard.
✓ Jan Dhan- Aadhar- Mobile Trinity has helped in financial
inclusion of the poor and it has also helped in reducing
corruption and extending benefits to the poor.

3. Secularism
➢ It means worldly as opposed to otherworldly or spiritual.
Secularism means the State is neutral on religious grounds.
➢ The Secular State does not recognise religion as the
official religion of the country. So, Secularism means the
existence of religious tolerance, diversity, and pluralism in
the field of religion.
➢ It means that all religions have the right to co-exist on
the soil of India. It means the state is neither religious nor
anti-religious or irreligious but only non-religious in
character.
➢ Secularism in India is based upon the principle of
‘Sarvadharma Sambhava’ which means all religions are
equal.

Western Secularism
❖ It is completely separated from religion. The State
cannot patronise any religion whereas in India the State is
free to protect any religion provided no discrimination is
shown between any religion.
❖ Secularism in India is provided under Article 25 to 28,
which are the Fundamental Rights of the Constitution.

➢ The Supreme Court in St. Xavier’s Vs State of Gujarat

explained the meaning of Indian Secularism as “State is
neither anti-God or pro-God. It treats the devouts,
agnostics, and atheists alike. It eliminates God from the
matters of State and ensures that no one shall be
discriminated against on the basis of religion. Every person
is free to mould or regulate its relation with God”.
➢ According to neo-Gandhian scholar T N Madan,
Secularism is not possible without Secularisation. It means
reducing the role of religion in the lives of people.
➢ D. E. Smith has concluded the first work on Indian
Secular State and held that minorities are custodians of
Secularism. He acknowledges the role of minorities in the
formation of a secular foundation in the Indian State. Had
there been no active protest by the minorities, the State
would not have granted them special rights, and he also
acclaimed that the way minorities organise themselves will
also shape the future of secularism in India.

Preamble (Part-3)

Ideals of Preamble

4. Democratic
➢ Ambedkar believes that democracy is not one man-one
vote but also value. Social and economic democracy is as
important as political democracy. Hence, he advocated
protection of minority rights.
➢ Democracy means government is “of the people, for the
people and by the people”. The form of democracy provided
in India is Multi- Party Democracy. The kind of democracy
provided is Representative Democracy. It is based on the
one man one vote and one value principle. It is provided
under Article 326 which provides for Universal Adult
Suffrage, that is, the Right to Vote cannot be discriminated
against on the grounds of religion, race, caste, sex etc.
(Universal). Adults who are above 18 years of age have got
the right to vote. Suffrage means the right to vote.

5. Republic
➢ Democratic Republic
✓ The head of state is elected directly or indirectly by the
people and is not a hereditary monarch. India has an
elected president who is the Head of the State and any
person who is a citizen of India can occupy all offices
including that of President. It means any person can
become President of India.

Aspirations
1. Justice ➢ The Constitution of India provides a
wholesome form of justice e.g., Preamble talks about all
three forms of Justice i.e., social justice, it means there
should be equal treatment of all citizens without social
distinction based on caste, religion, race, sex etc. It has
been provided under Article 14 to Article 18.
➢ Economic Justice
✓ Economic justice implies that there should be no
discrimination between people on the basis of Economic
Factors. It has been provided under Article 39(b) &39(c).
➢ Political Justice
✓ Political justice denotes that all citizens should have
equal political rights, equal access to all political offices
and equal voices in the government. It has been provided
under Article 326.

2. Liberty
➢ The term Liberty means Freedom of an individual to do
what he considers best to himself and does not violate
others’ rights.
➢ Liberty does not mean licence, it means responsibility.
➢ Liberty also means the absence of arbitrary powers
exercised by the State over individuals.
➢ Preamble talks about two forms of Liberty:
1. Liberty of thought and expression provided under Article
19 [(1) (a)]. 2. Liberty of belief, faith and worship. It has
been provided by Article 25-28.

3. Equality
➢ Equality means the absence of privileges to a Group of
people and also enough opportunity to all individuals
without discrimination.
➢ Preamble talks two kinds of equality:
1. Equality of status is guaranteed under Article 15, 16, 17
and 18.
2. Equality of opportunity provided under Article 16.

4. Fraternity
➢ It is a sense of brotherhood prevalent among all the
people of India when they feel they are sons and daughters
of the same soil.
➢ It leads to social harmony, and it promotes integrity
among people.
Significance of Preamble
❖ The preamble reflects the sacrifices made and the
struggles faced by the people of India in their fight for an
independent India. It pays homage to the freedom fighters
and the principles for which they fought.
❖ The use of the words such as justice, liberty, and equality
in the Preamble reflects the influence of the International
ideals and principles. It highlights India’s commitment to
global values of human rights, social justice, and equality.
❖ The Preamble of the Indian Constitution encapsulates the
foundational values, principles and objectives that guide
the nation’s governance. It plays a significant role in
shaping the interpretation and application of the provisions
of the Constitution and serves as a reminder of the vision
and the goals of the framers of the Constitution.

Concluding Remarks
❖ The Preamble of the Indian Constitution lays down the
nature of the Indian State and the objectives which are to
be achieved for all the citizens of India. It also upholds the
sovereignty of the people of India and records the date on
which the Constitution was finally adopted by the
Constituent Assembly. Each word of the Preamble conveys a
set of ideals. The interpretation of the Constitution is done
keeping in mind the Preamble.
❖ Challenges do exist while we try to realise these ideals
fully, but the Preamble continues to serve as a foundation
stone for India’s constitutional framework and democratic
governance.

Questions Asked
1. Mention the founding principles that define India’s
Constitution. (2021)
2. In the light of neo-economic policies adopted since 1991,
examine the relevance of the term ‘socialist’ in the
Preamble. (2015)
3. Comment: Secularism in the Indian Constitution. (2015)
4. Comment: Significance of the Preamble. (2013)
5. Minorities are the natural custodians of the secular state.
Discuss. (2010)
6. Explain the main principles embodied in the Preamble to
the Constitution of India. What is their significance? Do you
think that they are the political horoscope of the country?
Discuss. (2004)

Fundamental Rights

Significance of Rights
❖ Rights are those conditions that help an individual in
realising his true self. If an individual will not have rights,
then his personality will not develop to its fullest and the
individual will not be able to make a contribution to
society.
❖ Without rights an individual will become a subject – he
will have only duties to follow.

Meaning of Rights
❖ The rights are claims of individuals which get recognition
from society, rights also get enforced by the state.
❖ The rights are considered as an entitlement of an
individual to perform certain actions and not to perform
certain actions.
Relationships between Rights and Duties
❖ Rights and Duties are part of the same coin, they are
complementary to each other.
❖ Rights cannot last long without corresponding
obligations. If individuals have only rights and no duties,
then an individual will have no constructive contribution to
society and the person will become nearly a critic.

Natural Rights
❖ Natural rights are those rights that are granted to
individuals by nature. An individual enjoys these rights
since birth. For example, the right to life and liberty.
❖ Natural rights can be termed as fundamental rights also,
for example, the right to life and the right to liberty are
part of fundamental rights provided under the Indian
Constitution.

Human Rights
❖ These rights are enjoyed by an individual because he or
she is a human being. His rights are universal in nature.
❖ These rights became universal in nature after the UN
Declaration of Human Rights in 1948.
❖ The violation of human rights today may be a cause of
conflict tomorrow, that is why the protection of human
rights is the responsibility of every country.

Rights are of two types:

1. Constitutional Rights: The rights which are provided
under the Constitution.
2. Extra-Constitutional Rights: The rights which are created
later on and not provided under the original constitution.
For example, MGNREGA.

Differences Between Fundamental Rights and Legal Rights:

❖ The rights can be divided into two forms such as
Fundamental Rights and Legal Rights.
❖ Both the Fundamental Rights and Legal Rights are legally
enforceable.
❖ The difference between fundamental rights and legal
rights are:
➢ If Fundamental rights are violated then the aggrieved
individual has the right to approach the Supreme Court
directly under Article 32 for the enforcement of his rights.
➢ Whereas, if any other legal rights are violated then the
aggrieved individual has the right to approach the High
Court under Article 226 by filing a writ petition or
approaching a subordinate court by filing a legal suit.

Meaning of Fundamental rights

❖ Fundamental rights under Indian Constitution are based
on “Bill of Rights” of USA. This Bill of Rights was
incorporated under the USA Constitution. The USA
Constitution is the first constitution of the world which has
given constitutional status to fundamental rights.

Why are these rights called fundamental rights?

❖ These rights are called fundamental rights because they
are considered essential for an individual to attain his or
her fullest intellectual, physical, moral, and spiritual
stature. So, without fundamental rights, the person may not
be able to develop his or her fullest capabilities. For this
purpose, they are called Fundamental rights.
❖ Fundamental rights help in the effective functioning of
democracy. Thus, Part -3 or fundamental rights is called the
cornerstone of Indian Democracy. Part-3 along with Part-4
is said to constitute the very conscience of the Indian
Constitution. Part-3 along with Part-4 also constitutes the
intellectual content of the Constitution.
❖ According to Dr. Ambedkar, we are having this liberty in
order to reform our social system which is full of inequality,
discrimination and other things which conflict with our
fundamental rights.

Views of Political Scholars on Rights

❖ John Locke: He argued that individuals have natural
rights to life, liberty, and property. He believed that these
rights are inalienable and form the basis for a just
government. Locke's ideas laid the foundation for modern
liberal democracy.
❖ Thomas Hobbes: He believed that in a state of nature,
human life would be "nasty, brutish, and short." To avoid
this, he argued that individuals enter into a social contract
to establish a strong central authority (the Leviathan) to
protect their rights, including the right to self-preservation.
❖ Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Rousseau emphasised the
concept of the "general will." He argued that a legitimate
government must be based on the collective will of the
people and that individuals should participate in shaping
laws that promote the common good while respecting
individual rights.
❖ John Stuart Mill: He argued that society should only limit
individual freedom to prevent harm to others and that the
free expression of ideas is crucial for societal progress.
❖ Hannah Arendt: Arendt focused on the importance of
political participation and the public realm. She believed
that fundamental rights, such as freedom of speech and
assembly, enable individuals to engage in politics and
exercise their humanity.
❖ Amartya Sen: He is known for his capability approach,
which emphasises that fundamental rights should enable
individuals to achieve their potential and lead a life they
value. He argues for a broader view of rights beyond just
civil and political rights to include economic and social
rights.

Quotes on Fundamental Rights

❖ "Fundamental rights are the cornerstones of a just and
democratic society, protecting the dignity and freedom of
every individual." - Amartya Sen.
❖ "Fundamental rights are the moral compass that guides a
society toward justice and equality." - Ronald Dworkin.
❖ "To deny people their human rights is to challenge their
very humanity." - Nelson Mandela.
❖ "Freedom means the supremacy of human rights
everywhere. Our support goes to those who struggle to gain
those rights and keep them. Our strength is our unity of
purpose." - Franklin D. Roosevelt.

Nature of Fundamental Rights

❖ Fundamental rights are enjoyed by individuals as they
are called Individual Rights. Fundamental rights are
enforceable in the Court of Law. It means these rights have
to be respected by the state.
❖ However, Rights against Untouchability, Rights against
Exploitation, and right to freedom of movement are
enforceable against both the state as well as individuals.
❖ Fundamental rights are regarded as limitations against
the state's power. Fundamental rights are limited because
states will have to respect them.
❖ Fundamental rights are called a negative obligation of
the state and they are largely in the form of injunction
against the state. Fundamental rights are called negative
obligations because most of these rights are holding back
the state.
However, these rights are not absolute rights, they are
restricted rights because if the rights are unlimited and
uncontrolled and there will be only chaos in society.
❖ Fundamental rights are restricted on following grounds:
1. To maintain sovereignty, security and integrity of India.
2. To maintain friendly relations with foreign states.
3. Defamation of individuals.
4. To maintain public order, morality and decency.
5. In the interest of S.T in case of defamation of individuals.
6. Advancement of socially and educationally backward
classes.
❖ These restrictions are provided either in the original
constitution or parliamentary authority to impose
reasonable restrictions. It is for the Judiciary to decide
whether these restrictions imposed by parliament are
reasonable or not.
Judicial Review
❖ It is implicitly given under the Indian Constitution. Only
in case of fundamental rights it is explicitly given. It is the
power of superior courts, that is, Supreme Court and High
Courts to declare a law as unconstitutional and void if it
violates one or more provisions of the Constitution to the
extent of such violation.
❖ The Judicial Review is available for the courts both
against the legislative and executive actions. The Judicial
Review is more implied under the Constitution where it is
available under the writ jurisdiction of the Supreme Court
given under Article 32 and High Courts given under Article
226.
❖ Further under doctrine of Limited Government where the
power of government is limited by the concept of
Supremacy of Constitution, Federalism, Separation of
Power, Fundamental Rights, Rule of Law, etc. implicitly
confers the power of judicial review on the court.
❖ However, while applying judicial review, the courts are
bound by following three conditions:
➢ Ordinarily, the court shall not pronounce the
constitutionality of the law that has not been brought into
force.
➢ If two interpretations of a Law are possible by the court,
where the first interpretation leads to harmony with
constitutional provision, and the second interpretation leads
to conflict with the Constitution then the court shall prefer
first interpretation to second.
➢ Ordinarily the court shall not act Suo-moto while
applying the principle of judicial review.

Benefits of Judicial Review

1. Judicial review has helped in maintaining the Supremacy
of the Constitution.
2. To maintain the Rule of Law.
3. Balance between Part-3 and Part-4 of the Constitution.

Q.1 Discuss the efficacy of judicial review in India.

Answer Structure: ❖ Introduction (35- 40 Words): Judicial
Review is the power of the Supreme Courts and High Courts
to review an executive order or a law made by the
Parliament and ascertain whether Law made by Parliament
and decisions taken by Executive is in line with the
Constitutional principles or not. The power of Judicial
Review in India is available to Supreme Courts and High
Courts but it is implicitly provided under the Indian
Constitution. But only in case of the Fundamental Rights
under Article 13, it has been explicitly provided.
❖ Part 2: In Raj Narain Vs Indira Gandhi case, the Supreme
Court called Judicial Review as part of the Basic structure
of the Constitution. The court has applied Judicial Review
on many issues of public importance without any complaint
from the aggrieved party.
➢ Judicial Review as a concept has helped in enormously
expanding the scope of Article 21 and Article 19.
➢ Judicial Review has also helped in maintaining the
balance among the three organs of the State i.e.,
Legislative, Executive
➢ It has helped in maintaining the Rule of Law.
➢ It has prevented the Executive from taking decisions
beyond their Constitutional mandate.
➢ It has helped in maintaining a balance between the
Fundamental rights and the Directive Principles of State
Policy.
➢ Judicial Review has helped in maintaining the supremacy
of the Constitution.
❖ Part 3: Many landmark judgments have been made by
the Supreme Court by invoking the principle of Judicial
Review that has helped in making India's democracy more
robust and people centric. It has forced the Executive to
follow Constitutional Mandate and to ensure Rule of Law in
the administration.

Q: 2 Secularism in the Indian constitution. (To be discussed

in Next class).

Fundamental Rights (Part-2)

Amendability of Fundamental Rights

Article 13 (2) says that the State shall not make any “law”
which takes away or abridges one or more Fundamental
Rights, such a law shall be unconstitutional and void to the
extent of such infringement.

First Constitutional Amendment Act: The First

Constitutional Amendment Act of 1951 has amended a few
fundamental rights. Its Constitutionality was challenged
before the Supreme Court in the Shankari Prasad Case of
1951.

Shankari Prasad Vs Union of India Case (1951): In this case

the Supreme Court while upholding its Constitutional
validity held that the Parliament enjoys two types of
legislative power:
Constituent Legislative Power under Article 368.
Ordinary Legislative Power.
Any enactment made by Parliament in the exercise of its
power under Article 368 is called a ‘Constitutional
Amendment Act’ which does not come under the meaning of
the ‘law’ found under Article 13 (2). Whereas any act passed
in the exercise of its ordinary legislative power is called
‘law’ and comes within the meaning of Article 13 (2).
Therefore, the Parliament can amend any part of the
Constitution including the fundamental rights by virtue of
its power under Article 368. The court consistently held this
view in a number of cases leading to the Sajjan Singh Vs
State of Rajasthan Case in 1965.

Golaknath Vs State of Punjab Case (1967): In this case, the

Supreme Court overruled its earlier decisions and held that
Article 368 did not confer the power on the Parliament to
amend the Constitution and it merely contained the
procedure to amend the Constitution. Therefore, the
Parliament enjoyed only one type of legislative power called
ordinary legislative power. Thus, the Court held that the
Constitution was unamendable.
Further, the court also declared that the fundamental rights
had given a transcendental position or overriding position
under the Constitution and no authority functioning under
the Constitution including the Parliament can amend the
fundamental rights.

24th Constitutional Amendment Act of 1972: The Parliament

responded by enacting the 24th Constitutional Amendment
Act 1971 which amended the title of Article 368, which now
reads as the power of the Parliament to amend the
Constitution and the procedure, therefore. It also
introduced Article 368 (3) which states that nothing under
Article 13 shall apply to any amendment made under Article
368. It also introduced Article 13 (4) which states that
nothing in this Article shall apply to any amendment made
to the Constitution under Article 368.

Keshavananda Bharati Case (1973): In the Keshavananda

Bharati Vs State of Kerala Case (1973), the Supreme Court
held that the 24th Amendment Act was Constitutionally
valid. The Court also classified that; the Parliament can
amend any part of the Constitution including the
fundamental rights by virtue of its constituent legislative
power given under Article 368.
However, such an amending power of the Parliament is not
unlimited, and it is limited to the extent of not violating the
Basic Structure of the Constitution. For this purpose, the
Supreme Court innovated the doctrine of basic structure,
but the court has not defined what is the basic structure of
the Constitution.
In a number of cases the Court has only indicated what
aspects of the Constitution form part of the basic structure
of the Constitution.
This includes:
The sovereignty of India
Mandate to build a welfare state (Socialism)
Secularism
Democratic and Republican form of government
Parliamentary form of government
Judicial Review
Separation of Power
Free and fair election
Rule of law
Balance among the three organs of State
Balance between Part III and Part IV of the Constitution.

42nd Constitutional Amendment (1976):

The Parliament enacted the 42nd Amendment Act, 1976,
which among other things introduced Article 368 (4), which
states no amendment of the Constitution made under Article
368 shall be called in question in any court on any ground.
It also introduced Article 368 (3) which states for the
removal of any doubt. It is hereby declared that there is no
limitation whatsoever on the constituent power of the
Parliament to amend any provision of the Constitution
under Article 368. These two clauses were challenged before
the Supreme Court in the Minerva Mill Case.

Minerva Mill Case 1980:

In the Minerva Mills vs Union of India Case 1980, the
Supreme Court struck down these two clauses as
unconstitutional and void as it took away the power of
Judicial review of the Court which is a part of the basic
structure of the Constitution.
The present position, therefore, is that the Parliament can
amend any part of the Constitution including the
fundamental rights but in the process the Parliament
cannot destroy the basic structure of the Constitution.

Benefits of Basic Structure:

It has helped in maintaining the supremacy of the
Constitution.
It has helped in maintaining the balance among the three
organs of the State.
It helped in maintaining the balance between Part III and
PART IV of the Constitution.
It provides dynamism to the Constitution.
It has helped in providing the foundation for the further
evolution of the Constitution called in question in any court
on any ground.

Right to Equality (Article- 14)

Article 14, it says that the State shall not deny any
individual right to Equality before Law and Equal
Protection of Law.

Equality Before Law

The concept of Equality before Law originated in England
and is regarded as a negative concept because it means
absence of privileges for any individual in the eyes of law.
In other words, the Law treats all persons equal without
any distinction based on rank and position in society.
This principle means all individuals are subject to ordinary
jurisdiction of law and a person can sue and be sued before
the Court of Law. However, it guarantees only juridic
equality and not other types of equality but there are few
exceptions to Equality before law:
-The President of India or Governor of State is not subject
to jurisdiction of the court while discharging its executive
function. This principle is based on the presumption that the
king can do no wrong. -No Criminal proceedings
whatsoever can be instituted against the President or
Governor of a State during his term of office even if the
President does a criminal act- he will not be answerable in
any court of law unless he is impeached.
-No Civil proceedings in which relief or compensation is
sought, can be filed against the President or the Governor
of a State unless two-month notice is being served upon
them.
-Under International law, foreign diplomats and their
families are not subject to jurisdiction of local courts while
discharging their official function. The best local
government can do is to declare the person as not wanted
in the country.

Rule of Law
The concept of the Rule of Law originated in England. It is
found under Article 14 of Indian Constitution. It means
absolute supremacy of regular law as opposed to the
influence of arbitrary powers. It means the predominance
of legal spirit in the administration of the country and
government shall be subjected to the law and not the other
way round, that is, the law is not subjected to government.
It means law is supreme i.e., lex supremus or in other
words, law is the highest authority in the country. It means
be you ever so high the law is always above you. It is the
adoption of rule of law that changed the conception of
administration from REX-LEX, that is, King is Law to
LEX-REX, that is, Law is King. The Rule of Law is essential
for maintaining order in society and without this
administration cannot function smoothly. The Rule of Law is
essential for the healthy functioning of democracy.
The Supreme Court under Article 32 and High Court under
Article 226 respectively is empowered to implement the rule
of law.
According to the Supreme Court, the rule of law pervades
the entire constitution. It is one of the basic values on which
the entire constitution has been built. Therefore, the
Supreme Court held that rule of law is the part of basic
structure of the constitution which is applicable under all
circumstance except the three exception is given in case of
President or Governor of State
It was A.C Dicey, a British legal commentator who
popularised this idea of Rule of Law through his book –
“Law and the Constitution.” According to him, Rule of Law
means following things:
1. No person shall be punished or made to suffer in body or
goods except for the violation of law. Such a violation of
law shall be established in an ordinary court of law in an
ordinary legal manner.
2. All persons are subject to ordinary law of the land
without any distinction of rank or position.
3. The Constitution is the result of ordinary law of land, but
this third principle is not applied in the case of India
because the Constitution is the Supreme Law of Land in
India and all laws passed by Legislature must conform to
the Constitution.

Equal Protection of the Laws

The Concept of Equal Protection of Law originated in the
USA, and it is regarded as a positive concept. It means
equality of treatment in equal circumstances. Among equals
law should be applied equally. It ensures equality among
equals, it does not ensure inequality among equals or
equality among unequals.
The State while making laws, must take into account
situational variations in which different individuals are
placed. Therefore, the state is justified in classifying people
into different categories. It is for the judiciary to decide
whether such classifications are legal or not or reasonable
or not. It is this concept which justifies positive
discrimination on the part of the state and application of
reservation policy in favour of Backward classes of citizens.
Another example is Progressive Taxation i.e., Different tax
slabs for different income groups to create a level playing
field in society.

Fundamental Rights (Part-3)

Article 15
❖ It is available only to citizens.
Article 15 (1):
❖ It says the State cannot discriminate against any citizen
on grounds only on religion, race, sex, caste, and place of
birth or any of them.
❖ Therefore, if there are any other valid grounds on which
discrimination is allowed then Article 15 (1) does not
prohibit it.
Article 15 (2):
❖ It prohibits both the State and private individuals from
discriminating against the citizens only on the grounds of
race, religion, caste, sex, place of birth or any of them.
❖ Therefore, it prevents both the state and private
individuals from stopping any citizen from having access to
public wells, tanks, roads, restaurants, places of
entertainment, etc. It also helps to fight against
untouchability along with Article 17.
Article 15 (3):
❖ The State is free to make special provisions in favour of
women and children. For example, Beti Bachao Beti Padhao,
Integrated Child Development Scheme, etc.
Article 15 (4): ❖ It was introduced to the Constitution by the
First Constitutional Amendment Act, 1951. It empowers the
State to make a special provision for the advancement of
socially and educationally backward classes of citizens.
Article 15 (5): It empowers the State to make special
provisions for citizens belonging to socially and
educationally backward classes, not only in
government-run institutions but also in private and unaided
institutions.
❖ It was introduced into the Constitution by the 93rd
Constitutional Amendment Act 2005. This Article empowers
the State to provide special arrangements for the socially
and educationally backward classes of citizens. It
empowers the State to provide reservations of seats even in
unaided educational institutions except for minority
educational institutions.

NOTE:
❖ In the P.A. Inamdar Vs State of Maharashtra Case (2005),
Supreme Court stated that the State cannot impose the
policy of reservation on unaided educational institutions.
❖ The Supreme Court upheld the Constitutional validity of
the 93rd Constitutional Amendment Act in the Ashok Thakur
Vs Union of India Case.

Article 15 (6):
❖ It empowers the State to make special provisions for
economically weaker sections of citizens.
❖ The State is empowered to provide 10% of the
reservation of seats for the EWS (Economically weaker
section) category for admission into educational institutions
– both aided and unaided educational institutions except
minority institutions.
❖ The 103rd Constitutional Amendment Act of 2019
provides 10% reservation to Economically Weaker Sections
(EWS) of society for admission to the centre of government
and private educational institutions.

NOTE: ❖ In order to identify the EWS category (for up to

10% reservation) following criteria will be used:
➢ Family income
➢ Economic disadvantage indices, etc.

Article 16 (4):
❖ It empowers the State to reserve seats in favour of
socially and educationally backward class of citizens in
public employment.
❖ Article 16 (4) is called an enabling clause because
without Article 16 (4) the State cannot reserve seats for the
backward class in public employment. But Article 16 (4)
does not confirm a fundamental right of the backward class
of citizens for reservation in public employment.
❖ Under Article 16 (4) various conditions must be
considered by the State to reserve seats in favour of the
backward class of citizens.
➢ The said class of citizens shall be educationally and
socially backward.
➢ The backward class of citizens should not be adequately
represented in government employment.

Indra Sawhney Vs Union of India Case (1992):

❖ In this case the Supreme Court clarified the legal
position on reservation policies. It is also known as Mandal
Case.
➢ The Court held the reservation of 27% of seats in favour
of OBC as Constitutionally valid. However, it directed the
State to identify the creamy layer among OBC and remove
them from availing the benefits of reservation.
➢ The reservation of seats in favour of backward classes
shall not exceed 50% ordinarily, under any extraordinary
circumstance. It can exceed 50% (as reservations are given
to females and differently abled apart from SCs or STs).
➢ The reservation for backward classes is provided only at
the entry level.
❖ In this judgement the Supreme Court ruled that 10% of
seats reserved by the Narasimha Rao Government for
economically backward class of citizens among the forward
community as unconstitutional and void because the
Constitution provides the reservation only on the basis of
social and educational backwardness and not for
financially backward classes.

Policy of Reservation in Promotion:

❖ Both the State and the Central Government have
introduced reservation of seats in favour of STs and SCs in
public employment to provide for faster promotional
avenues.
❖ In the Indra Sawhney case (1992) the above policy was
declared as unconstitutional and void on the ground that
under Article 16 (4) State is empowered to provide
reservation to backward classes only at entry level at the
time of recruitment only and not subsequent to recruitment.
❖ The Parliament enacted the 77th Constitutional
Amendment of 1995, which introduced Article 16 (4) (a), it
empowers the State to provide reservations for SCs and STs
in promotion provided that these two communities are not
adequately represented in public employment in the opinion
of the State.

M. Nagraj vs Union of India Case (2006):

❖ In this case the Supreme Court held that such a
reservation policy is Constitutionally valid. However, it
should fulfil the following requirements:
➢ SCs and STs community shall be socially and
educationally backward.
➢ SCs and STs communities are not adequately represented
in public employment.
➢ Such a reservation policy doesn’t affect overall
efficiency in administration.

Vertical Reservation:
❖ Rules regarding vertical reservation were given by the
Supreme Court in the Indra Sawhney Case (1992).
❖ In this case the Supreme Court stated that overall
reservation in favour of Backward classes shall not exceed
50% except in exceptional conditions.
Tamil Nadu Reservation Policy (Exception to the above
rule):
❖ Tamil Nadu is the only State where the percentage of
seats reserved for backward classes exceeds 50% and it is
69%.
❖ This policy became unconstitutional and void when the
rule of vertical reservation was introduced by the Supreme
Court in the Indra Sawhney Case and the Tamil Nadu
Government was forced to scale down this reservation
policy to 50%.
❖ But the Tamil Nadu Assembly enacted the Tamil Nadu
Reservation Act 1994, under which 69% of seats are
reserved for the backward classes.
❖ This Act was placed under the 9th Schedule by
Parliament which was not subject to Judicial review at that
time.
NOTE: ❖ Article 31-B was introduced to the Constitution by
the First Constitutional Amendment 1951 and it says that
acts placed under the 9th Schedule are not subject to
Judicial Review.

IR Coelho Vs State of Tamil Nadu Case (2007):

❖ The Supreme Court in IR Coelho vs State of Tamil Nadu
Case (2007) held that any acts placed under the 9th
Schedule before 24th April 1973 (the date on which Doctrine
of Basic Structure was innovated) are not subject to Judicial
Review. In other words, these are not subject to the Doctrine
of Basic Structure and cannot be challenged in the Court of
law.
❖ Therefore, all the acts which were placed under the 9th
Schedule on or after 24th April 1973 are subject to the
Doctrine of Basic Structure and subject to Judicial Review.
This pronouncement of the Supreme Court made Tamil
Nadu Reservation Act 1994 subject to Judicial review.

Carry Forward Policy:

❖ It is being followed by the Central and the State
Governments in favour of SCs and STs in case of public
employment.
❖ Under this policy, the unfilled vacancies due to the
non-availability of suitable candidates are carried forward
to the following year and filled only by SCs and STs
community.
❖ Since this carry-forward policy may violate the rule of
vertical reservation of 50% that is why Article 16 (4) (B)
was introduced by the Parliament through the 81st
Constitutional Amendment Act 2000.
➢ It authorises the State to follow the carry forward policy
and such a policy will be valid even if it exceeds 50%
reservation.

Article 19 ❖ It guarantees six democratic rights to citizens.

These rights are called as democratic rights because they
are considered to be essential for the healthy functioning of
democracy.
Article 19 (1) (a):
❖ It guarantees the right to freedom of speech and
expression.
❖ It has been described by the Supreme Court as an
inalienable adjunct to right to life under Article 21 i.e.,
something which cannot be separated from Article 21.
❖ It enhances the quality of life and makes life more
dignified.
❖ This right has several meanings; it means the right of a
citizen to express his own view and opinion freely and
openly.
❖ It can openly express one’s own view without any fear
and restriction by the government. It also means the right
of the citizens to choose any conceivable medium to express
his view.
❖ One can express his expression and opinion by signal, by
speaking, by holding banners or even by observing silence.
❖ It allows citizens to express the views of foreigners under
Article 19. ❖ The right to freedom of press and publication
is mentioned under Article 19.
❖ This right is implicitly provided under Article 19 (1) (a).
This right is given not only to press but also TV, Media,
Radio, etc.
❖ It also includes the right to have access to information.
Nobody can be prevented from having access to
information.
❖ The Right to Information (RTI) is implicit under Article
19 (1) (a). RTI Act, 2005 merely regulates the right already
given to us under Article 19 (1) (a).
❖ The right to have political dissent i.e., to have a different
political view also comes under this Article. It strengthened
democracy.
❖ According to the Supreme Court rights given under
Article 19 (1) (a) are not limited to geographical land,
political boundaries.
❖ An Indian citizen continued to enjoy these rights even
while travelling abroad.
❖ Grounds on which these rights have restricted:
➢ On the grounds of maintenance of public order, morality
and decency.
➢ In the interest of the security of India.
➢ In the interest of maintaining friendly relations with
foreign states.
➢ In case of defamation and contempt of court.

First Amendment Act, 1951

Short Note on the First Amendment Act, 1951

Introduction: The First Amendment to the Indian

Constitution, 1951, introduced several crucial changes to the
newly established constitutional framework of India. This
amendment aimed to address key issues and lay the
foundation for a more inclusive and stable democratic
society.

Objectives:
Restricting Freedom of Speech and Expression:
The amendment added limitations to the right to freedom of
speech and expression in the form of 'public order,' 'friendly
relations with foreign states,' and 'incitement to an offence.'
Special Provisions for Backward Classes:
It introduced Clause 4 in Article 15 to enable the
government to make special provisions for socially and
educationally backward classes, Scheduled Castes, and
Scheduled Tribes.
Land Reforms:
Articles 31A and 31B were added to exempt land reforms
from constitutional scrutiny. Additionally, the Ninth
Schedule was inserted to protect laws related to land reform
from challenges against violations of fundamental rights.

Key Changes Made by the First Amendment Act, 1951:

Right to Non-discrimination:
A fourth clause was added to Article 15, allowing the
government to make special provisions for socially and
educationally backward classes without restrictions.
Restrictions on Freedom of Speech:
Modifications were made to Article 19, specifying that
freedom of speech and expression could be limited in the
interest of security, foreign relations, public order, decency,
morality, contempt of court, defamation, or incitement to
an offence.
Saving of Certain Laws:
Articles 31A and 31B aimed to address social and economic
disparities in the agricultural sector.
Presidential/Governor Powers:
It altered the provisions regarding the sessions,
prorogation, and dissolution of Parliament and State
Legislatures, specifying the powers of the President and
Governors.
Provisions for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes:
Amendments in Article 341 and Article 342 extended the
application of certain provisions to specific states.
Addition of Ninth Schedule:
The First Amendment added the Ninth Schedule to the
Constitution, providing protection to laws related to land
reforms. Over time, more Acts were included in this
schedule, totaling 284 Acts.

Criticisms:
Broad Powers under Article 31(A): It granted the
government sweeping authority to acquire property without
being challenged for violating fundamental rights like
equality (Article 14) and freedom of speech (Article 19). This
raised concerns about unchecked government power.
Limitations on Freedom of Speech: The amendment
introduced additional grounds for restricting free speech,
seen by many as arbitrary state action, prompting
questions about the necessity and proportionality of these
limitations.
Misuse of the Ninth Schedule: Originally intended for land
reforms and agricultural development, the Ninth Schedule
saw the addition of approximately 270 legislations,
effectively shielding potentially unconstitutional laws from
legal challenges. Overall the First Amendment Act faced
criticism for expanding government powers, limiting free
speech, and the perceived misuse of the Ninth Schedule.

Conclusion: It was introduced just 15 months after the

Constitution's commencement. While some praised it for its
broad approach to ensuring equality for all, others
criticised it for limiting free speech rights under Article 19.

Article 19 (1) (b)

❖ It guarantees the right to have peaceful assembly. It also
includes the right to hold meetings and take out procession.
❖ However, the assembly shall be peaceful and without
arms. restrictions can be improved in the interest of
maintenance of public order, morality and decency.

Article 19 (1) (c):

❖ It guarantees the Right to form Associations. The
Supreme Court said that it includes the right to join or not
to join; continue or not to continue with association. The
right to form association includes the right to form cultural,
political, social and economic association.
❖ It is Right to form political associations and trade
unions. But according to the Supreme Court the right to
form a trade union does not confirm a fundamental right to
strike.
❖ The Supreme Court in CPMB Bharat Kumar Palicha and
other cases stated that ‘Bandh’ is illegal because Bandh
includes compulsory closing down of offices, disturbance to
public transport systems.
❖ It interferes with the freedom of movement of people,
freedom of speech and expression and right to life because
daily wage workers are not allowed to work.
➢ According to the Supreme Court, Hartal is not illegal
because it does not include an element of force.
➢ The Right to form an association can be restricted by
Parliament by law to require forces and police Forces.
❖ The Parliament can enact the Army Act, Air Force Act,
Navy Act, Police Act, etc. under which the right to form
political association has been denied to these forces. These
forces cannot form trade unions and therefore they cannot
go for strike.

Article 19 (1) (d):

❖ It guarantees the Right to Freedom of Movement
throughout the territory of India.
❖ It means no part of India should be made inaccessible to
a citizen.
❖ The Constitution does not say ‘within’ the territory of
India because it is different from ‘throughout’. Here freely
means the right to whenever, wherever, however, one wants
to move.
❖ Restrictions: ➢ However, this right can be restricted on
the grounds of the security of the country, maintenance of
public order, morality, decency, and in the interests of
scheduled tribes, etc.
➢ Example: North East Frontier Area (NEFA)
Article 19 (1) (e):
❖ It guarantees the Right to residence and settlement
throughout the territory of India.
❖ In fact, this right is called the corollary of the previous
right i.e., Article 19 (1) (d).
❖ The grounds of restriction to this right are similar to the
above right i.e., Article 19 (1) (d).

Article 19 (1) (g):

❖ It guarantees the Right to Vocation i.e., the right to
profession, occupation, trade or business of one’s choice.
❖ But the State can impose necessary qualifications in the
form of educational qualifications, physical fitness, mental
capacity, loyalty to the State, etc.
❖ Exception:
➢ A reasonable restriction can be imposed in the public
interest where the State can take over a trade or business
partially or completely.
➢ Example: Sell of liquor, defence article manufacturing,
etc.

Article 20:
❖ It deals with protection in respect of conviction for
offences.
❖ Article 20 provides three types of protection.

Article 20 (1):
❖ It prohibits the State from enacting ex-post facto
criminal legislation.
❖ This means the State cannot enact a criminal law and
give retrospective effect to criminal law.
❖ But it does not prohibit civil legislation and gives it
retrospective effect.
❖ Under Article 20 (1), an act in order to be a criminal act
i.e., punishable must be so declared in the law at the time of
commissioning of the act.
❖ An act that is not a criminal law at the time of its
commission cannot be subsequently made into a criminal
act and the individual is punished for that.

Article 20 (2):
❖ It prohibits the State from practising double jeopardy. It
means punishing an individual more than once by a court
of law for the commission of a single criminal act.
❖ This means if a civil servant is dismissed or removed
from service by his department on the basis of his criminal
conviction in a court of law does not amount to double
jeopardy.
❖ Because the department is not a court of law.

Article 20 (3):
❖ It prohibits the State from compelling an individual to
provide self-incriminating evidence means a confession
made by a person against himself cannot be the basis of his
punishment.
❖ It means compelling an individual to make a statement
and use the statement against the individual himself and
procure punishment under the rule of law.
❖ This article is given to save the citizen from the might
and oppression of the State.
❖ Under the Prevention of Terrorism Act, (POTA) of 2002 the
confession can be used by the police provided the
confession should be informed to the judiciary within 24
hours.

Article 21
❖ It guarantees all individuals the right to life and
personal liberty. As the Constitutional form of Government
continues to evolve in India under the present Constitution,
it is Article 21 that has undergone the greatest changes due
to the liberal interpretation provided by the Supreme Court.
❖ According to the Supreme Court, Article 21 guarantees
not merely the right to life but the right to a dignified life
also. All other fundamental rights and directive principles
are also ultimately aiming to extend this quality of life to
people.
❖ Article 21 guarantees the right to quality of life;
therefore, the other fundamental rights and directive
principles revolve around the right to life and without the
right to life other fundamental rights become meaningless.
❖ Thus, Article 21 has emerged as the fundamental of all
fundamental rights and has emerged as the backbone of
Part III and Part IV of the Constitution.
❖ Even if other fundamental rights and directive principles
have not been provided. Under the Constitution and
independent judiciary by providing a liberal interpretation
to Article 21 i.e., the Right to Life can implicitly bring all
other fundamental rights for the people to enjoy.
❖ As the Supreme Court has observed Article 21 is a
composite right and has given the right to the largest
number of inferred rights or implied rights namely
➢ Right to Primary Education
➢ Right to Privacy
➢ Right to Health of the Workers
➢ Right Against Cruel Punishment
➢ Right Against Arbitrary Dismissal
➢ Right Against Denial of Wages
➢ Right to Speedy and Fair Trial
➢ Right to Clean and Liveable Environment
➢ Right to Corruption-Free Administration
❖ It is Article 21 that makes a difference between a
Constitutional State and a Police State. Thus, Article 21 has
contributed the maximum to the evolution of the
Constitution. Article 21 removes arbitrariness from the
decision-making process.

Procedure Established by Law:

❖ The phrase ‘Procedure Established by Law’ means
according to usage and practice as laid down by statute. It
originated in England. Under this doctrine, the court, while
examining a law verifies whether the law has been passed
by a competent legislature and whether the prescribed
procedure has to be followed by the legislature while
passing the law.
❖ The court cannot go behind the motives of the law and
cannot declare any law as unconstitutional. However,
unreasonable or oppressive a law may be unless the law
was passed without procedural formality.
❖ Thus, this doctrine relies more on the good sense of the
legislature and the strength of public opinion in the country.
It provides protection for the individual only against the
arbitrary action of the executive but not against that of the
legislature.

Due Process of Law:

❖ The phrase Due Process of Law means that the Court
shall examine the law not only from the point of view of the
legislature's competence and the procedural formalities. It
also from the broader angle of the inherent goodness of the
law while applying the principle of natural justice. Thus, it
confers greater power to the judiciary.
❖ It means the procedure prescribed by the law has to be
fair, just and reasonable and not fanciful, oppressive or
arbitrary. It provides protection to the individual both
against the arbitrary action of the executive and that of the
legislature.
❖ The Indian Constitution under Article 21 provides for
only the Procedure Established by Law. However, the
Supreme Court in the Maneka Gandhi Case interpreted Due
Process of Law under Article 21 by incorporating the
principle of natural justice.

Principle of Natural Justice:

❖ These are the universal principle that state:
➢ No man shall be punished and unheard.
➢ No man shall be the judge of his own case.
➢ An authority shall act bonafide without any bias.
❖ The objective of the Principle of Natural Justice is to
exclude the chances of arbitrariness and seek to ensure a
degree of fairness in the process of decision-making. This
seeks to humanise the decision-making process. They
emphasise that action must be supported by reason.
❖ According to the Supreme Court, they are not
incorporated but inherent principles of the Constitution.
❖ They are one of the basic principles on which the
Constitutional structure has been built since they are the
universal principle so they are binding on all authorities
including the Judiciary, Private Organisations, Individuals,
etc. They are regarded as the basic rights of an individual.
❖ The Supreme Court held that these principles are
inherent in the right to equality under Article 14 and also
under Article 21. By reading these principles under Article 21
the Supreme Court has incorporated the doctrine of due
Process of Law under the Constitution.
❖ These principles are so pervasive in the Constitution as
they can be regarded as Part of the Basic Structure of the
Constitution.

KS Puttaswamy Case (2017)

❖ The Supreme Court in the KS Puttaswamy Case (2017)
ruled that privacy is a natural right that inheres in
all-natural persons and it can only be denied by the State
action that passes all three of the following three criteria:
➢ Such state action must have a legislative mandate;
➢ It must be pursuing a legitimate state purpose; and
➢ It must be proportionate.

Article 21 A:
❖ It was introduced in the Constitution by the 86th
Constitutional Amendment Act. Under Article 21 A, the State
shall provide free and compulsory education to all children
between the age group of 6– 14 years by means of law.
❖ Article 21 A guarantees the right to primary education for
children between the age group of 6 – 14 years.
❖ To provide free education is the responsibility of the
State and to provide compulsory education is the
responsibility of the parents.
❖ The 86th Constitutional Amendment Act also introduced a
new Fundamental Duty under Article 51A (k).
❖ This fundamental duty reads that it should be the duty of
every parent to provide education to his or her child
between the age of 6–14 years.
Subramanian Committee Recommendations:
❖ According to the Subramanian Committee, there is a need
to increase expenditure to 6% of GDP.
❖ A new All India Service i.e., Indian Education Service
should be established under which teachers should be
evaluated every year.
❖ Online education should be promoted even board
examinations on demand can be given online.
❖ There is a need to increase investment in vocational
courses. ➢ Information and Communication Technology
should be promoted.
➢ Suggestions to improve education at the elementary
level.
✓ There should be an investment in quality education.
✓ There should be an improvement in the quality of
teachers.
✓ Introduction of vocational courses in schools especially
Information and Communication Technology related.

Landmark Cases Related Article 19

❖ Romesh Thapar Vs State of Madras, 1950:
➢ In the case, the Supreme Court upheld that freedom of
press is inherently associated with freedom of speech and
expression. This case was referred by the Supreme Court a
number of times in Shreya Singhal Case 2015.
❖ Shreya Singhal Vs Union of India Case 2015:
➢ In this case, the Supreme Court decided a question
related to the Fundamental Right of Freedom of Speech and
Expression guaranteed by Article 19(1)(a) of Indian
Constitution.
➢ In this case, section 66A of IT act 2000 is called
unconstitutional and void because section 66A authorised
imposition of restriction on freedom of speech and
expression. The language of this section was so subjective
that it covered restrictions both within and without limits of
constitutionally permissible legislative actions.

Important Cases Related to Article 21

❖ Maneka Gandhi Vs Union of India Case:
➢ In this case, the Supreme Court established the
relationship between Article 19 and 21. In this case, the
Supreme Court expanded the scope of Article 21 of the
Indian Constitution.
➢ In the Maneka Gandhi case, the Supreme Court also
established the relationship between Article 14 and 19.
❖ Justice Retired Puttaswamy Vs Union of India case 2017:
➢ This case mainly dealt with the question whether privacy
is a constitutional protected value under Indian
Constitution.
➢ In this case, the Supreme Court held that Right to
Privacy is part of Article 21 of Indian Constitution. The
Supreme Court stated that the right to privacy is an
absolute necessity and the right to privacy is a fundamental
right.
❖ Joseph Shine Vs Union of India case 2018:
➢ In this case, the Supreme Court struck down section 497
of IPC, which criminalised adultery, the court
decriminalised adultery.
❖ Navtej Singh Johar Vs UOI case 2018:
➢ In this case, the Supreme Court upheld the right of
LGBTQ community to have intimate relations with people of
their choice and their right to privacy and dignity.
➢ In this case, the Supreme Court partially struck down
section 377 of IPC.

Fundamental Rights (Part - 5)

Article 32
❖ It is remedial in nature. In this sense, it states that an
individual has the right to move the Supreme Court in order
to get his fundamental right enforced if they are violated.
Therefore, without remedy the fundamental rights may not
be a real right.
❖ It is Article 32 that conferred the legal status on
fundamental rights and makes fundamental rights
enforceable, that is why, the Constitution has made Article
32 itself as a fundamental right. It talks about the Right to
Constitutional Remedies.
❖ Dr. B. R. Ambedkar describes Article 32 as fundamental of
all fundamental rights and the heart and soul of the
Constitution. Because the whole Constitution would become
null and void without any protection. It provides teeth to
the fundamental right to bite.
❖ If Fundamental Rights are violated then they can
approach the Supreme Court under Article 32, and High
Court under Article 226 of the Constitution.

Sub Clauses:
❖ Article 32(1): It says that in case of violation of
fundamental rights, anybody can approach the Supreme
Court directly.
❖ Article 32(2): It empowers Supreme Courts and High
Courts to issue writs in the nature of Habeas Corpus,
Mandamus, Certiorari, Prohibition and Quo-Warranto to
enforce fundamental rights. Writs have been borrowed from
the English Constitution.
❖ Article 32(3): It empowers quasi-judicial bodies like CAT
(Central Administrative Tribunal), SAT (State Administrative
Tribunal), IT tribunals to issue writs.

Article 32 (2)
❖ It empowers the Supreme Court to issue prerogative
writs, such as Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition,
Certiorari and Quo-warranto.
❖ Under Article 32 (2) the Supreme Court has a duty to
implement fundamental rights if they are violated.
❖ Writ jurisdiction had been borrowed from the English
Constitution.
❖ Under the Indian Constitution the Supreme Court and
High Court enjoy writ jurisdiction under Article 32 and
Article 226 respectively. The subordinate courts do not enjoy
writ jurisdiction. The power of judicial review is implicit
under the writ jurisdiction of the Supreme Court and High
Courts.
❖ Further, the Supreme Court has expanded this scope of
writ jurisdiction by including the concept of Public Interest
Litigation (PIL) under its jurisdiction.
❖ Article 32 (3) empowers the Parliament to confer the
direction on other bodies.
❖ The Parliament enacted the Administrative Tribunal Act
of 1985 which has conferred jurisdiction on the Central
Administrative Tribunal and the State Administrative
Tribunal.
Habeas Corpus:
❖ This writ is issued in order to safeguard or protect
individual liberty such as the Right to Freedom of
Movement.
❖ It can be issued both against the public authority or an
individual.
❖ It is issued to determine whether the detention of a
person is legally justified or not.
❖ It can be preferred before the Court by any individual or
organisation and not necessarily only by aggrieved
individuals. Therefore, the principal locus standi does not
imply in the case of a writ of Habeas Corpus. It means legal
justification for an individual to approach the Court for
seeking justice.
❖ Habeas Corpus literally means to have the body. It
means to have the production of a detained person
physically before the court in order to ascertain the ground
of his detention.
❖ However, if the material facts related to his detention are
presented to the Court, then the Court may not insist upon
the physical production of the detained person. If the Court
finds its detention is illegal it will order for his release
immediately.

Mandamus:
❖ It literally means “command”. Therefore, the writ is
issued in the form of command by the Court. It can be
issued only against a person holding public office or
against a public authority. For Example, the Vice Chancellor
of Delhi University holds a public office and the MCD
Commissioner is a public authority.
❖ It cannot be issued against an individual or private
organisation. It is issued in order to enforce statutory rights
but not a private right.
❖ The right created by law is called the statutory right and
other rights are called private rights.
❖ The court issued this writ if a public office or a public
authority has failed to discharge his official duty and, in the
process, the legal right of an individual is violated.
❖ Only the aggrieved individual can approach the court to
file the writ of Mandamus. However, this writ cannot be
issued against the President or a Governor of a State.

Prohibition:
❖ This writ can be issued against the Judicial or a
quasi-judicial body like CAT (Central Administrative
Tribunal), SAT, Income Tax Tribunal, etc.
❖ It is issued in order to ensure that the judicial or
quasi-judicial body keeps within its limits of jurisdiction
and does not usher that is assumed excess jurisdiction.
❖ If a judicial or quasi-judicial body takes up a case in
excess of his jurisdiction then his writ of prohibition
prohibits the judicial or quasi-judicial body from
proceeding with the trial of the case. only the aggrieved
individual can file the writ of prohibition.

Certiorari:
❖ This writ is similar to the writ of prohibition.
❖ It is issued in order to quash i.e., to cancel the
judgement, direction or order issued by a judicial or
quasi-judicial body in excess of his jurisdiction.
❖ The writ of Certiorari can also be issued against the
executive body, if it performs quasijudicial functions.
Quo-Warranto:
❖ It literally means “ what is your authority”.
❖ The object of this writ is to ensure that a person
occupying a public office is qualified to hold that office.
❖ Therefore, this writ can be issued only against a person
holding a public office.
❖ It can be preferred by any individual whether he himself
is qualified to hold that office or not.
❖ When this writ is issued by the Court then the person
holding the public office stands removed from his public
office.
Directive Principles of State Policy
❖ The Directive Principles of State Policy are directions to
the state while formulating policies, enacting laws and
legislating. ❖ The Directive Principles of State Policy have
been borrowed from the Constitution of Ireland.
❖ They epitomise the ideals of people.
❖ They have evolved along with the Constitutional form of
Government.
❖ The Directive Principles seek to establish a welfare state
as opposed to Laissezfaire/regulatory state.
➢ Regulatory state: It performs only one function which is
the maintenance of law and order, carrying out day-to-day
administration of the country.
➢ It leaves the economic development of the people to the
individuals themselves.
➢ On the other hand, the welfare state performs a dual
function, that is as a regulatory state and actively
participates in the economic development of the people.
➢ Therefore, the welfare state is inherently more dynamic
than the regulatory state.
❖ The Directive Principles are in the nature of general
direction or instruction to the state.
❖ Directive Principles are a unique blend of: ➢ Socialism ➢
Gandhism ➢ Western Liberalism ➢ The freedom struggle of
India
❖ They embody the aims which the state must bear in mind
while formulating policies and making laws.
❖ They seek to provide methods to empower the people.
❖ They constitute a very comprehensive social, economic
and administrative programme for a modern democratic
state.
❖ However, they are non-justiciable in nature, that is they
cannot be enforced in a court of law. They will be
enforceable only when they are included in the policy
formulated by laws enacted by the state.

Why are Directive Principles non-justiciable in a court of

law?
❖ The Directive Principles of State Policy are
non-justiciable in nature because of the following reasons:
➢ At the time the Constitution came into force India lacked
material resources to implement some of the Directive
Principles of State Policy like free and compulsory
education because free and compulsory education requires
tremendous material resources to be implemented that is
why India decided to keep this provision under Directive
Principles.

NOTE:
❖ Even though it is non-justiciable in nature, the
Constitution of India says under Article 37 it is fundamental
in the governance of the country.
Relationship between the Fundamental Rights and Directive
Principles:
❖ Article 37 states that the Directive Principles are not
enforceable in a court of law. Nevertheless, they are
fundamental in the governance of the country.
❖ It is the duty of the state to incorporate the Directive
Principles in the policies formulated and the laws enacted in
order to promote the welfare concept but the supreme court
in the Champakam Dorairajan Vs State of Madras case
1951, held that the Directive Principles cannot override the
fundamental Rights. Directive Principles have to confirm
and run as a subsidiary to the Fundamental rights.
❖ In the case of any conflict between the Fundamental
Rights and Directive Principles, the Fundamental Rights will
prevail. The Supreme Court held that the Directive
Principles were inferior to Fundamental Rights.
❖ The decision of the Supreme Court came in the way of
enacting social legislation such as the Zamindari Abolition
Act and the Land Reforms Acts.
❖ The Supreme Court subsequently realised the importance
of the Directive Principles and propounded the Kerala
Education Bill Case of 1957.
❖ The theory of harmonisation observed that Directive
Principles cannot override Fundamental Rights.
❖ Nevertheless, in determining the scope and extent of the
Fundamental Rights the court may not completely ignore
the Directive Principles and the Directive Principles and
Fundamental Rights shall be harmoniously constructed and
the court must attempt to give effect to both the Directive
Principles and Fundamental Rights as much as possible.
❖ Under the theory of harmonisation the court held that
there is no inherent conflict between the Directive Principles
and Fundamental Rights and they supplement each other in
establishing political, social and economic democracy.
❖ In view of this the court has the responsibility to
interpret the Constitution in such a way to the social
objective held out by the Directive Principles, with the
individual rights guaranteed by the Fundamental Rights.
❖ This is the mandate of the Constitution not only to the
legislature and the executive but also to the court.
Therefore, the provision in Part III should be interpreted
having regard to the Directive Principles.
❖ The Directive Principles are also relevant to consider
what are reasonable restrictions on Fundamental Rights.
However, if only one interpretation is possible which leads
to a conflict between the Fundamental Rights and the
Directive Principles, the court has no choice but to give
effect to the Fundamental Rights in preference to the
Directive Principles.
❖ On the basis of the whole interpretation the Supreme
Court held the Bank Nationalisation Act- 1971, as
unconstitutional and void which were passed to give effect
to Article 39 (b) and 39 (c) as unconstitutional and void as
they violated Article 14, 19 and 13.
❖ The parliament responded by enacting the 25th
Amendment Act 1971 which introduced a new article,
namely Article 31 (c) in the constitution.
➢ It read if the state enacts a law to give effects to the
directive given under Article 39 (b) and 39 (c) and in the
directive given under Article 14, 19 and 31 the law shall not
be declared unconstitutional and void merely on this
ground.
➢ The Supreme Court in the Kesavananda Bharati case
upheld the constitutional validity of the 25th Amendment
Act and on the basis of this, the court subsequently declared
the Bank Nationalisation Act and the Privy Purse (abolition)
Act as Constitutionally void.
❖ The 42nd Amendment Act 1976 among other things
amended Article 31 (c) which in amended form read that if
the state enacts the law to give effect to any of the Directive
Principles and in the process if the law violated Article 14,
19 and 31, the law shall not be declared as unconstitutional
and void merely on the grounds of Article 31 (c). Further
stated that any such law declaring that it is to give effect to
the Directive Principles shall not be questioned in a court of
law.
❖ The 44th Constitutional Amendment Act 1978 renamed
Article 31 from the set of fundamental rights and made it a
right under Article 300 (A).
❖ The changes introduced by the 42nd Amendment Act 1976
in Article 31 (c) was held to be unconstitutional and void in
Minerva mills case on the grounds that it violated the
court's power of judicial review and disturbs the balance
between Part III and Part IV and which are the parts of
the basic structure of the Constitution.
❖ Thus, the present position in terms of the relation
between Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles is that
the two directions given under Article 39 (b) and 39 (c) can
prevail over the Fundamental Rights given under Article 14
and 19.

Importance of Directive Principles:

❖ The Directive Principles are fundamentals in the
governance of the country because their implementation is
essential for the establishment of a welfare state in the
country.
❖ They have not been given legal enforceability not
because they are inferior to any part of the Constitution,
but because of the fact that implementation demands
material resources at the disposal of the state.
❖ As Dr. B.R Ambedkar observed that any responsible
government will have to implement Directive Principles
otherwise it will be answerable to the people in the next
election.
❖ According to Dr. B.R Ambedkar they may not be
enforceable in the court of law but they are enforceable in
the court of people.
❖ Directive Principles may lack legal sanctions, but they
enjoy the political sanctions.
❖ They are the testing ground on which the performance of
the government of the day is judged.
❖ They are also useful in determining the constitutional
validity of certain laws.
❖ Further they act as the lighthouse, constantly reminding
the government of its responsibility in taking the country
towards the welfare goal.
❖ As the former chief justice of India Justice H. J Kania
observed that the Directive Principles did not merely
represent the majority of the constituent assembly, but it
represented the collective wisdom of the people of India as
reflected through the constituent assembly.

Relevance of DPSP in the era of Globalisation

In the era of globalisation, the relevance of the Directive
Principles of State Policy (DPSP) can be comprehended in
various ways:
❖ Balancing Economic Growth and Social Welfare: With
globalisation driving substantial economic growth in many
nations but also exacerbating income inequality and social
disparities, DPSP aims to foster economic and social justice.
❖ Environmental Sustainability: Given that globalisation
often involves economic activities that harm the
environment, these principles can serve as a compass for
the government in pursuing sustainable development
objectives and addressing environmental issues.
❖ Preservation of Cultural and Educational Heritage: DPSP
underscores the promotion of India's unique cultural and
educational values. This can help safeguard cultural
diversity and heritage in the midst of global cultural
influences.
❖ Social Welfare Initiatives: DPSP envisions the
advancement of social welfare through various means, such
as ensuring access to education, healthcare, and social
security.
❖ Protection of Labor Rights and Welfare: DPSP includes
principles aimed at safeguarding the interests of workers,
which becomes pertinent in ensuring that globalisation
benefits all sectors of society, including the workforce.
❖ Foreign Policy and International Relations: DPSP also
encompasses principles pertaining to international peace
and security. In the era of globalisation, these principles
can offer guidance to the government in making foreign
policy decisions and engaging with the global community.
❖ Ensuring Equitable Resource Access: Globalisation can
sometimes lead to the accumulation of resources and
economic power in the hands of a few. DPSP principles
regarding the fair distribution of resources can help ensure
that the advantages of globalisation are distributed more
equitably among all citizens.
Opinions on Directive Principles of State Policy
❖ K.T. Shah compared these with “a cheque on a bank,
payable only when the resources of the bank permit”.
❖ Nasiruddin Ahmad called these principles ‘no better than
new year’s resolutions, which are broken on the second of
January’. ❖ T T Krishnamachari described DPSP as “a
veritable dustbin of sentiments”.
❖ Dr. B. R. Ambedkar described DPSPs as the “Novel
Feature of the Constitution.”

Doctrine of Basic Structure -

Amendment Meaning of Amendment

❖ Amendment is any type of change in the Constitution it
involves addition, deletion, modification, substitution or
repealing of any provision of the Constitution.

Purpose of Amendment
❖ The Constitution is the vehicle of social change. It is the
dynamic instrument to ensure social revolution. The
Constitution should be in position to ensure the well-being
of people and social justice. It must take into account
changing aspirations of people. It must evolve with the
passage of time. ❖ According to Pt. Nehru, if amendment
will be stopped then the growth of the Nation will also be
stopped.
❖ According to Dr. B. Rao Ambedkar, there should be
enough flexibility for the amendment of the Constitution. An
unamendable Constitution is the worst tyranny of the time
because such a constitution will not be able to fulfil
aspirations of people.
❖ If the Constitution is unamendable then people may
resort to conflict and violence to ensure amendment. That is
why, provisions of amendment of the Constitution can be
considered as peaceful ways of bringing revolution.

Amendment Procedure under the Indian Constitution

❖ India has adopted the fusion of two political systems i.e.,
Parliamentary sovereignty of the British Government and
Constitutional Supremacy of the USA.
❖ Parliamentary sovereignty principle adopted by India
makes its constitution flexible because a large part of the
Indian Constitution can be amended by parliament on its
own whereas some parts of the Indian constitution is rigid
due to adoption of federal principles under the Constitution.
Therefore it can be said that the Indian Constitution is a
blend of rigid and flexible type.

Procedures of amendment under the Indian Constitution

1. Certain sections of the Indian Constitution can be
amended by means of simple majority which is also called
as functional majority because the government is able to
function because of simple majority-more than 50% of
members present and voting. 2. Some parts of Indian
Constitution require special majority which are two types
1.Type 1: 1. More than 2/3 of members present and voting. 2.
More than half of the total strength of the house
2.Type 2: 1. Certain section of Indian constitution, which
take part in division of power and distribution of power can
be amended in following manner: 1. It must be passed by
both the Houses of Parliament-by 2/3 of members present
and voting and more than half of the total strength of the
House. 2. It must be ratified by at least half of state
legislatures through simple majority.
2. Since division of power between States and Centre is
affected, that is why States have been given the power to
ratify such an amendment.

Politics of Amendment:
❖ Amendment has remained a bone of contention in the
Indian context because an unrestricted amendment will
destroy the federalism feature of the constitution.
❖ Constitutional supremacy says that the constitution is
supreme in India and not the organs created by the
constitution. The Supreme Court of India is the final
interpreter of the constitution.
❖ Any law passed by the Parliament is subject to Judicial
review.
❖ The original constitution under Article 368 provided the
procedure to amend the constitution.
❖ A constitution does not speak through itself. A
constitution speaks through the judiciary.

Important Cases with respect to the Amendment:

❖ AK Gopalan Vs State of Madras, 1950: The Supreme Court
in AK Gopalan vs. State of Madras, 1950 held that
‘Procedure established by law’ and ‘due process of law’ are
different from each other. Procedure established by law is
provided under the Indian Constitution. A law can be
questioned only on procedural grounds.

❖ Shankari Prasad Vs Union of India Case, 1951:

➢ Parliament’s power of amending the Constitution under
Article 368 included the power to amend the Fundamental
Rights guaranteed in Part III as well.
➢ The constitutional validity of the First Amendment Act
(1951), which curtailed the right to property, was
challenged.
➢ The word ‘law’ in Article 13 includes only ordinary laws
and not the constitutional amendment acts (constituent
laws).
➢ Parliament can abridge or take away any of the
Fundamental Rights by enacting a Constitutional
Amendment Act and such a law will not be void under
Article 13.

❖ Golaknath Vs State of Punjab Case, 1967:

➢ The court reversed its earlier stance that the
Fundamental Rights can be amended.
➢ It said that Fundamental Rights are not amenable to the
Parliamentary restriction as stated in Article 13 and that to
amend the Fundamental rights a new Constituent Assembly
would be required.
➢ It stated that Article 368 gives the procedure to amend
the Constitution but does not confer on Parliament the
power to amend the Constitution.

❖ 24th Amendment Act, 1971:

➢ The Parliament reacted to the Supreme Court’s
judgement in the Golak Nath case (1967) by enacting the
24th Amendment Act (1971).
➢ This Act amended Articles 13 and 368.
➢ It declared that the Parliament has the power to abridge
or take away any of the Fundamental Rights under Article
368 and such an act will not be a law under the meaning of
Article 13.

❖ Kesavananda Bharati Vs State of Kerala Case, 1973:

➢ The Supreme Court overruled its judgement in the Golak
Nath case (1967).
➢ It upheld the validity of the 24th Amendment Act (1971)
and stated that Parliament is empowered to abridge or take
away any of the Fundamental Rights.
➢ At the same time, it laid down a new doctrine of the
‘basic structure’ (or ‘basic features’) of the Constitution.
➢ It ruled that the constituent power of Parliament under
Article 368 does not enable it to alter the ‘basic structure’ of
the Constitution.
➢ This means that the Parliament cannot abridge or take
away a Fundamental Right that forms a part of the ‘basic
structure’ of the Constitution.

❖ 42nd Amendment Act, 1976:

➢ This Act amended Article 368 and declared that there is
no limitation on the constituent power of Parliament and
➢ No amendment can be questioned in any court on any
ground including that of the contravention of any of the
Fundamental Rights.

❖ Minerva Mills Vs Union of India Case, 1980:

➢ This case again strengthens the Basic Structure doctrine.
➢ The judgement struck down the 42nd Amendment Act
1976, declaring it to be violative of the basic structure.
➢ The judgement makes it clear that the Constitution, and
not the Parliament is supreme.
➢ In this case, the Court added two features to the list of
basic structure features. They were: judicial review and
balance between Fundamental Rights and Directive
Principle of State Policy.
➢ The judges ruled that a limited amending power itself is
a basic feature of the Constitution.

Amendment, Doctrine of Basic Structure Politics of

Amendment

❖ The issue of amendment and scope of amending power of

parliament has been a matter of debate in Indian context.
The controversy associated with the procedure and powers
are: ➢ From the point of view of Centre-State relation – It is
said that the procedure of amendment favors Centre, state
cannot initiate amendment, large part of amendment can
be initiated even without ratification by states.
➢ Territorial integrity of state is not ensured- Under Article
3, the name area and boundary of state can be changed
without consent of state.
➢ The Union parliament can change the territory of the
state by simple majority.
➢ The original constitution only talks about the procedure
of amendment, it did not talk about powers of amendment.
❖ The Constitution also creates the scope of judicial review.
Article 13 gave Judiciary the powers to review legislative
enactment in the context of fundamental rights.
❖ The above principles show that, in the context of India,
the principles of sovereignty do not exist, however, Directive
Principles of State Policies at times creates conditions that
may result in limitation of Fundamental Rights.
❖ The Constitution also mentions that the implementation
of the directives is the duty of the state.
❖ Indian Constitution also does not mention the clear
judicial supremacy. It only talks about the procedure
established by law. Court can inquire about legislative acts
on the basis of procedure. The concept of due process of law
was not found under the Indian Constitution.
❖ Article 21 of Indian Constitution says that no person shall
be deprived of his life and personal liberty except according
to the procedure established by law.
❖ The above provision created a complicated situation.
This has resulted into conflict between two branches of
government, the two major cases in the initial phase that
brought the issue related to amendment power of
parliament and the nature of judicial review were:
➢ Shankari Prasad Vs Union of India Case 1951.
➢ A.K Gopalan Vs State of Madras Case 1950.
❖ Shankari Prasad Vs Union of India Case 1951 has already
been discussed in the amendability of Fundamental Rights.
❖ A.K Gopalan Vs State of Madras Case 1950- It was held
that procedure established by law is the principles given
under Indian constitution and Supreme Court cannot
question the policy aspect that due process of law is not a
feature of Indian Constitution.

Assessment of amendment process in India

In the Indian context, the assessment process has helped in
bringing social revolution. The amendment process shows
that the Indian Constitution is a living document. The
amendment process has evolved in three areas:
❖ Political Evolution:
➢ 17th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1964: This
amendment act prohibited the acquisition of land used for
personal agriculture unless price equal to property market
values was paid.
➢ 52nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1985: It introduced
anti-defection law by adding 10th schedule under Indian
Constitution. It was an attempt to stop political corruption
and the decline of Parliament.
➢ 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1991: It
introduced local self-government in India.
❖ Social Evolution:
➢ 1st Constitutional Amendment Act, 1951: It allowed states
to introduce reservation for Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes.
➢ 44th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1978: It abolished
the Right to Property.
➢ 86th C.A.A: It made right to education of F.R
➢ 93rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 2005: It made social
provision for socially and educationally backward classes of
citizens in educational institutions.
➢ 108th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2008: It seeks to
reserve 1/3 of all seats for women in Lok Sabha and State
Legislative Assembly. The location of reserved seats shall be
determined by such authority as prescribed by parliament.
❖ Economic Evolution: ➢ 1st, 4th 17th and 44th
Constitutional Amendment Act: They helped in bringing land
reforms and other economic reforms.

Conclusion: Amendment is necessary to overcome the

challenges which keep on emerging in any political system.
If amendment is not allowed, then extra constitutional
means will be taken up by people. The amending procedure
should be a fine balance of flexible and rigid provision. If it
is too rigid, there is danger of revolution, if it is too easy
then the ruling party can easily amend the Constitution. The
Indian Constitution has represented the fine balance and
amendment acted as a safety valve in the Indian context.
However, there are limitations in the ways amendment to
Indian constitution has been made, amending device should
not be invoked for each and every purpose. Frequent
amendments dilute the sanctity of the Constitution. It
should be done only when it becomes absolutely necessary.
The process of amendment in the Indian context also comes
under criticism because there is no constitutional provision
that allows the state to initiate amendments.

Doctrine of Basic Structure:

The doctrine emerged in 1973 in the Kesavananda Bharati
case. It is an implied power of the Judiciary rather than the
expressed power under Article 368.
The doctrine of Basic structure is based on the theory of the
Supremacy of the Constitution. The doctrine of Basic
Structure limits the power of legislature in the context of
making amendments. Judiciary is the guardian of the
Constitution and hence judiciary performs its job by using
basic structure doctrine. From the point of view of
supporters of basic structure, the Constitution must survive.
Power to amend does not mean power to destroy the
Constitution. In the context of social and economic changes
the amendment of the Constitution becomes inevitable.
However, it is necessary to remember that amendment is
not equal to the creation of a new Constitution. According to
the critics of the doctrine of Basic structure- the doctrine is
an attempt of the judiciary to enlarge its power of Judicial
Review. According to the views of Sudhir Krishnaswamy, the
author of the book- Democracy and Constitutionalism in
India, the judiciary never attempted to outline the basic
features of the Constitution. There have been many cases
when the Judiciary could not have done so but it has
avoided doing so. Initially, the doctrine has helped in
saving the damage to the Constitution or altering its
identity. But gradually, it became a type of administrative
law where the Judiciary is reviewing the executive actions
of the Government, e.g., in case of application of Article 356.
The author points out that Judiciary has confused the basic
structure review with other things and review of executive
decisions also. Judiciary should apply restraint because it
questions the representative body of government. According
to him, if people in government does not want, it will
become difficult for the judiciary to sustain the doctrine.
The approach of judiciary has been positivistic, (i.e., what is
written into the Constitution rather than historical or
political). Basic structure doctrine involves the judiciary in
complex issues. It brings tensions between the two branches
of the Government. The doctrine is in itself ambiguous
because at times the Constitution is in itself sharply divided.
Moreover, no majority judgement is available laying down
the Basic Structure of the Constitution.

Evolution of Basic Structure Doctrine:

1. Kesavananda Bharati case, 1973: Supreme Court has held
that amendment of Fundamental Rights cannot be accepted
to the extent that it destroys the core. In this case, judiciary
has outlined the following features as basic structure:
➢ Supremacy of the Constitution
➢ Republican form of government
➢ Separation of powers
➢ Secularism
➢ Federalism
2. Indira Gandhi Vs Raj Narain Case, 1975:
➢ India is a sovereign democratic republic.
➢ Concept of Rule of Law.
3. Minerva Mills Case, 1980:
➢ Judicial Review is a basic structure.
➢ Balance between Fundamental Rights and Directive
Principles of State Policy is basic structure.
4. S. R. Bommai case, 1993:
➢ Secularism
➢ Federalism
Basic structure is applied in case of both ordinary law as
well as amendments.

Fundamental Duties Meaning of the concept of Duties

❖ Duty is an obligation, duty is something we owe to others
as social beings. In political theory, Rights and Duties are
inherently intertwined with each other.
❖ Rights cannot last long without corresponding obligation.
If only rights are given to individuals, then individuals will
have no constructive contribution to society and individuals
will become merely a critic.
❖ In the absence of duties, it is difficult to exercise rights.
Rights and duties both are part of the same coin.

Views of Various Scholars with respect to Duties

❖ Views of Gandhi
➢ For Gandhi, duties are rights in embryonic form, if you
want to enjoy rights you will have to perform your duties.
Without performance of duties, there are no rights.
❖ Views of John Locke
➢ John Locke tells us that natural law guides us to respect
the rights of others; this shows one can enjoy rights when
one is able to fulfil certain obligations.
➢ Individuals possess rights only as a member of society.
❖ Views of Laski
➢ Enjoyment of rights by an individual also puts an
obligation on him to let others enjoy their rights.
➢ Since the State protects the rights of individuals so it is
the individual's duty to perform rights towards the state.
➢ Performance of one’s duty will also lead to social
richness.

Fundamental Duties and the Indian Constitution

❖ Originally, the Indian constitution did not have a chapter
of fundamental duties. The constitution of liberal countries
does not give a prominent place to duties in the
Constitution. Japan is perhaps the only liberal state which
includes basic duties in the Constitution.
❖ The concept of duties is a socialist tradition. In Indian
context, the chapter on Fundamental Duties was added as a
result of the 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act.
❖ Fundamental duties were added in chapter IV-A of
Indian Constitution. A new article 51-A came into existence
which enumerated 10 fundamental duties. The 86th
Constitutional Amendment Act has added 11th duty to the
list of fundamental duties.
❖ The introduction of fundamental duties was based on the
recommendation of the Swaran Singh committee.
❖ During the emergency, it was realized that the concept of
fundamental duties should be incorporated. The
incorporation of fundamental duties was not without
controversies, considering the circumstances under which
fundamental duties were added in the constitution. Political
parties and scholars express their doubts on the intention of
government.

Criticism of Fundamental Duties

❖ Fundamental duties are non-justiciable in nature i.e.,
they cannot be enforced in the court of law.
❖ Nani Palkhivala also expressed his doubt in the context
that the duties enumerated are inconsistent. For example,
fundamental duties say it is the duty of every citizen to
develop scientific temper and spirit of enquiry, such is
possible only when people are educated. We cannot expect
the performance of duties when masses are illiterate, and
society is traditional.
❖ The duties are vaguely defined, for example, it is the duty
of citizens to follow the noble ideals which inspired the
freedom struggle.
❖ Everyone knows that there was the presence of liberals,
socialist etc. in the freedom struggle and they adopted
different means and methods, so this particular duty is not
clearly defined with respect to its meaning.
❖ The list of fundamental duties also includes duties related
to preserving the rich and composite culture of India but
again it is vaguely defined.

Concluding Remarks
❖ In spite of the above criticism, fundamental duties have
been accepted as part of the Constitution. Even subsequent
Constitutional Amendment Acts like the 44th Constitutional
Amendment Act did not make any change with respect to
the list of fundamental duties.
❖ It has been suggested by the Verma Committee to
sensitize people about fundamental duties.

Fundamental Duties and Indian Way of Life

❖ According to Subhash Kashyap, Part IV- A of Indian
Constitution i.e., Fundamental duties of Indian constitution
are nothing but codification of Indian way of life.
❖ In fact, these duties are an inherent part of Indian
society, culture and tradition. Various aspects of Indian
culture and tradition exhibit the presence of these duties.
These duties are part of the collective conscience of people
of India, that is, part of a generalized belief system shared
by people of India.
❖ Moreover, these duties are reminded to the citizen that
while claiming rights they also need to be conscious of their
duties as rights cannot last long without corresponding
obligations.
❖ Unlimited rights will only bring chaos and
disorganization in society. It means an individual having
only rights and no duties will merely become a critic,
without having any constructive contribution to society.
That is why rights and duties should go hand in hand as
both are part of the same coin.

Parliament

Introduction
❖ The objective of efficient and effective governance is the
ultimate expectation of every civilised society, and this role
is performed by the government: one of the four essential
elements of the state.
❖ A government normally functions by dividing its
functions between its organs, with each organ performing
some specific functions. It primarily performs three main
functions i.e., making of laws by the legislature, enforcing of
the laws by executive and adjudication of disputes by the
judiciary. This Legislative system of dividing powers among
the three organs of a government is called "separation of
powers."

Legislature/Parliament
❖ Legislature is the rule-making department, and it is
commonly known as the Parliament. In the words of John
Locke, Legislature is the most important organ of
government because it is where the will of the people get
represented. It is a branch which makes the laws according
to the wishes of the people.
❖ As a parliament/legislature is representative of people so
it is called an institutional representation of popular
sovereignty.
❖ The Constituent Assembly opines that Parliament of
India is the most important branch of the government as it
is an embodiment of the people's views, and it is responsible
for the administration of the country.

Representation of People
❖ In contemporary times, direct democracy is difficult to
achieve. Therefore, people in a democracy elect their
representatives to perform the task of governance.
Representation is a process via which the attitudes,
preferences, viewpoints, desires of the entire citizenry or a
part of them with their expressed approval got shaped into
governmental action on their behalf.
❖ There is a famous saying 'one who controls the purse
controls the mind'. Parliament exercises full control over the
finances of the government. The principle of no taxation
without representation is the core of democratic
governance. It is visible in the form as people sent their
elected representatives there in the Parliament and then
their representatives made laws regarding income tax
which is needed to be paid for the development and
socio-economic upliftment of the country and its people.

Organisation of legislature:
Unicameral or Bicameral
❖ Legislatures can either be unicameral or bicameral. But
in India, bicameralism has gained more prominence
particularly at union level while in case of states
unicameralism is a visible trend as 22 out of 28 states in
India are having unicameral legislature. Only Andhra
Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Telangana and
Uttar Pradesh are states with bicameral legislature.
Parliament in India has two houses: Lok Sabha and Rajya
Sabha.
❖ The Lok Sabha is more popular in character and has a
greater say in law-making. Lok Sabha is directly elected by
the people of India.
❖ The Rajya Sabha is a council of states, and it is indirectly
elected. States have got their representatives in Rajya
Sabha which helps states to put their viewpoints and it
enables them to safeguard their rights. There is also
provision for giving representation to learned and
well-known individuals, to represent literature, art, science
and social services. In India, the President can nominate 12
members in the Rajya Sabha so that the legislature on the
whole can benefit from their experience and wisdom.

Functions of the Parliament/Legislature

❖ Curtis enumerates the following functions of the
parliament: - ➢ Parliament/Legislature choose the head of
the state and they may also remove him by the
impeachment process. But in the case of States in India, the
head of the state (Governor) is nominated by the central
government and further appointed by the President.
➢ Parliament/Legislature may influence or control the
behaviour of the government. No-confidence motion,
Censure motion, budgetary debates are devices to put a
check over the government.
➢ Members of parliament or legislature choose their office-
bearers and they can also remove them. They can also
disqualify their members on the charge of proved
misbehaviour or committing an act of corruption or treason
or breach of privileges. Speakers and Deputy Speakers are
elected by the rule-making bodies, and they may remove
them by a vote of no-confidence.
➢ A Legislature often holds the purse strings. Its approval
is necessary for the annual budget or for the imposition of
taxes. Through committees, they also scrutinise the
expenditure of the government. For example, Public
Accounts Committee, Estimates Committee, etc.
➢ Parliament reduces tensions, provides reassurance and
enhances satisfaction with the policies and programmes of
the government.

Decline of the Parliament/Legislature

❖ Ramsay Muir argued that the emergence of a powerful
cabinet diminished the power and position of parliament or
legislature and made it appear that Parliament exists
mainly for the purpose of criticising the cabinet. The
cabinet emerged as a forum where the policies are
discussed and finalised, while the Parliament merely
discusses them as a formality and is in no position to alter
them, if the cabinet enjoys the absolute majority in the
Parliament. Be it the case of the Indira Gandhi government
in the past or the present Narendra Modi government, both
confirm this notion of Ramsay Muir to a significant extent.
❖ The charge that there is decline in the authority of
parliament/legislature draws support from the following
grounds: -
➢ The area of authority which originally belonged to the
legislature has been taken over by the executive. For
example, the Cabinet decides about the things like
summoning and proroguing the session of the Parliament,
writing the text of the inaugural address to be delivered by
the Head of State, i.e., the President.
➢ The power of courts to look into the constitutional
validity of the legislation.
➢ Last but not least, the prime culprit for the declining
authority of Parliament is party politics. The top leaders of
the party keep the members under their strict control.

Testimony that Parliament is in decline

❖ Decline in the number of sittings - According to the
analysis of PRS Legislative Research (PRS), against the
average 127 days of sitting in the 1950s, Lok Sabha met
only 70 days in the last decade. The 17th Lok Sabha has
functioned for 230 sitting days so far. Of all the Lok Sabhas
that completed the full five-year term, the 16th Lok Sabha
had the lowest sitting days (331).
❖ Attendance of the members - Speakers have turned their
eyes away from the necessity of having the quorum for the
sitting to proceed. Even in the 15th Lok Sabha, there were
only seven out of 545 members having 100% attendance.
❖ Marginalised role of Rajya Sabha - There has been
decline in the role of Rajya Sabha as a House to ensure
accountability. For example, through labelling the bill as a
money bill where the role of Rajya Sabha gets reduced. For
example, the Aadhar Act. ❖ Criminalisation of the
Parliament - As many as 43 percent of MPs in the 17thLok
Sabha had pending criminal cases against their name. This
has led the Indian Supreme Court to pronounce that the
"lawbreakers have become the lawmakers." In the book
Parliament in India, Morris Jones outlines two major
weaknesses of parliamentary democracy in India - lack of
opposition and close relationship between government and
the party. Former Vice-President Dr. Hamid Ansari said that
Parliament has become a Federation of anarchy where
debates are rare and informed debates are rarer. Former
President Pranab Mukherjee argued that when a parliament
fails in discharging its law-making role and enacts laws
without discussion, it breaches the trust reposed in it by the
people. Parliament must not yield space for law making and
policy making to mass mobilisation and street politics.

Defence that Parliament is not in decline

❖ On May 13, 2022, Parliament completed 70 years since its
first sitting. The first session of the first Lok Sabha (LS) and
Rajya Sabha (RS) commenced on May 13, 1952. Currently,
the 17th Lok Sabha (2019-2024) is ongoing.
❖ Points which prove that parliament is not in decline: -
➢ The number of women MPs has seen a gradual increase.
15% of MPs in current LS and 12% MPs in RS are women.
➢ 58% of MPs in the first LS had at least an undergraduate
degree, which increased to about 80% in the 13th LS.
➢ The population of India has increased 3.6 times from
about 38 crores in 1952 to about 136 crores in 2019.
➢ However, the number of seats in Lok Sabha has only
increased by 11% from 489 to 543 during the same period.
As a result, the number of citizens represented by an MP has
substantially increased from about eight lakhs in 1952 to
about 25 lakhs in 2019.
➢ One of the brighter aspects of the story of Parliament is
its representativeness. Post-independence, in 1952, the
Parliament was mostly a den of lawyers who were
associated with the freedom movement and legislative
bodies in preindependent India. However, now the
Parliament has become more representative of Indian
society. This is partly due to reservation or quotas for the
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.

Envisaged Role and the Actual Working of the Parliament

The Parliament in India has the cardinal functions of
legislation, overseeing of administration, passing of the
Budget, ventilation of public grievances and discussing
various subjects like development plans, national policies
and international relations.

The Parliament;
❖The President Envisaged Role and the Actual Working of
the Parliament
❖ The Parliament in India has the cardinal functions of
legislation, overseeing of administration, passing of the
Budget, ventilation of public grievances and discussing
various subjects like development plans, national policies
and international relations.
❖ The Constitution of India treats Parliament as the
Supreme Institution of the People. It is envisaged as an
instrument of nation building, social engineering, economic
restructuring and democratic governance.

Actual Working of the Parliament

❖ In the years just after the Constitution was implemented,
there was the existence of the Congress System which led to
decline in the capacity of Parliament and the executive
started to assert its influence. This trend gave way to the
birth of the cabinet as PM form of Government.
❖ One of the prime roles of the parliament is to provide
administrative surveillance. But various PRS legislative
researches show that in recent times on various occasions,
governments of the day have cut short the session. It is
acclaimed by various scholars that sessions are called just
to fulfil the constitutional obligation.
❖ Parliament is a platform for conflict resolution but in the
case of India, Parliamentarians use the strategy of walking
out of the house instead of utilising the floor of the house to
make their voices heard and this further leads to frequent
adjournments.
❖ Parliament has acquired the role more of as an
agitational body rather than that of a law-making body.
This worrisome trend is on the rise in contemporary times.
❖ For an effective and efficient Parliament, effective
opposition is a must and in this context the performance of
Parliament is not very encouraging. In initial phases, there
existed a Congress System due to which Parliament could
not work effectively. In later phases, coalition politics has
undermined the effectiveness of Parliament as members
were more vigilant for being in power instead of
effectiveness in governance. And now in contemporary
times, due to the existence of an absolute majority
government, opposition is almost not being able to make its
voice and issues heard.

Issues concerned with Parliament

1. Institution of Speaker :
➢ The position of Speaker is that of dignity. Nehru
acclaimed that the Speaker represents the dignity and
freedom of the House. He represents the nation, he is a
symbol of the nation's liberty, dignity therefore the position
should be occupied by a man of outstanding ability and
impartiality. The Page Committee of the UK was of the view
that even though the position of speaker is neutral there
can be a possibility of the speaker going partisan.
Committee affirms that if the speaker fails to maintain
neutrality, it sounds like the death knell of parliamentary
democracy.
➢ In 2017, when the speaker of the Lok Sabha labelled the
Aadhar Bill as the money bill, the role of speaker came
under the scanner and the matter went to the Supreme
Court. In the past and also in recent history, speakers label
ordinary bills as the money bills to favor the government.
➢ The Supreme Court in Nebam Rabia and Bamang Felix Vs
Deputy Speaker case held that the Speaker ought not to
have disqualified the defectors when the motion for his own
removal was pending.
2. Anti- Defection Law:
➢ Defection is a problem in the parliamentary system. It
creates political instability, and it is a breach of trust that
voters posed in them.
➢ In Kihoto Holohan case, SC held that the decision of the
Speaker comes within the scope of Judicial Review while
deciding the cases of defection as it is a quasi-judicial
process and not a legislative process.

Conclusion:
❖ The Parliament is generally referred to as the ‘temple of
democracy.’ It is because of it being the highest institution
in which representative democracy is implemented. In the
past 75 years, the Indian Parliament has achieved many
achievements to its name despite its growing unpopularity.
Parliament reflects the deepening of democracy, which has
also had an impact on its functioning.
—-----------------------------------------------------------------
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The Executive
❖ Executive is the implementing arm of the government. It
is the executive which formulates and then implements
various policy measures.
❖ In the case of India, the President and the Governor are
vested with nominal executive powers. What makes them a
‘nominal’ executive is the fact that they do not enjoy real
powers. They are just a Constitutional figurehead,
performing some ceremonial duties enjoying little or no
powers, though the entire administration is carried on in his
or her name.
Composition
❖ The Executive generally consists of two types of officials:
❖ The political executive, i.e., President, Prime Minister,
Cabinet or Council of Ministers; and the Permanent
Executive or the bureaucracy which remains in office for a
fixed period of time regardless of which government comes
to power.

President
❖ The President is the head of the union executive, and he
is also the head of the state.
❖ Article 53 vests the executive power of the union in the
President.
❖ He/she discharges his/her function either directly or
through officers subordinate to him in accordance with the
Constitution. ❖ He is the highest Constitutional dignity.
❖ He always comes first in the warrant of precedence
issued by the state.
➢ Warrant of precedence is a list of dignity in a hierarchical
order.
❖ He is the supreme commander of the armed forces.
❖ He alone enjoys the power of declaration of war and
peace.
❖ He enjoys the administration, legislature, emergency,
military, judicial and diplomatic powers.
❖ He is regarded as the first citizen of India.
❖ He is the nominal head of the country whereas the prime
minister is the real head of the country.

The President- Part 2

Constitutional Position of the President:

❖ Article 53, states that the executive power of the union is
vested in the president. Who shall discharge his power in
accordance with the constitution?
❖ The Supreme Court in Ram Jawaya vs State of Punjab-
1954 case and subsequently in Shamsher Singh vs State of
Punjab- 1974 case, the Supreme Court clarified the position
of the president and held as per the conventions established
in England.
➢ He can discharge his functions on the aid and advice of
the council of ministers.
❖ The constitution has adopted a parliamentary form of
government under which:
1. The head of the state is not the head of the government,
and he is the nominal head of the state.
2. The real executive powers are exercised by the council of
ministers headed by the prime minister who are collectively
responsible to the lower house of the parliament.
3. The members of the Council of Ministers are necessarily
members of parliament.
There are three “Cardinal principles.”
❖ The Supreme Court therefore held on the basis of the
above principles that Article 53 shall be read with article 74
of the constitution which states there shall be a council of
ministers headed by the prime minister to aid and advise
the president. So long as the council of ministers enjoys the
confidence of the Lok Sabha the president is literally bound
by its advice.
❖ The president can neither do anything against the advice
of the Council of Ministers nor he can do anything without
the advice of the Council of Ministers.
❖ Wherever the constitution says the satisfaction of the
president, it is not the personal satisfaction of the president
but the satisfaction of the council of ministers.

U.N. Rao vs Indira Gandhi- 1971 case:

❖ In U.N Rao vs Indira Gandhi- 1971 case the Supreme
Court stated that in a parliamentary form of government,
the president is constitutionally obliged to have a council of
ministers to aid and advise him.
❖ He cannot exist and exercise his function without a
council of ministers to advise him.
❖ Therefore, even when they stand dissolved there shall be
a caretaker government to aid and advise the president.
❖ The constitution has placed the council of ministers in the
role of an advisor to the president. But in actual practice, it
is the president who is cast in the role of an advisor to the
council of ministers.
❖ As Dr. Ambedkar observed in the constituent assembly
the president does not rule the country, he only represents
the country.
❖ He is the nominal head of the state.
❖ His position is similar to that of the king or queen under
the English constitution.
❖ Thus, the president is the constitutional head but not the
real executive.

Article 74 and 42nd & 44th amendments:

❖ Article 74 in its original form read that there shall be a
council of ministers headed by the prime minister to aid
and advise the president.
❖ It did not explicitly say that the president is bound by
the advice of the Council of Ministers, but the president was
held to be bound by the advice of the Council of Ministers
under the conventions established in England and as per
the judicial decisions.
❖ The 42nd amendment act amended article 74 in which it
reads there shall be a council of ministers with the Prime
Minister at the head to aid and advise the President who
shall, in the exercise of his functions, act in accordance with
such advice.
➢ Thus, the 42nd amendment act has made it
constitutionally obligatory for the president to act
according to the advice of the council of ministers.
❖ The 44 Amendment Act further amended Article 74 and
added a provision which states that the president may
require the council of ministers to reconsider such advice
with or without his suggestion and the president shall act in
accordance with the advice given after such
reconsideration.

Discretionary Powers of the President:

Extraordinary situations under which President uses his
discretionary powers:
1. Under article 74 the president can send advice to the
council of ministers for its reconsiderations (but only once).
2. Under Article 78 the prime minister has a constitutional
duty to inform the president about the affairs of the
administration of the country and the proposed legislation.
Thus under Article 78 the president enjoys the right to be
informed and under Article 78 the president acts without the
advice of the Council of Ministers.
3. The president exercises the suspensive Veto at his
discretion. 4. The president exercises pocket Veto at his
discretion
5. When no political party enjoys the majority in the Lok
Sabha the president enjoys the discretionary power to invite
the leader of any party which is likely to form a stable
government subject to certain conditions.
6. Under Article 85 the houses of the Parliament shall be
summoned in such a way that there shall be not more than
6 months lapse between the two sessions of parliament. In
actual practice, the Parliament meets in three regular
sessions in a year and these sessions are summoned by the
president on the advice of the Council of Ministers.
➢ However, if the Council of Ministers does not advise the
president properly and the president is of the view that 6
months or more time may have elapsed between the
sessions of Parliament then the president is at his discretion
can summon the houses of parliament to fulfil the
constitutional obligations of article 85.

Election of the President:

“The election of the President is governed by Article 52, 54
and 62 and the President and Vice President Election Act
1952.”
❖ The President is elected by the people indirectly.
❖ He is elected by an electoral college consisting of the
elected members of both houses of parliament and the
elected members of the state legislative assemblies.
❖ After the 70th amendment act 1992 the elected members
of the legislative assemblies of Delhi and Puducherry
(Pondicherry) have also been included in the electoral
college of the president.
❖ These two union territories started participating in the
election of the President since 1997.
❖ The President is elected by the system of proportional
representation and by means of the single transferable vote.
➢ Proportional representation system: Under the
proportional representation system the states are
represented in the electoral college in proportion to their
population strength.
➢ Further all the states on one hand (including the above
two union territories) and the Parliament on the other hand
equally represented in the electoral college.
❖ This is to suggest that the president by getting elected by
the parliament represents the entire population of India
and by getting elected by the states.
❖ He represents the states at the federal level.
❖ The Constitution provides two formulas for calculating
the value of the vote of MLAs and the MPs.

Value of the vote of an MLA:

❖ Value of the vote of an MLA is equal to 1/1000 multiplied
by the population of the state/total number of elected MLAs
of that state.
➢ The population of the state should be as per the 1971
census figures and it will continue to 2026.

Value of the vote of an MP:

❖ The value of the vote of an MP is equal to the value of the
votes of all MLAs/ total number of elected MPs.

Single Transferable Vote:

❖ Under this system an elector has the right to indicate
more than one preference of the candidates in his ballot
paper.
❖ He can indicate has many preferences as many
candidates are contestants.
❖ However, it is not mandatory for the elector to exhaust
all his preferences.
❖ A candidate is declared elected if he obtains more than
50% of the value of the votes polled.
❖ In the first round of counting only the first preferences of
the votes are taken into consideration.
❖ If none of the candidates obtain the necessary majority
of votes, then the candidate who obtains the least number
of first preference of the vote is eliminated from the race
and ballots polled in his favor are distributed among the
other candidates. ❖ In the second round the counting as
per second preference indicated in his ballet.
❖ The process continues till a candidate is declared elected.
❖ The system of proportional representation by means of a
single transferable vote is followed in India in the election
of the Vice-president and the election of the members of the
Rajya Sabha and the election of the members of the
legislative councils.
❖ In the presidential election held in 1997, N. Sanjeeva
Reddy was declared elected unopposed (the first and only
candidate to be elected unopposed).
❖ In the 1969 presidential election V.V Giri was declared
elected at the end of the second round of counting.
❖ In all other presidential elections, the successful
candidate was identified at the end of the counting of the
first round itself.

Assent to Legislation and Veto Power of the President:

❖ All bills passed by the parliament shall have to get the
assent of the president to become law. The President Passes
Four Kinds of Bills:
1. Under article 368, after the 24th Amendment Act of 1971 a
Constitutional Amendment Bill is presented to the President,
and he shall give his assent to the Bill. Thus, he is
Constitutionally obliged to give his assent.
2. Under Article 110, when a money bill is presented to the
President for his assent, he can declare that he gives assent
or that he withholds assent.
➢ However, in the convention established in England, the
President shall give his assent to the money bill presented
to him.
➢ He has no choice under the money bill he shall give his
assent under the convention.
➢ Whereas under the Constitutional Amendment Bill, he
should give his assent under the Constitutional obligation.
3. In the case of an ordinary or financial bill, the president
has the following options when they are presented to his
assent:
➢ He can declare that he gives assent.
➢ He declares that he withholds assent, the exercise of this
option is called “the application of absolute veto” and the
President permanently blocks the legislature from becoming
an Act.
✓ However, the Indian President is not an executive
President he applies absolute veto not on his decision but
only on the advice of the council of ministers.
✓ Bills are of two types:
1. Private members bill
2. Government bill
➢ The President may refer the bill i.e., ordinary or financial
bill to the reconsideration of Parliament with or without his
suggestion. The choice of president is called “Suspension
veto”. ✓ If the Parliament passes the bill for the second
time and when it is represented to the President, then the
President shall give his assent, or the President is bound to
give his asset.
✓ Example: President used his power of suspension veto on
the office of profit bill in 2006.
➢ The Constitution does not prescribe any time limit for the
president to give his assent to a bill because of this the
President may allow a bill to lie on his table for an
indefinite period without taking any decision on it. This is
called “Pocket veto.”
Note:
❖ The President applies the suspension veto and pocket
veto only on his discretion and not on the advice of the
Council of Ministers.
❖ Dr Rajendra Prasad applied pocket veto on the Patiala
and East Punjab States Union (PEPSU) (appropriation) Bill
1956.
❖ Dr Jail Simgh applied pocket veto on Indian Postal
(Amendment) Bill 1985.
❖ R. Venkataraman applied pocket veto on Salaries,
Allowances and Pensions of the MPs (Amendment) Bill 1991.

Note:
❖ The Indian President does not enjoy the power of
absolute veto on its own and he does so only on the advice
of the Council of Ministers. Quotes on President
❖ “The President of India has an elevated standing as head
of the Republic, and should be a voice for sanity and
fairness”- Amartya Sen.
❖ "The President is the first citizen of our country and must
act as a unifying force, upholding the values of democracy
and the Constitution." - A. P. J. Abdul Kalam
❖ "The President's role in India is largely ceremonial, but it
carries great moral authority and responsibility." - Pranab
Mukherjee
❖ "The President's duty is to remind the nation of its
fundamental values and to act as a guardian of the
Constitution." - Neelam Sanjiva Reddy
❖ "The President of India is the custodian of the nation's
conscience." - Mahatma Gandhi
❖ “The President is the head of the State but not of the
Executive. He represents the Nation but does not rule the
Nation. He is the symbol of the Nation.”- Dr. B. R. Ambedkar

The President- Part 3; The Prime Minister

Election of President (Covered in Yesterday’s Notes)

Dispute relating to the election of a President

❖ Under Article 71 the disputes relating to the election of a
president are resolved by the Supreme Court where the
decision is final and binding.
❖ After the 11th Amendment Act of 1961, the election of a
President cannot be disputed on the ground of:
➢ Vacancies of seats in the electoral college of the President
or a state legislative assembly are dissolved.
➢ However, the members of the suspended legislative
assembly under Article 356 can participate in the election of
the president.
❖ If the election of the president is declared void by the
Supreme Court, then the Acts done or decisions taken in the
name of the president, before his election is declared as
void shall not be invalid on this ground.
❖ Under the President and Vice-president's Election Act-
1952 only an elector or a candidate who contested the
presidential election can dispute the election of the
President before the Supreme Court.
❖ Under this Act the nomination papers of a presidential
candidate shall be proposed by not less than 50 electors
and it shall be seconded (approved) by not less than
another set of fifty (50) electors.
❖ Each presidential candidate shall make a security deposit
of 15000 rupees then, the secretary general of the Lok
Sabha and the secretary general of the Rajya Sabha act as
the returning officer in the presidential election
alternatively.

Term of Office
❖ The president is elected for a term of 5 years, and he can
be re-elected any number of times (no restriction).
❖ There can be a vacancy in the office of the president
before the completion of the 5- year term due to
resignation, impeachment or death of the President.
❖ A vacancy shall be filled within 6 months.
❖ Till the vacancy is filled up the vice president acts as a
President of India.
❖ The president may continue beyond the normal 5-year
term if his successor is not able to enter upon his office.

Note:
❖ The election of the President should be held before the
completion of a 5-year term.

Impeachment of the President

❖ Under Article 61, the President is impeached by the
parliament on the ground of violation of the Constitution.
❖ Impeachment of the President is a Quasi-Judicial
procedure. ❖ It is for the Parliament to decide what acts of
the President amount to a violation of the Constitution.
❖ The impeachment process can be initiated only by
introducing a resolution to that effect in either House of
Parliament.
❖ However, for its introduction the resolution must be
supported by not less than ½ th of the total membership of
the House.
❖ The resolution can be taken up for passage only after the
expiry of 14 days' notice served on the president.
❖ The resolution would be deemed to have been passed if it
is supported by not less than ⅔ rd of the total strength of
the House. The resolution moves to the other House which
acts as the investigating house.
❖ It investigates the charges against the President by itself
(i.e it may constitute a Parliamentary Committee to
investigate) or it may cause the charges to be investigated.
❖ The president enjoys the Right of defence before the
second House.
❖ After such investigation if the second House also passes
the resolution by a majority of not less than ⅔ rd of the
total strength of the house then the president stands
impeached from his office from the day on which the second
House passed the resolution
Note:
❖ Under the Indian Constitution, only the President is
impeached, and all others are removed but not impeached.

Difference between Impeachment and Removal:

Impeachment Removal
❖ It is a formal Act
❖ It may or may not be a formal Act
❖ It is a legislative Act
❖ It is essentially an executive Act

Collective Responsibility
❖ Under Article 75 (3) the Council of Ministers is collectively
responsible to the Lok Sabha.
❖ It is one of the Cardinal principles of the Parliamentary
form of Government; It means if a decision is collectively
approved by the cabinet, the decision may pertain to a
single ministry, but it automatically becomes the collective
decision of the entire Council of Ministers.
❖ All the ministers are expected to support the collective
decision both within and outside the parliament.
❖ If the collective decision is defeated in Lok Sabha, it is
not the Minister concerned alone who has to resign but the
entire Council of Ministers shall resign or go out of office.
❖ On the other hand, if the decision of an individual
Minister is defeated in Lok Sabha before its collective
consideration by the cabinet the individual Minister alone
has to resign.
❖ The concept of collective responsibility means that the
Council of Ministers either stands together or falls together;
It sails together or sinks together.
❖ It enforces cohesiveness in the Council of Ministers and
ensures the Council of Ministers has a body that pulls in a
particular direction and the administration of the country is
carried on smoothly.
❖ The individual Minister may have differences on a policy
issue but once it is collectively approved by the cabinet then
a Minister, who originally opposed the decision has to either
change his view or resign from the Council of Ministers. He
cannot oppose a collective decision and at the same time
continue in a Council of Ministers.
It is the Prime Minister who enforces collective
responsibility by advising the President to drop the
concerned Minister.

Individual Responsibility
❖ Under Article 75 (2), the Ministers are individually
responsible to the president which means they hold office
during the pleasure of the president.
❖ However, since the advice of the Prime Minister is
available in this regard the president cannot remove a
minister at his discretion does the Minister hold office in
practice at the pleasure of the Prime Minister.
❖ The individual responsibility of the Minister is the means
through which the collective responsibility of the Council of
Ministers is enforced.

The Position of the Prime Minister under the Constitution

❖ The Prime Minister is described by epithets such as
Primus, inter pares that is first among the equals that is
also called inter stellar luna minores i.e little moon among
the stars.he is also called chief stone in the cabinet arch .
❖ However, in reality the Prime Minister is more than equal
among his Ministerial colleagues. He is above all the
ministers. ❖ Under article 74, the Council of Ministers
cannot exist and function without the prime minister to
head it.
❖ When the Prime Minister resigns or dies the entire council
of ministers goes out of office whereas if an individual
Minister resigns or dies there is only a vacancy in the
Council of Ministers.
❖ The Prime Minister is Central to the formation, Central to
the life and Central to the death of the Council of Ministers.
❖ It is the Prime Minister who selects his ministers and
distributes portfolios among them.
❖ He can rearrange his ministers as he likes.
❖ The Prime Minister alone enjoys the right to call for files
from other ministers or from any Ministries.
❖ Therefore, it is the Prime Minister who coordinates the
functions of various ministries.
❖ It is he who calls for the cabinet meetings and decides
the agenda for the cabinet meetings and he is lastly
responsible for the decisions taken by the cabinet.
❖ It is he who gives the general direction of the
administration of the country.
❖ Under article 78, it is the Prime Minister Who has the
right to meet the President and inform him about the affairs
of the administration of the state. The other ministers can
meet the President but not as a matter of right.
❖ The Prime Minister is the link between the Council of
Ministers and the president and also between the Council of
Ministers and the Parliament.
❖ He is the chief spokesman of the Council of Ministers.
❖ It is his prerogative to announce the important policy
decisions of the government in Parliament and to the
people.
❖ He has the right to intervene in debates relating to any
ministry in parliament.
❖ He is the most important political personality under the
constitution.

Views on Prime Minister

❖ “Primus Inter pares” (first among equals)- Lord Morley
❖ “Key stone of the cabinet arch”- Lord Morley
❖ “Inter stellas luna minores (a moon among lesser stars)”-
Sir William Vernor Harcourt
❖ “A sun around which planets revolve”- Jennings
❖ “The pivot around which the entire government
machinery revolves”- Laski
❖ “The captain of the ship of the state”- Munro
================================================
==

Prime Minister

Prime Ministerial Form of Government:

❖ It is a Parliamentary form of Government in which the
Prime Minister dominates the Council of Ministers.
❖ It comes into existence when a single party enjoys a
majority in Parliament where its leader has led the party to
electoral victory, and he is the absolute leader of his party.
❖ His decisions or his views are generally approved by the
cabinet and the cabinet is a mere Shadow of the Prime
Minister. ❖ All the major decisions are taken by the Prime
Minister and his “Kitchen Cabinet” or “Coterie”. The Kitchen
Cabinet is an extra-constitutional authority.
❖ It is the Prime Minister with the help of a coterie (a small
closed group of 4-5 people closest to the Prime Minister who
advises the Prime Minister on important policy making
issues) which may include persons who are not members of
the Parliament.

The Advantages of Prime Ministerial Form of Government

are:
1. There is political stability and the government is able to
fully concentrate on the administration of the country
without worry on its political survival.
2. It takes decisions on time and the administration has a
clear direction to follow.
3. The government will be able to act firmly during a period
of crisis.

However the Disadvantages are:

1. The spirit of collective responsibility may not be fulfilled
as the decisions of the Cabinet do not necessarily yield
collective decisions.
2. It may allow individuals to exercise authority without
being responsible to the legislature and thus it goes against
the spirit of democracy.
3. The decisions taken may be lastly and guided more by
the political fortunes of its leader rather than the long term
benefit for the country.

Cabinet Form of Government:

❖ It is a Parliamentary form of Government in which the
cabinet collectively dominates over the Prime Minister or
any group of ministers. This happens mostly in the coalition
government.
❖ The decisions taken by the cabinet are generally done
after due deliberations therefore the spirit of collective
responsibility is maintained.
❖ Further this form of government is not associated with
coterie and there are no extra constitutional exercises of
political power without responsibility.
❖ However, the cabinet may not be able to take decisions
on time because of the inherent differences among its
members and it may not be able to act firmly during a
period of crisis.

Conventions in a Parliamentary Form of Government:

❖ Conventions are those practices in a Parliamentary form
of Government that are regarded as legally binding.
❖ They are nowhere written in the Constitution.
❖ The conventions are based on uses and acquiescence.
❖ If conventions are violated then difficulties may arise in
a Parliamentary democracy.
❖ No return constitution can express the fullness of
Government and the founding fathers of the Constitution
cannot pursue future development and their impact on the
governments of the country and include relevant provisions
in the constitution.
❖ The constitution is a legal document that contains
general prescriptions but not detailed prescriptions.
❖ The general prescriptions provide the basic framework of
the governments. It cannot be changed except by means of
an amendment.
❖ Conventions are not static like the constitutional
provisions. ❖ They provide them flesh that clothes the dry
bones of law.
❖ They lubricate the machinery of the Government and
impart flexibility and keep the machinery going smoothly.
❖ The conventions are a code of Honor and they are
obeyed because of the political difficulties that may follow
if they are violated.
❖ Thus, they supplement the constitutional provisions and
they are as good as constitutional texts.

Conventions are of two types:

❖ First: The first is those that regulate the relationship
between the Council of Ministers and the Parliament such as
if the Council of Minister is defeated on a no-confidence
motion in the Parliament it shall submit its resignation to
the President.
❖ Second: The second is those that regulate the functioning
of the Parliament such as the three regular sessions and the
special sessions of the Parliament that the president should
give his assent to a money bill. The deputy speaker is
elected from the opposition if the speaker is elected from
the ruling party.

In a Presidential Form of Government:

❖ The President is elected directly by the people or by the
members of the electoral college for a fixed tenure.
❖ He is a real executive.
❖ He is not responsible to the legislature.
❖ He chooses the cabinet which is responsible to him, but
not to the Legislature.
❖ The ministers are not responsible to the Legislature.
❖ Note: Presidents in France are elected for 7 years.

In a Parliamentary Form of Government:

❖ The real executive power lies with the Council Of
Ministers (COM) which are responsible to the legislature and
the ministers are drawn from the Legislature.
❖ The Parliament exercises financial control over the
Council of Ministers.
❖ India is a country of heterogeneous population. Thus,
adequate representation can be provided to the Council of
Ministers.

The Parliamentary Form of Government is more suitable to

India because:
❖ Council Of Ministers (COM) is drawn from Legislature
which is a miniature nation in assembly where proper
representation can be given for the COM for almost all
sections of the heterogeneous population.
❖ It provides for direct, continuous and the concurrent
control of the people over the executive which is preferable
to the periodic control prevalent in the Presidential form of
government.
❖ The Parliamentary form of government provides for close
cooperation between the executive & the Legislature which
ensures smooth functioning of the government.
❖ Whereas in a presidential form of government there is
separation of power between the executive and the
Legislature which may lead to clashes in the form of
deadlock for the passage of budget & bill, causing
constitutional crisis, whereas, in the Parliamentary form of
government direct elections are held only to the Legislature.
❖ In the case of the Presidential form of government
because of the heterogeneous nature of the Indian
population none of the candidates will get 50% votes.
Hence, no leader may get elected in the first round of
elections and more than one round of elections may have to
be held to elect the president apart from the direct election
of the Parliament.
❖ The people of India are familiar with the Parliamentary
form of government since the Minto- Morley reform 1909.
This form of government has been a success in Independent
India and people often associate democracy with it. Indians
had some idea of the working of the Parliamentary form of
government since Indian Council Act, 1861 where Indians
were nominated for the first time in the administration.
❖ Moreover, it allows the adoption of the simplest electoral
system i.e. the First Past The Post (FPTP) system which is
suitable to a country like India with a vast illiterate
population. In the FPTP system, the candidate who secures
the maximum number of votes wins the election.
❖ Often political instability is given as a strong reason to
the Presidential form of government in India but the hung
Parliament and political instability are more due to
diversity in the population and the non-fulfillment of the
regional aspirations of the people and the resurgent
regional political parties.

Criticism of Parliamentary Form of Government:

❖ If the Council of Ministers enjoys an overwhelming
majority then it exercises control over the Parliament.
❖ If the Council of Ministers enjoy a slender majority and
there is a strong opposition then the Parliament can
exercise control over the Council of Ministers.
================================================
====

The Supreme Court

The Supreme Court

❖ The Constitution though Federal does not provide for
dual Judiciary that is central and state Judiciary instead it
provides for a single and unified Judiciary at the apex.
❖ We have the supreme court as apex court and in the
middle the high courts and below the subordinate courts

the Judiciary is clearly organised and organically linked

because:
➢ The supreme court exercises administrative control over
the high courts and the high courts exercise administrative
control over the subordinate courts.
➢ The judges of the subordinate courts are elected and
appointed as the judges of the high courts and the judges of
the high courts are elected and appointed as the judges of
the supreme court.

Functions of the Supreme Court:

❖ It acts as the custodian of the Constitution and helps
maintain the Supremacy of the Constitution.
❖ It is the Protector of the fundamental rights of the
individuals guaranteed by the constitution.
❖ It is the highest court of appeal on all civil,
constitutional and criminal cases; it is the sole arbitrator to
resolve disputes that may arise between the center and the
state or between the state themselves on issues relating to
the division of power.
❖ It acts as an advisory to the president and issues of
public importance that are referred to the supreme court by
the president.

Appointment of the Judges

❖ Under Article 124 (2), the Chief Justice of India is
appointed by the president.
❖ While appointing the CJI the president may consult such
judges of the supreme court and high courts as he may,
deem fit or deem necessary.
❖ However, while appointing the other judges of the
supreme court, he shall consult the Chief Justice of India
and may also consult such other judges of the supreme
court or the high courts.
❖ The Supreme Court in S P Gupta versus Union of India
1981 (1st Judge case) case held that the opinion of the Chief
Justice of India in the appointment of the judges of the
supreme court and the High Courts and the transfer of the
judges of High Courts was not binding but the consultation
with the Chief Justice of India shall be made effective (that
is all the facts available about concerned judge should be
made available.
❖ However, in Supreme Court advocates on record
Association versus Union of India 1993 (SCARA vs UOI 1993)
(2nd Judge Case) in this case the supreme court overruled
its earlier decision and held that the process of appointment
of judges is an integrated, participatory and consultative
exercise for selecting the best and the most suitable person
available.
❖ Therefore, the opinion expressed by the Chief Justice of
India in the appointment of the judges of the supreme court
and the high courts and the transfer of the judges of the
high courts shall enjoy preeminence.
❖ The Chief Justice of India is the sole authority to initiate
the process of the appointment of the judges of the supreme
court and he shares this responsibility with the chief justices
of the high courts for the appointment and transfer of the
judges of the high courts.
❖ The opinion expressed by the Chief Justice of India in
this regard is not the personal opinion of the Chief Justice
of India, but it is the opinion of the judiciary expressed
through him.
❖ Therefore, he shall consult at least two of the senior-most
judges of the supreme court while forming his opinion.
❖ If the president refers to the opinion of the Chief Justice
of India for his reconsideration with cogent reasons, then
whatever opinion expressed by the Chief Justice of India
after such reconsideration shall be binding on the president.
❖ But the Chief Justice of India shall again consult at least
two of the senior most judges of the supreme court while
reconsidering his opinion.
❖ All the consultations held by the Chief Justice of India
with the other judges at every stage shall be in writing not
oral consideration.
❖ In order to establish a healthy precedence, the president
while appointing the Chief Justice of India shall as far as
possible follow the seniority principle.

Re-appointment of Judges case 1998 (3rd Judges Case)

❖ Advisory opinion of the Supreme Court to the president.
❖ The supreme court in this Above case further clarified the
law relating to the appointment of the judges of the
supreme court and the high courts and the transfer of the
judges of the high courts.
The court stated:
➢ The sole opinion of the Chief Justice of India does not
constitute consultation as given under Article 124 (2), 217 (1)
and 222 (1). Consultation means consultation with a
plurality of judges.
✓ In case of appointment of the judges of the supreme
court and the transfer of the judges of the high courts the
Chief Justice of India shall consult at least 4 of the senior
judges of the Supreme Court.
✓ While transferring a judge of the high court the Chief
Justice of India should also consult the chief justice of the
sending and receiving high courts.
✓ In case of the appointment of the judges of the high
courts the Chief Justice of India shall consult at least two of
the senior-most judges of the high court and the chief
justice of the high court where the appointment is to be
made.
✓ If the president requires the Chief Justice of India to
reconsider his opinion, then the above process of the
consultation should be repeated.
✓ All consultation by the Chief Justice of India with other
judges shall be in writing.
➢ No opinion that is contrary to the Chief Justice of India
shall be communicated to the president.
✓ Similarly, even if two judges give an adverse opinion the
Chief Justice of India should not communicate the
recommendation to the president.
✓ If none of the Supreme Court Judges consulted will
become the next Chief Justice of India, then the judge of
the Supreme Court Who is in line to become the next Chief
Justice of India should also be consulted.

================================================
====

The Supreme Court (Part-2)

Removal of a Judge of the Supreme Court:

Article 124 (4), provides for the removal of the judges of the
supreme court by the president upon an address of both
Houses of the Parliament, supported by a majority of not
less than two third of the members present and voting and
by a majority of the total strength of the House on the
grounds of misbehaviour or incapacity.
The president must pass an order of removal of the judge in
the same session in which the Parliament passed the
resolution. Article 124 (5) empowers the parliament to
provide by law the procedure for the introduction of the
resolution in the Parliament and the method of
investigating the charges against the judge
the parliament passed the Judges (enquiry) Act 1968.
Under this a resolution seeking the removal of a judge of
the supreme court or a high court can be introduced in
either House of Parliament.
For its introduction in the Rajya Sabha, it needs the support
of at least 50 of its members and in Lok Sabha at least the
support of 100 members if properly introduced the
presiding officer of the House establish a three-member
judicial committee headed by a sitting judge of the supreme
court, the second member can be sitting judge of a High
Court and a third member can be an eminent jurist.
In the sub-committee of judicial accountability versus
Union of India 1992 case: The supreme court stated that
the Judges Enquiry Act is constitutionally valid has it
mainly regulated the use of the power of the Parliament and
Article 124 (4) and did not take away the power of
parliament in this regard the court divided the process of
the removal of the judge into two parts that is: Political act
Judicial act - The introduction of resolutions by the
members of the Parliament and the passage of the
resolution of the houses of the Parliament are political acts
because the authority is concerned with choosing
discretionary power. On the other hand The appointment of
the three members judicial committee by the presiding
officer of the house. The committee investigated the
charges. The President passes the order for the removal of
the judges All the above 3 are judicial acts because the
authorities concerned do not enjoy discretionary power.
The judge concerned enjoys the right to be heard only
before the judicial committee. If the three members judicial
committee established proof of behaviour or capacity it is
not binding on the Parliament to pass the resolution.
However, if the judicial committee fails to establish proof of
misbehaviour or incapacity, then the Parliament cannot
take up their resolution for passage.

The Heads of Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court:

Original Jurisdiction:
Under Article 131 the supreme court is the sole arbitrator to
resolve a dispute that may arise between the centre and the
states and between the states themselves on issues relating
to the distribution of power.
Therefore, the original judicial authority of the supreme
court is purely Federal in character after the seventh
Constitutional Amendment Act 1956.
The original judicial authority of the supreme court does
not extend to a dispute that involves an international
agreement or Treaty that was concluded or entered into the
force before the commencement of the Constitution.

Writ Jurisdiction:
Under article 32.

Appellate jurisdiction:
The supreme court is the highest court of appeal. All the
cases decided by the high courts that are civil, criminal and
constitutional cases can lie on appeal before the supreme
court however in the following instant a case decided by a
high court shall apply before the Supreme Court has a
matter of right.
Criminal Case: If the High Court has certified that the case
involves the interpretation of an important question of law.
The trial court has acquitted the accused, but the High
Court appeal has reversed the acquittal and conferred a
sentence of death.
If the High Court has taken upon itself the trial of a
criminal case and sentenced the person to death.
Civil Cases: If the High Court certifies that the case
involves an important interpretation of the law.
Constitutional Case: All the constitutional cases decided by
the high court shall lie on appeal before the supreme court.

Advisory Jurisdiction:
Under Article 143 of the constitution the Supreme Court has
been given a consultative role under which the president
can make a reference to the supreme court seeking its
opinion on the important question a fact or provided it is a
public importance the opinion expressed by the Supreme
Court on such issues is not binding on the president but
normally the government abide by the opinion of the
supreme Court.
If the reference made by the president relates to any
international agreement or Treaty concluded or entered
into force before the commencement of the constitution then
the court Shall express its opinion on all other issues the
court may or may not express any opinion on it.

Revisory Jurisdiction:
Under Article 137, the supreme court enjoys revisory
jurisdiction.
Under the constitution all the decisions of the supreme court
are automatically binding on all other courts of India. But
the supreme court itself is not bound by its decision.
Therefore, under the revisory jurisdiction it will be able to
correct any mistake or error that might have crept into its
judgement, order or direction.

Judicial Activism:
Judicial activism connotes the assertive role played by the
Judiciary to force the other organs of the government to
discharge their assigned Constitutional function towards the
people.
It has helped in reinforcing the strength of democracy and
reaffirmed the faith of the public in the rule of law.
In Judicial activism it is possible that the court may take
upon itself some of the functions of the legislature and
executive in order to maintain the rule of law. It helps to
ensure that when one organ of the government fails to
discharge its constitutional function and another organ is to
fill the void created and carry on the administration
according to the rule of law.
Judicial activism in a set has been forced upon the judiciary
by an insensitive and unresponsive administration that
disregards the interest of the people.
Judicial activism is nothing but the judiciary's insistence
that the rule of law must guide the legislature and executive
in enacting and enforcing the laws of the land.
It is a phenomenon that is pursued by the supreme court
and high courts under the writ jurisdiction.
The PIL is the facilitator of judicial activism and the PIL
plays an important role in the translation of judicial
activism for the general Welfare of the society.
Therefore, judicial activism owes its popularity to PIL which
is regarded as the backbone of judicial activism.
Judicial activism is a welcome measure only in the short
run. If it is carried on for long, it may weaken the concept
of separation of power and the doctrine of checks and
balances. The judiciary may come to assume more powers
at the expense of the executive and legislature without
adequate responsibilities.
Judicial activism and judicial restraint are the two sides of
the same coin.
Therefore, the Judiciary should employ self-restraint and
formulate a code of conduct for the judge while employing
Judicial activism.
Otherwise, judicial activism may degenerate into judicial
adventurism and affect the way the democracy functions.

Role of the Supreme Court in the Growth of the Constitution:

A Constitution doesn't speak by itself but it speaks through
the Judiciary.
Under the Constitution the supreme court performs many
functions wherein it acts as:
The custodian and the final interpreter of the Constitution.
Protector of the fundamental rights of the individuals.
As the final Court of appeal.
The sole arbitrator of the disputes between the centre and
the state.
The functions have directly contributed to the growth of the
Constitution.
The Supreme Court has been described as a continuous
Constitutional convention because it continues to expand
the scope of the Constitution in conformity with the growing
needs of the society.
It is primarily through the power of Judicial review that the
court has been helping in the growth of the Constitution.
The most significant contribution of the court in this regard
is that it emphasises that in India it is the constitution that
is Supreme. Whenever there was a parliamentary threat to
it the court succeeded in protecting the same through its
various decisions culminating in the doctrine of the basic
structure of the Constitution as propounded in the
Kesavananda Bharati case. By providing the liberal
interpretation to the Constitutional provision especially
Article 19, 21 it has expanded the scope of the fundamental
rights by including various inferred rights such as: Right to
Information Right to privacy Right to primary education
And also including the doctrine of due process of law under
part 3 of the constitution.
It has also succeeded in maintaining the harmony between
the two most important parts of the Constitution namely
Part III and Part IV by striking down the parliamentary
attempt to confirm Supremacy and Part IV for some of the
fundamental rights as unconstitutional and void.
It has extended the application of judicial review to crucial
articles like Article 356 as propounded in the S.R Bommai
case. In recent times it has taken upon itself the role of
crusader for aiming to provide a corruption-free
administration and a livable environment to the people.
It has successfully incorporated the concept of PIL into the
Jurisprudence of India to heighten the responsibility of the
legislature and the executive.
Thus, the Supreme Court has lived up to its dictum that the
Constitution does not speak by itself, but it manifests
through the judiciary.

Quotes on Supreme Court

"The Supreme Court has held that the Constitution is not a
mere lawyers' document; it is a vehicle of life, and its spirit
is always the spirit of the age." - Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
"The Supreme Court is a unique institution, which is to
protect the rights and liberties of the citizens." - Justice P.N.
Bhagwati "The Supreme Court of India stands as a sentinel
on the high watchtowers of the Constitution, vigilant and
prepared to defend the basic structure of our democracy." -
Justice K.G. Balakrishnan
"The Supreme Court of India is the last refuge of the
oppressed and the bewildered." - Nani Palkhivala
"The Supreme Court is an institution that has played a
crucial role in shaping India's democratic framework and
upholding the rule of law." - Soli Sorabjee
“The Supreme Court of India is the most powerful court in
the democratic world. It has the power of judicial review,
the power of constitutional interpretation, and the power of
protecting the rights of the citizens." - Fali S. Nariman
"The Supreme Court of India is a vital institution for the
sustenance and growth of democracy. Its role in upholding
the Constitution and ensuring justice cannot be overstated."
- Gopal Subramaniam
—-----------------------------------------------------------------
------

The Supreme Court (Part-3)

Public Interest Litigation (PIL):

❖ In the USA, PIL is called Social Action Litigation (SAL).
❖ Amicus curiae (in front of the court).
❖ As a concept it originated in the USA where it is known as
social action litigation.
❖ The Supreme Court of India has incorporated the
concept of PIL under the jurisprudence of India. It is totally
a judge made law.
❖ It can be defined as litigation that seeks to protect and
promote the interest of the public at large.
❖ It is based on the maxim Pro Bono Publico which means
in the interest of the public.
❖ Its objective is to extend speedy and inexpensive justice
to the common man.
❖ The power to issue PIL is under the writ jurisdiction of
the Supreme Court and the High Court, and the subordinate
courts do not enjoy this right.
❖ The Supreme Court has evolved rules relating to PIL.
➢ It is generally issued to protect the interest of the groups
of individuals and not the individual interest for which the
fundamental rights are available. However, even a single
individual can be treated as a group if the interest involved
affects the public in general.
➢ PIL can be filed before the court by any individual or
organisations provided it is publicly spirited. Therefore, the
principle of Locus Standi does not apply. Further, even a
postcard addressed to the court can be treated as a writ
petition under PIL.
➢ It can be issued generally against the public authorities
but can also be issued against private individuals or private
authorities. The relief provided is normally in the form of
directions or orders issued and not in the form of judgement
and in the form of compensation to the affected parties.

Criticism of PIL:
❖ The major criticism against the PIL is that it has
interfered with the regular judicial functions of the Court
and has led to the choking up of the courts with a large
number of pending cases.
❖ It has also been misused in the form of seeking publicity
and litigating to protect vested interest by filing frivolous
petitions. ❖ The Supreme Court has responded against such
misuses by evolving new rules:
➢ It clarified that the courts have the power to order the
payment of exemplary compensation to the affected parties.
In case the petition is vexatious or frivolous.
➢ The court has also started taking the help of a screening
committee consisting of publicly spirited lawyers, social
activists etc who will scrutinise PIL files and submit the
report to the court and save the precious time of the court.
➢ The help of the amicus Curiae that is in front of the court
is also taken by the court in this regard.
➢ The court also insists that the person who litigates before
the court shall litigate bonafide (in good faith) and shall
establish a Prima facie case before the court shifts the
burden of proof on the other party.

Benefits of PIL:
❖ It has helped in enormously increasing the awareness
among the people about their own rights and the role of the
judiciary in protecting these rights.
❖ It has helped the Judiciary to expand the scope of the
fundamental rights and many of the inferred rights have
been extended to the public through PIL.
❖ It has forced the executive and the legislature to
discharge their constitutional obligation towards the
people.
❖ The court has made an attempt to provide a corruption
free Administration and a liveable environment to the
public.

Role of the Supreme Court in the Growth of the Constitution

(Also given in the last class notes):
❖ A Constitution doesn't speak by itself, but it speaks
through the Judiciary.
❖ Under the Constitution the supreme court performs many
functions wherein it acts as:
➢ The custodian and the final interpreter of the
Constitution.
➢ Protector of the fundamental rights of the individuals.
➢ As the final Court of appeal.
➢ The sole arbitrator of the disputes between the centre
and the state.
❖ These functions have directly contributed to the growth
of the Constitution.
❖ The Supreme Court has been described as a continuous
Constitutional convention because it continues to expand
the scope of the Constitution in conformity with the growing
needs of the society.
❖ It is primarily through the power of Judicial review that
the court has been helping in the growth of the Constitution.
❖ The most significant contribution of the court in this
regard is that it emphasises that in India it is the
constitution that is Supreme.
❖ Whenever there was a parliamentary threat to it, the
court succeeded in protecting the same through its various
decisions culminating in the doctrine of the basic structure
of the Constitution as propounded in the Kesavananda
Bharati case.
❖ By providing the liberal interpretation to the
Constitutional provision especially Article 19, 21 it has
expanded the scope of the fundamental rights by including
various inferred rights such as: ➢ Right to Information ➢
Right to privacy ➢ Right to primary education ➢ And also
including the doctrine of due process of law under part 3 of
the constitution.
❖ It has also succeeded in maintaining the harmony
between the two most important parts of the Constitution
namely Part III and Part IV by striking down the
parliamentary attempt to confirm Supremacy and Part IV
for some of the fundamental rights as unconstitutional and
void.
❖ It has extended the application of judicial review to
crucial articles like Article 356 as propounded in the S.R
Bommai case. ❖ In recent times it has taken upon itself the
role of crusader for aiming to provide a corruption-free
administration and a livable environment to the people.
❖ It has successfully incorporated the concept of PIL into
the Jurisprudence of India to heighten the responsibility of
the legislature and the executive.
❖ Thus, the Supreme Court has lived up to its dictum that
the Constitution does not speak by itself but it manifests
through the judiciary.

Contempt of the Court:

❖ Under Article 129, and under Article 215, the Supreme
Court and the High Courts respectively are conferred with
contempt jurisdiction.
❖ Wherein the courts can punish individuals for committing
civil/criminal wrong against the court.
❖ The Parliament enacted the Contempt of Court 1971 Act,
which regulates the use of contempt jurisdiction by the
court.
❖ The act defines contempt as civil and criminal. Civil
contempt is described as any willful breach of an
undertaking given by a court to an individual or willful
disobedience or default with regard to a judgement, order
or direction of a Court.
❖ Criminal Contempt has been defined as:
1. Publication of any matter or commission of any act that
scandalises.
2. Or tends to scandalise.
3. Or lowers the authority of the court.
4. Or tends to interfere with the due course of any judicial
proceedings.
5. Or tends to obstruct the administration of justice in my
manner.
❖ The punishment prescribed under the act includes a fine,
imprisonment or both.
❖ The Supreme Court has held that the 1971 act is meant to
protect the seat of justice but not the judges. The court
pointed out that under Section 16 of the act, even a Judge
can be held responsible for the contempt of his own court.
but the use of contempt by the court has become
controversial because of the inconsistency in its application
and it runs against the principle of natural justice.
================================================
====

Party System

Role of Political Parties

❖ Political Parties are considered as an all-important
institution of Representative Democracy.
Political Parties performed multifarious functions in
democracy. Those functions are:
➢ Interest articulation of people.
➢ Providing input to the government for policy formulation.
➢ Providing valuable inputs to the government about policy
implementation.
➢ Political parties also help in making the government
aware about the problems faced by people and how those
problems faced by people can be resolved.
❖ Maurice Duverger has tried to establish a link between
the electoral system and the nature of the Party System.
❖ According to Maurice Duverger, Party System can be
classified as:
➢ Party System with an absolute majority consisting of a
single party.
➢ Party system where absolute majority does not belong to
any one party but rests with a coalition of different parties.
➢ Party system where absolute majority is formed with the
help of smaller parties who get to play a significant role in
either government or opposition.
➢ Party system where absolute majority is formed with the
help of minor or smaller parties but no distinct role for
them in either government or opposition.
❖ The example of India shows that history, society, and
culture are important determinants in shaping the Party
System. Today India is a multi-party system which has
given rise to the coalition era in the past in Indian politics.

Evolution of Party System in India

❖ Pre-Independence Phase:
➢ Even during the National Movement, there used to be the
presence of a number of political parties like Congress,
Muslim league, and Communist party. Among all these
parties, the Indian National Congress emerged as the most
important political party in the country.
➢ Congress was like a rainbow coalition which
accommodated different ideological shades within its fold.
Congress accommodated all the groups within the fold of
Congress.
➢ When Congress was formed in 1885, it started as a
Pressure Group and then it became a mass movement.
Other parties like Muslim League and Communist Party
represented smaller sections of Indian society. They had
limited reach.

❖ Post-Independence Phase:
➢ First Phase, from 1952 till 1967:
✓ This phase has been called by Rajni Kothari as the
Congress system. It was a one-party dominant system. (This
term was coined by Morris Jones).
✓ Congress System signifies the dominance of the Congress
Party at both the State and the Central level. The Congress
Party dominated India’s electoral system during this phase.
Congress was so dominated during this phase that
opposition parties even jointly were not able to defeat
Congress.
✓ There was hardly any opposition to the Congress Party
from outside. Rather, effective opposition to policies of the
Congress emerged from within rather than from outside.
Congress was largely a party of consensus as described by
Rajni Kothari.
✓ The Congress System shaped the functioning of the
Government. In fact, the Congress system also led to the
rise of the Prime Ministerial form of government in India.
✓ But the Congress System was challenged for the first time
in 1967 when noncongress parties came to power in as
many as nine states. The Congress system was threatened
for the first time and then the Congress party witnessed a
split in 1969 and henceforth, a remarkable shift can be
witnessed in the Indian Political System.
➢ Second Phase, from 1967 till 1980:
✓ This was the phase of stand-off between congress party
and other regional parties. Moreover, the movement
launched by Jai Prakash Narayan also created a sort of
confrontation between Congress and others.
✓ Indira Gandhi started Personalistic politics and
maintained direct contact between Congress Party and the
general public because she wanted to bypass the
institutional structure of the Congress Party.
✓ This phase was different from the Nehruvian era because
this phase witnessed more confrontation within and outside
the Congress as compared to the policy of consensus
adopted during the Nehruvian era.
✓ During this Phase, Congress developed a High Command
Culture in the Congress party when decisions used to flow
from top to bottom and the structure of congress party
became like a pyramid- where power was concentrated at
the top and mass mobilisation was happening at the base.
✓ The change in structure of the Congress party has been
criticised by a number of scholars because the attitude of
confrontation adopted by Congress gave a blow to India’s
Federal System.
Scholars argue that it was phase of Deinstitutionalization of
Indian Democracy i.e., Institutions started losing their
relevance. This resulted into the launching of mass
movement by Jai Prakash Narayan for
re-institutionalization of democracy i.e., re-establishing the
sanctity of democracy once again, leading to the imposing
of emergency 1975, which was a deathly bow to the
fledgling democracy of India.
✓ Elections were held in 1977, in which, Janta Party
government came to power which was a coalition
government. However, the Janta party government could
not survive for long because it was a weak coalition.
Moreover, coalition partners had no idea about the working
of the coalition government leading to the collapse of the
government due to inherent conflict.
✓ Nevertheless, the Janta Party government was an
experiment with respect to the coalition in India which
failed. It also shows that coalition culture had not
developed sufficiently at national level, but this experiment
gave significant lessons for future governments
================================================
====

Party System (Part-2) Third Phase:1980-89- Restoration of

Congress
❖ This was the phase in which the congress party became
more democratic in its approach unlike its earlier term, at
least on paper.
❖ According to professor M.P Singh, the Congress party
even during this phase did not attempt to build the
institutional character of the parties in India. Political
leaders like Indira Gandhi started personalistic politics.
❖ When congress was voted back to power in 1980, it was
different from the Congress system of yesteryear because a
number of regional parties started becoming very assertive
at state level. Moreover, the Congress party went on to lose
one state after the other; it ruled only at the central level
and in some states. It was not as powerful as the congress
party used to be earlier.
❖ A number of states in India started demanding for more
autonomy, leading to separatist tendencies like Jammu and
Kashmir, Punjab and Assam. This was the phase when
Centre appeared weak.
❖ Even the nature of federalism started witnessing a
remarkable shift from Cooperative Federalism to
Bargaining Federalism.

Coalition Era (First phase: 1989 till 1999; Second phase: 1999
till 15th General Election, 2014)
❖ This phase of coalition politics was not new to India.
India witnessed its first coalition during the Janata Party
government from 1977 till 1980. In fact, Congress itself was
a grand coalition of people belonging to different groups,
different ideological shades, etc. Even some of the states
have witnessed coalition earlier also.
❖ The age of coalition formally began in Indian politics
from 1989 and it lasted in reality till 15th General Election,
2014. The coalition politics in India can be divided into two
phases: First phase: 1989 till 1999 and Second phase: 1999
till 15th General Election, 2014.

Features of First phase of Coalition Politics (1989 till 1999):

❖ In this phase, the negative coalition performed in the
sense that the purpose of coalition used to be to keep other
parties out of power.
❖ During this phase, coalition politics lacked consensus
among political parties.
❖ Political instability became the features of Indian
politics.
❖ During this phase, scholars started criticising the existing
state of affairs due to political instability, and even started
advocating for a Presidential Form of government in India
by replacing Parliamentary form of Government so that
political instability will not affect the administration of the
country.
Second phase of Coalition Politics (1999 till 15th General
Election 2014):
❖ In 1999, BJP- led NDA got the majority in the general
election, this was the first successful experiment of the
functioning of a coalition government in India. BJP
remained in power till 2004.
❖ In 2004, BJP lost the election to Congress- led UPA. This
was the second experiment towards the successful working
of the coalition government in India.
❖ The UPA government again came to power in the 2009
general election.
❖ The analysis of the second phase of the coalition
experiment shows that coalition culture started maturing in
India.
❖ The Indian Political system has devised various
mechanisms to keep the coalition intact. This shows that
gradually India is moving towards building a successful
coalition culture.

2014- till Now:

❖ Trends in the Indian Political System began to change
considerably since 2014 onwards. BJP won absolute
majority in 2014. It was the first political party to win an
absolute majority since 1984 general election. The
magnitude of this victory surprised political analysts and
BJP was able to win 282 seats out of 543 Lok Sabha.
❖ It was the first political party to get an absolute majority
in three decades. This victory of BJP was repeated in 2019
with an even bigger mandate and BJP was able to win more
than 300 seats with more than 45 percent votes share. The
magnitude of this victory was astounding and surprising
even by 2014 standards.
❖ In fact, this victory has made political scientists to think
in terms of the emergence of the BJP as a replication of the
dominant era of Congress.
❖ According to Ramachandra Guha, BJP is going to be the
next hegemonic party in Indian politics. BJP is going to
dominate the Indian political system for 20-25 years.
❖ According to political analysts, the victory of BJP at the
central level and also in politically important states like
Uttar Pradesh, and the emergence of BJP as a massive
political force in West Bengal and North-East is a mute
testimonial of its dominance on the Indian political system.

Factors which played an important role in the rise of BJP:

1. Focus on last mile delivery of the Government's Welfare
Schemes.
2. Politics of Nationalism.
3. Projecting itself as an alternative to family-based parties
which have been a dominant factor in Indian politics for a
very long time.
4. Personalistic factor of the BJP’s Prime Ministerial
candidate. 5. It appeared as if Indian voters moved away
significantly from coalition politics and have started
reposing faith for the time being in a single political party.
================================================
====
Coalition Politics Meaning of Coalition ❖ Coalition is an
arrangement in which political parties come together with
an overriding concern of giving stable government to the
country. Under the coalition, different political parties come
together to form the government.
❖ According to Prof. M.P Singh Coalition is a method
through which different political parties come together to
create harmony. Coalition government leads to fractured
politics in the country or fractured political landscape in the
country.
❖ Coalition also results in cooperation among different
parties in the legislature.
Coalition leads to not only formation to the government but
also opposition to the government.
Condition for Coalition Government ❖ Coalition government
emerges in a diverse society because creating consensus in
a diverse society remains a challenging task. Hence, it is
difficult for any one political party to get a majority, that is
why, coalition is formed, to give the country a stable
government.
❖ Coalition emerges in a parliamentary form of
government usually.
❖ Those countries where multiple political parties are
present usually witness a coalition form of government.
❖ Coalitions are common in some of the western countries
like Germany, Switzerland etc. but these countries have a
very healthy culture of coalition politics. For example, In
Germany, there is a system of constructive vote of no
confidence under which if one coalition goes out of power
then another coalition government comes in power.
❖ The purpose of coalition in these countries is to give their
country a stable government and not to keep certain
political parties out of power. Such a healthy coalition
culture normally results into a more inclusive government
whereas in third world countries coalitions are normally
formed with a negative mindset to keep certain political
parties out of power. For example, in Pakistan, recently a
number of political parties came together to keep Imran
Khan out of power.
3 Views of Scholars with respect to Coalition Government ❖
Maurice Duverger: He has tried to link coalition government
with a type of electoral system and he has provided
following thesis:
➢ Majoritarian Electoral System-results in two parties’
system ➢ Proportional Representation Electoral
System-results into a multi-party system ❖ Duverger Thesis
does not explain the prevailing condition of India.
❖ India neither fits into the system of two parties system
and proportional representation system.
❖ In India, there is presence of multiple political parties in
the electoral system whereas India is having
first-past-the-post-system of election, that is why, scholars
argue that getting majority in such a political system
becomes a very challenging task.
Merits and Demerits of Coalition Politics Demerits of
Coalition Politics ❖ It may cause political instability
because certain coalition partners may walk out of the
coalition.
❖ Developing consensus becomes very difficult because
coalition partners may be having their own agenda.
❖ During times of crisis, the government may not be able to
act firmly.
❖ Lack of consensus among coalition partners may result in
delay in developmental works.
❖ It may result in increasing corruption in the government.
Merits of Coalition Politics ❖ Spirit of collective
responsibility is in short.
❖ All the coalition partners participate in the
decision-making process and decisions are taken after due
deliberation.
❖ Coalition government works in a truly democratic
fashion.
❖ It is more representative than a two-party system.
❖ Diverse social interests get represented in the coalition
form of government.
4 Prominent Trends in Coalition Politics in India ❖ In
Indian context, we can divide the coalition politics into 2
phases:
➢ The Phase of Immaturity (1989-1999) ➢ The Phase of
Political Maturity (1999-2014) ❖ Major trends associated
with the functioning of Coalition government in Indian
Context:
➢ Initially, we saw the emergence of a coalition with
negative orientation. Coalitions were formed to keep a
particular party out of power rather than for making
government work. ➢ We see little regard for ideological
factors. This is more prominent at national level (from 1989
till 1999) in comparison to State Level. Coalitions were
formed not because of having similar policy preferences but
with the desire of sharing the benefits of power. For
successful functioning of the coalition, we do require
ideological compatibility to help coalition partners to
navigate through the troubled waters. Coalition partners in
the Indian context found to lack long term vision. Long
term vision may require at times those types of decisions
which may not be popular in the short term. In the Indian
context. For the sake of avoiding temporary unpopularity
coalition partners often defected to gain popular
advantage. ➢ In Indian context, the coalition politics
reflect the decline of some of the national parties. Coalition
governments have resulted in an increase in the scale of
political corruption. This phenomenon is defined by former
speaker Somnath Chatterjee in terms of the decline of
Indian Parliament. The coalition politics in the past has
resulted in the shifting of power from the office of Prime
Minister to extra constitutional authorities like coordination
committee, steering committee. Often the coalitions have
not respected People’s mandate. Political parties are more
obsessed about their survival rather than development of
people. Coalition governments in the past have
strengthened the office of President as well as the Supreme
Court. The coalition politics has increased the bargaining,
and it has also increased the influence of bureaucracy. 5
Suggestions related to the functioning of Coalition Form of
Government:
❖ To have Presidential Form of Government: Since
Presidential form of government gives political stability, it
was suggested as an option. According to J S Mill,
institutions are shaped by the people who work for them.
Hence, until and unless we develop a healthy political
culture, institutional changes are not helpful. By any means,
the parliamentary form of government is more responsible
and more democratic. The USA is the only example where a
Presidential form of government is able to retain its
democratic character. In most 3rd world countries, it
resulted in the emergence of a dictatorial form of
government. ❖ Prime Minister to be elected by Lok Sabha:
This suggestion does not suit the Indian context because in
this situation opposition will not have any meaning. It may
increase political corruption and it is also impractical
because the parliamentary system works on party lines. ❖
In the case of Hung Parliament, we can have a national
government: Democracy has no meaning without
opposition. National government is meant for emergencies
only. ❖ Constructive vote of No confidence: This system can
be adopted. This is found in Germany. Here, a person or a
party who is moving a vote of no confidence against the
government must show that an alternative exists, and that
alternative will be in a position to gain the vote of
confidence. Hence, elections can be avoided. Theories on
Coalition Politics ❖ Bargaining Theory: Throughout the
entire duration of a government's existence in
parliamentary democracies, the process of forming and
sustaining coalitions relies on bargaining. Parties involved
in these bargaining must consider both historical and future
perspectives simultaneously. The results of these
negotiations are influenced not just by prior agreements
that impact the resources and limitations of the coalition
members but also by the fact that the bargaining process
takes place with an eye on upcoming elections and the
ever-present challenge posed by political competitors.
❖ William Riker’s Cooperative Game Theory: In his work
“The Theory of Political Coalitions" (1962), Riker applied the
principles of bargaining theory to political scenarios. He
uses the concept of the "size principle." This principle
predicts the formation of minimal winning coalitions. Using
cooperative game theory, Riker framed the creation of
political coalitions as a fixed-sum bargaining game where
6 participants must come to an agreement on how to divide
government membership among each of them. The size
principle is built upon two fundamental principles, termed
by Riker as the "strategic principle" and the "disequilibrium
principle." ➢ Under-sized ruling coalitions have an
incentive to add more members because the majority of the
parliament that is excluded from the government would
have both the means and the motivation to disrupt the
minority government (the strategic principle). Conversely,
members of over-sized coalitions will discover that the
benefits of government membership are spread too thinly
and may choose to remove surplus members from the
coalition (the disequilibrium principle).
➢ The extent to which coalition formation in the real world
matches Riker's model can vary significantly from case to
case. Several factors contribute to this divergence, including
variations in the rewards at stake, the information available
to the participants, and the specific context in which the
bargaining process takes place.
Views on Coalition Politics:
❖ Prof M. P. Singh: The immediate political context of
coalition politics is the decline of the once-dominant
Congress Party and the continuing failure of any party from
the centre, right, or left of the party system to win a
working majority of its own to govern India.
—------------------------------------------------------
Ideological and Social bases of National and Regional
Parties in India

Regional Parties
❖ The Election commission of India gives only the status of
national parties and state parties and not the status of
regional parties. This categorization of regional and
national parties is largely based upon their outlook, agenda
as well as presence.
❖ The agenda of regional parties is mainly concerned
about a particular state or at max a particular region.
These regional parties lack national outlook, their agenda
is also regional in character. They are mainly concerned
about their political survival, they have a narrow social
base.
Examples of regional parties are:
➢ Bahujan Samajwadi Party,
➢ the Samajwadi Party,
➢ Biju Janata Dal,
➢ the Telangana Rashtra Samithi (now called as BRS),
➢ Telugu Desam Party, etc.

National Parties
❖ National parties are having a national outlook. They
have a pan-India presence. National parties also have a
diverse social base. Examples of national parties are
Congress, BJP etc.
❖ In Indian context, the political parties are generally
divided on the basis of ideology which are following:
➢ Caste Vs Class parties- e.g., Samajwadi party and RJD
are caste-based parties whereas BJP and Congress are
class-based parties.
➢ Secularism Vs Nationalism-Congress (Secularism) Vs BJP
(Nationalism)
➢ Regionalism Vs Nationalism- DMK, YRS congress, TMC
etc. are regional parties and Congress and BJP are national
parties.

Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)

Ideological Base of BJP
❖ BJP promotes cultural nationalism. It is a rightist party.
BJP believes in a greater role for the market economy
today. Earlier BJP primarily talked about or primarily used
to be concerned about swadeshi.
❖ BJP believes in the ideology of
one-Country-one-Constitution. It is also a political party
which believes in one-nation-one-culture-one-language
(though BJP refutes these claims).
❖ BJP spreads its ideology through a highly committed and
disciplined cadre of Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS).

BJP’s Social Base

❖ It primarily consists of females, cutting a cross caste and
religious line.
➢ Extremely Backward Classes
➢ Business Community
➢ Upper-Castes
➢ Scheduled Tribes
➢ Significance Portion of Scheduled Caste
❖ Today, BJP social base is having pan-India presence,
today it has started spreading wings in hitherto untouched
areas like-
➢ West Bengal-BJP has emerged as a formidable force and
second largest party.
➢ North-East- Historically, this area has remained an
untouched area for BJP but in recent times, BJP has come
to emerge as the most formidable force in all the
North-Eastern states.
➢ Telangana- It has started emerging as a big force in
Telangana as well.
➢ Tamil Nadu-Historically, BJP used to have negligible
presence in Tamil Nadu but today it has started performing
well and started getting more than 10 percent of votes.
❖ Today it is ruling most of the north-India, western India
and eastern part of India and it has also started spreading
its wings in the southern part of India. It has been able to
attract new social groups within its fold which includes
people from rural areas, extremely backward classes,
Pasmanda Muslim which are relatively less well off as
compared to other groups.

Congress
❖ Congress can be called as a centrist party having tilt
towards left and sometimes right.
Ideological Base of Congress
❖ Congress started in post-independence as a rainbow
coalition. Congress sometimes remained Centre left and
Centre rights. During Indira Gandhi, congress’s slogan of
GARIBI HATAO and during Manmohan Singh, congress’s
welfare programs are examples of Centre left and during
Rajiv Gandhi, congress stands in Shah Bano case and Ram
Janmabhoomi Case are examples of Centre right.
❖ Congress ideology can be associated with secularism,
multiculturalism, multi-caste approach. Over the years
congress party has witnessed many ideologies
transformations, which are following:
➢ During times of Nehru-Fabian’s Socialism or Democratic
Socialism.
➢ During times of Indira Gandhi-Extreme welfare
provisions.
➢ During times of P.V Narasimha Rao-Neo-liberalism which
resulted into economic reforms.
➢ During the times of Manmohan Singh-Populist measures.
During this period, congress was forced to take populist
measures because of the challenges of coalition politics.
Social Basis of Congress
❖ Social base of congress included different sections of
Indian society like class, caste and other categories.
Congress was called the rainbow coalition because of its
role in India's freedom struggle. Initially, it got support
from all the sections of Indian society including caste
groups, religions groups, ethnic groups, linguistic groups
etc.
❖ In different parts of India, Congress represented
different types of coalition which dominated electoral
politics of India for decades. For example, KHAM Politics in
Gujarat (Kshatriyas, Harijan, Adivasis and Muslims) which
made political party the most dominant political force for
decades in Gujarat.
❖ But over the years, social base of congress party started
shifting towards regional parties which includes:
➢ Muslim Vote Bank of Congress in UP shifted towards
Samajwadi party and Dalit Vote Bank of congress shifted
towards BSP initially, and from BSP it shifted further
towards BJP.
➢ Recent election shows Congress party has witnessed
massive erosion in its vote bank in most parts of India.
➢ Traditional supporters of the Congress party have started
questioning its ability to keep its social base intact. Its vote
percentage has dipped significantly at national level in
comparison to BJP in 16th and 17th general election. The
most disturbing trend has been the shifting of the
marginalised section of Indian society, which earlier used
to be the core voter base of congress party, have shifted
towards regional parties.
================================================
====
Ideological and Social bases of National and Regional
Parties in India;Socio-Economic Profile of Legislators

Communist party
❖ The 17th general election has brought a pessimistic
picture about left parties in India. From a historic high of
61 seats in the 14th general election, it could secure less
than 10 seats in the 17th general election. Today its vote
share has been drastically reduced and it has been
completely wiped out from most parts of India.
❖ It has a significant presence only in Kerala. Its social
base, today, primarily constitutes Industrial workers, small
peasantry. More than 80 percent of its votes come from
rural areas. Left parties no longer attract young India. Its
radical program and ideology is no longer appealing to
young voters of India.
❖ As far as ideology of the left movement is concerned, we
find different schools of thoughts. There are political parties
supporting parliamentary road to socialism as well as there
are parties supporting revolution to bring socialism like
Maoist in India. On the economic front, communist parties
maintain a traditional socialist agenda of uplifting the
deprived section of society and improving their conditions.

Current Status of Party System in India

❖ Polarisation
❖ Regionalism
➢ Polarisation means political parties are using caste
related issues or religion related issues to corner votes. Both
types of polarisation in a diverse country like India is not
acceptable.
➢ Tendency of regionalism is used by regional parties to
corner votes because regional parties also intend to play a
bigger role in national politics and to cement their position
in a particular region.
➢ Political parties like Akali Dal, DMK are limited to their
concerned states only, but they also have aspirations to
play a larger role at national level. Other important
regional parties are Samajwadi Party, YSR Congress, VRS in
Telangana etc.
➢ These political parties have started playing a bigger role
in their concerned states and they are also having
ambitions to play a larger role at national level in future.

Socio-Economic Profile of Legislators in India

❖ Parliament reflects changes happening in society. That is
why, Edmund Burke, a conservative thinker, stated that
Parliament gives us a microscopic view of the nation. The
social and economic profile of legislators indicates changes
happening in larger society.
❖ It also tells us about the distribution of resources in
society. Moreover, the SocioEconomic profile of legislators
also gives us an idea about the quality of democracy in a
country.
❖ Democracy ensures that circulation of elites will keep on
happening and it ensures that each set of elites will get the
opportunity to rule. Moreover, a competitive party system
ensures that there is always competition among the elites so
that democracy can remain robust.

First Phase, from 1952 till 1960s:

❖ The First Parliament was dominated by upper class elites,
most of them western educated professionals. In fact, close
to 65 percent members of Lok Sabha were professionals. In
fact, most of those parliamentarians were associated with
the freedom struggle and they were treated by society like
heroes, but they belonged to the upper strata of society.

Second Phase, from 1970 till 1980s:

❖ This was the phase when the first major change in social
and economic profile of parliamentarians was witnessed. It
also reflected the changes which were witnessed by Indian
politics. Scholars like Rudolph and Rudolph produced
interesting study with respect to the rise of OBCs in Indian
politics. They were called bullock cart capitalist. This class
reflected tremendous changes in the Indian Political
System.
❖ Now rural elites started replacing urban elites in
parliament and professionals like lawyers and professors
were replaced by agriculturalists in Parliament. This
phenomenon in Indian Politics is called Ruralization of
Indian Parliament.
❖ In Rajya Sabha also massive changes started and those
parliamentarians who lost their seat in Lok Sabha, started
getting seats in Rajya Sabha. Moreover, a number of
politicians having criminal backgrounds started entering
into Rajya Sabha which reduced the prestige of Rajya
Sabha greatly.
❖ During the regime of Indira Gandhi, the rise of
professional politicians started entering Indian politics.
Student leaders started entering into Indian Politics in a big
way.
Third Phase, 1990s till 17th General Election:
❖ The major change was witnessed in 1989 which is known
as regionalization of Indian politics. Now regional parties
started dominating in Indian parliament and OBC formed
the major constituents of Indian Parliament. At the same
time people having criminal backgrounds increased
significantly.
❖ During 1990, Dalit factor also became important because
of the changes witnessed by the Indian society and the role
of traditional elites have been taken up by new elites.
❖ Even though Indian society was witnessing churning at
multiple levels and hitherto groups on the fringes started
getting representation and occupied centre stage in Indian
politics, the condition of women did not improve much and
only 7-8 percent of parliamentarians were women and most
of those women were belonging to elite section of Indian
society. That’s why, it was demanded that women
reservation is the need of the hour.
Socio-economic profile of legislators in 17th Lok Sabha,
2019:
❖ According to analysis by PRS Legislative Research, 39
percent of MPs listed their profession as political and social
work. The second most common profession listed was
agriculture and 23 percent were involved in business.
❖ 67 percent of MPs are graduates and postgraduates while
4 percent of MPs are doctors and about 11 percent MPS
have studied class 10th or lower.
❖ As many as 20 MPs have assets over 100 crores and the
percentage of women MPs increased to 14.6 percent and the
number of women MPs increased from 62 to 78.

These changes are due to result of following factors:

➢ Change in the mindset of people which reflects changing
Indian society.
➢ Change in preference of political parties which require
educated, professional, and young politicians.
➢ Interest of professionals has increased significantly in
Indian politics. That is why an increasing number of
professionals can be seen in Parliament.
================================================
====
Pressure Groups

Meaning of Pressure Group

❖ When a group of people having similar interests come
together to pressurise the government either to formulate
certain policies or prevent the government from
formulating certain policies.
❖ According to Professor Finer, Pressure Groups are
invisible governments. Pressure Groups are both formal and
informal.
❖ There are certain pressure groups which are having
direct bearing upon political processes, such pressure
groups are called Formal pressure groups. They are
considered as part of the political system. For example,
political parties can pressurise the government for
formulating certain policies or can prevent the government
from formulating certain policies formally. The intent of
political parties is to acquire power.
❖ There are also informal pressure groups which do not
seek to come directly in power, but they are also interested
in influencing policies of the government.

Techniques Used by Pressure Groups:

❖ Pressure Groups employs variety of techniques, which
are:
➢ Lobbying- Lobbying firms influence policy making by
influencing political parties. It is illegal in India.
➢ Funding Political Parties.
➢ Manipulation of Public Opinion Through Media.
➢ Use of Public Interest Litigation (PIL).
➢ Demonstrations/ Protests
❖ According to Robert Dahl, Pressure groups are very
important channels of communication in democracy. In
fact, pressure groups in any modern democracy plays an
important role.
❖ According to Robert Hardgrave, Pressure groups can be
classified into following types:
➢ Business Group
➢ Trade Union
➢ Peasant Organization

Business Group
❖ Business Groups have always played a significant role in
Indian politics. Today they are among the largest and one
of the most powerful of all pressure groups in India.
Examples of pressure groups are CII, FICCI, etc.
❖ After 1991 economic reforms, these pressure groups have
started playing an all important role in Indian politics.
These pressure groups are also, today, in a position to
influence economic decisions significantly. Most of these
pressure groups are having cordial relationships with all the
major political parties.

Trade Union
❖ Trade Unions in India have existed since independence.
Organisation of workers and employers are known as trade
unions. Their primary interest is to protect their interest at
any cost. These trade unions have remained in existence in
India even before independence. Their primary method is
collective bargaining and negotiations.
❖ The common demand of trade unions in India are:
➢ Increase in Wages.
➢ Social Security Provisions.
➢ Participation in Management and improving working
conditions of workers.

Peasant Organizations
❖ Peasant Organizations in India have also existed since
the pre-independence phase. In the pre-independence
phase, a number of peasant organisations like All India
Kisan Sabha were present. Even in the post-independence
phase, the Bhartiya Kisan Union and the Shetkari
Sanghatana of Sharad Joshi became very popular. These
peasant organisations have started making following
demands before government:
➢ Reduction in Electricity Prices.
➢ Increase in Fair and Remunerative Prices
➢ Free Water, etc.
➢ Increasing MSP
❖ The demand of these groups in the present time also
includes repeal of farm laws and their demands mostly vary
from state to state.
❖ The present groups are not very powerful Pressure
groups because of the following reasons:
➢ Lack of adequate financial resources.
➢ These farmers groups lacked pan-Indian character.
➢ No pan-Indian leader, etc.
❖ These farmers groups are not in position to assert
themselves as a class at an all India level.
❖ Rajni Kothari analyses pressure groups in the following
manner:
➢ They are feudal in character.
➢ They are diffused in society.
➢ They have multi-group character.
➢ They lacked pan-India character.
➢ They do not have a pan-Indian leader.

Pressure Groups in India Post 1991

❖ Number of pressure groups have increased considerably
after Liberalisation, Privatization and Globalization.
❖ Pressure groups still lack all India-character.
❖ They do not have Pan-India leadership.
❖ Pressure groups exhibit both modern and traditional
features. ❖ Pressure groups work in a multi-party system;
hence, they have shifted loyalty towards political parties.
❖ Those pressure groups which belong to the economic
sphere wield more influence like CII, FICCI etc.
Note: Also refer to the Pressure Group chapter in 2A.
================================================
==

Voting Behaviour

Electoral Behaviour
❖ Electoral Behaviour signifies the extent of participation
in democracy in India and also quality of democracy. It
also gives us an idea of the robustness of democracy and
inclusive nature of democracy.
❖ Democracy becomes legitimate when voters exercise their
voting rights. The Indian Constitution from the very
beginning has given the right to vote to every adult citizen
irrespective of religion, caste, gender etc.
❖ Indian democracy was an experiment, but the Indian
experiment was exceptional in the sense that from the very
beginning India was an inclusive democracy.
❖ Indian democracy is different from western democracy –
as western democracies evolved from Exclusive to Inclusive
phase. It means Universal Adult Suffrage was initially not
given to people. For example, females got voting rights
much later as compared to her male counterparts. Whereas
in India, Universal Adult Suffrage was adopted from day
one itself.
❖ According to C.P Bhambhri, western countries suffered
from democratic deficit because the voting percentage in
western countries has decreased over the period of time. In
fact, the voting percentage in most of western countries is
limited to 30-45 % and day by day people are losing
interest in democracy.
❖ However, in the Indian context, gradual increase in
voting percentage can be seen in each successive election.
In fact, in some of the state elections, the voting percentage
has shot up to 83 % to 85 %, which is a remarkable
achievement and that also gives us the idea about the
quality of Indian democracy.
❖ According to professor M.P Singh, Indian voters are more
mature in comparison to their western counterparts.

Trends in the Behaviour of Indian Voters

❖ The voters turn out for the 17th Lok Sabha poll was the
highest ever at 67.1%
❖ Several states have witnessed a huge jump in voters turn
out during general elections. In the present election we see
considerable variation on a state-to-state basis in the 17th
general election. States where voter turnout was more than
70% are Madhya Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, West Bengal,
Tripura, Nagaland, and Manipur.

Reasons for Non-participation

❖ According to a study conducted by The Centre for the
Study of Developing Societies (CSDS), those who do not
vote, it was not because of lack of interest. But most of the
people give circumstantial reasons. The gender gap in
turnout has been indicative of the trend that it has reversed
in 2019 general election.
➢ After seven decades and 17th general election since
independence women voting percentage stood at 67.18 %.
Women finally pipped male voters for the first time since
independence. Male participation remains at 67.01%.
❖ The study shows that turnout is not the preserve of
well-educated class only. There was a high participation
from the illiterates also.
❖ Indian citizens are fairly well integrated in the Indian
Electoral System.

Voting Behaviour with respect to various issues

❖ Earlier voters used to vote on the basis of identity.
Identities like caste, religion, region greatly used to
influence voting behaviour but identity politics, today, has
reached to the point of exhaustion. Today, voters have
become mature and started demanding more from political
parties. This phenomenon has been described by Yogendra
Yadav as Identity Plus Politics. It means the issue of
identity must be combined with basic interest.
❖ According to political scientists and election experts you
need to give something special to the voters in order to win
elections consistently.
❖ According to the Editor-in-chief of The Print, Shekhar
Gupta, BJP is winning elections consistently today because
it offers something special to the voters. More importantly,
voters are convinced by the promises made by BJP. Those
reasons are following:
➢ Focus on law and order,
➢ Women safety,
➢ Good record of governance,
➢ Last mile delivery, etc.
❖ But at same time allegations have been made against the
BJP of playing divisive politics, which is not good for
Indian democracy.

Leadership factor in Voting Behaviour

❖ According to a survey conducted by The Centre for the
Study of Developing Societies (CSDS) as to what extent
leadership matters in the case of voters, the study shows
that leadership has started playing an important role in
Indian politics, especially with the rise of Narendra Modi
onto the Indian political scene. Earlier the personality
factor used to play an important role only at State Level but
now it has become important even at National level (Indira
Gandhi also used to play an important role in shaping
voting behaviour of people at national level).
❖ The impact of charismatic authority has increased
significantly in the Indian context.
Regionalism as a factor in Indian Politics
❖ Today, the rise of BJP coincides with the decline of
Congress on the Indian political scene. This has resulted
into the rise of powerful regional leaders in Indian politics
like Mamata Banerjee, Arvind Kejriwal, YSR Congress’
Jagan Mohan Reddy, M.K Stalin DMK, BRS in Telangana and
Naveen Patnaik in BJD in Odisha.
❖ Regionalism remains a long-term tendency of Indian
politics. States remain the principal arena of politics. State
specific political parties will remain relevant in near term in
Indian politics. The strength of regional parties has
increased in the aftermath of the decline of the Congress
Party in Indian politics.

General Voting Behaviour Change

❖ Congress has lost across the country and today BJP has
come to emerge as the most dominant party on the Indian
political scene. Rise of BJP can be witnessed even in those
areas where BJP was not earlier present like North-East,
Telangana, and in recent times in Tamil Nadu. Today, it has
become the most dominant political force, and it is likely to
remain so in coming years as well.
❖ This shows that the internal balance between the 2
National Parties namely BJP and Congress have shifted in a
Fundamental enduring and profound manner. This shift is
very much like a tectonic shift in the politics of India.
❖ The above trend in electoral behaviour shows that Indian
masses are becoming mature. India represents not only the
case of formal democracy but also substantive democracy.
The introduction of the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act
has resulted in the increased awareness of the masses. The
implementation of various welfare programmes like PM Jan
Kalyan Yojana and Cash Transfer Schemes along with JAM
trinity- Jan Dhan, Aadhar, Mobile has brought government
to the doorstep of people and delivery of services in a
profound manner to the people.
❖ Moreover, the local democracy, JAM Trinity and effective
service delivery along with last mile connectivity has
played a significant role in the strengthening of
participatory democracy in India.
================================================
==

73rd Amendment Act

Concept of Panchayati Raj

❖ In 1993, there was a renewed debate worldwide about the
relevance of the local community as a basic building block
of a modern democratic nation. This debate was raised for
the first time by Rudolph and Rudolph in the context of their
study related to India. In 1993, this debate reemerged with
publication of Robert Putnam’s work titled- “Making
Democracy Work.” In 1993, the Human Development Report
commented that the people’s participation is central to any
development project. In the Rio De Janeiro summit, it was
emphasised that sustainable development requires
decentralisation, people’s empowerment as well as local
resource management. Schumacher’s Book “Small is
Beautiful” emphasised on the need for revival of Gandhian
Economics. Thus, the academic environment of the 90s was
in favour of democratic decentralisation and democratic
decentralisation was given a new look.
Meaning of Decentralisation
❖ Decentralisation is seen as a “democracy enriching
device.” Decentralisation is the way that can lead to the
empowerment of the people. It is based on the Gandhian
idea of Swaraj and the concept of Oceanic Circle of Power.
❖ Advantages of Decentralisation:
➢ It corrects people’s apathy and passivity. It serves as a
means of political education. It leads to the speedy
implementation. It secures people’s commitment to
development. It increases transparency of governance. It
instilled a sense of dignity in the people. People gain
confidence and thus it strengthens nation building.

Local Self Government in India

❖ India has a long history of local self-government. In
Ancient times, India had a system of Panchayats. Villages
had self-sufficient communities till the advent of the British
in India. Charles Metcalf called them “Little Republics.” In
modern times, Lord Rippon in 1882 took the initiative in
creating these bodies. Village Panchayats were established
in a number of provinces under the provision of
Government of India Act, 1919. This trend continued till the
Government of India Act, 1935.

Views of Ambedkar and Nehru

❖ Gandhi strongly pleaded for effective decentralisation
and revival of Village Panchayats. Nehru and Ambedkar
had the opposite view. For Nehru, villages were
intellectually and culturally backward and similarly for
Ambedkar villages reflected the “den of ignorance” and
narrow mindedness.
Reasons for Non-Implementation of Local Self Government
❖ Opposition of Nehru and Ambedkar.
❖ The turmoil of Position resulted into unitary inclination.
❖ Extreme localism was seen as a threat for national unity
and integrity.
❖ Social prerequisite for success of Local Self Government
was absent.
❖ India was a caste ridden society. India started with
centralised planning and instead of civil society
bureaucracy was seen as the Lieutenant of development.

Panchayats in the First Phase

❖ Number of states started Panchayats, but Panchayati Raj
could not take root. Social leaders looked at Panchayats as
a challenge to their hegemony. Indian people were also
unaware of democratic institutions and their rights. No
systematic efforts were made towards the training of Indian
people. Immediately after independence India started with
an ambitious programme of rural development known as
Community Development Programme. The philosophy in the
first stage was welfare and development and not
empowerment.
❖ Although India started with development administration,
nobody denied the importance of people’s participation in
development. In 1953, the National Extension Service (NES)
was established. For every 60,000 population one
development stock was created. Efforts were made to co-opt
Panchayats and local people in development blocks.
❖ Civil Servants were at the centre of this development
strategy. The Community Development Programme failed in
realising its objectives. It could neither provide
development nor participation of people.
Balwant Rai Mehta Committee
❖ In 1957, this committee was set up to investigate the
causes of the failure of the Community Development
Programme (CDP).
Findings of this Committee:
❖ CDP failed because of the absence of people’s
participation. Bureaucracy has not made any systematic
attempt to associate people with development programmes.
Recommendations:
❖ Balwant Rai Mehta committee recommended
decentralisation of planning and administration. For the
first time, the term decentralisation was used. The
philosophy was that development efforts could not succeed
until and unless people understood their rights and
responsibilities and kept vigilance on the local
administration. Development programmes should be
suitable to local needs.
❖ Balwant Rai Mehta committee recommended an
integrated arrangement of 3-tier structure of Panchayats.
➢ First tier: Gram Panchayat at village level.
➢ Second tier: Panchayat Samiti at block level.
➢ Third tier: Zila Parishad at district level.
Panchayats after B R Mehta Committee:
❖ After the B R Mehta Committee’s report, there was new
enthusiasm with respect to Panchayats. Its
recommendations included the Planning Commission. It was
expected that a three- tier structure would be introduced
for the whole of India and it would become the institutional
basis for the local self-government.
❖ Rajasthan was the first state to introduce Panchayats.
However, it was Maharashtra who took the lead towards the
devolution of powers of taxation and disbursement of
development funds to Zila Parishad.
❖ The majority of members of Zila Parishad was directly
elected. This system was introduced on the recommendation
of V. P. Naik Committee.
“Analysis of Panchayati Raj System in Post B. R. Mehta
Phase”
❖ Seeds of democratic decentralisation were sown.
❖ The rural people became socially, culturally and
politically aware.
❖ To a certain extent the distance between the people and
bureaucracy was reduced.
❖ However, soon a period of decline set in which continued
till the proposal of revival of Panchayats by Rajiv Gandhi in
1985.

Views of Barrington Moore:

❖ He emerged as one of the greatest critics of India’s
Panchayati Raj. According to him, the revival of Panchayats
was nothing but romantic rhetoric. If Panchayats are to be
treated as an opportunity of meaningful participation of
human beings in determining their fate in life, democracy
as yet does not exist in the countryside. Indian peasants
have not acquired the material and intellectual prerequisite
for democratic society.

Causes of Failures of Panchayats

❖ The Local elites dominated the Panchayats and were not
ready to give way to new elites.
❖ India suffered from a food crisis. The Green Revolution
was introduced. It shifted the initiative for the production
and distribution of agricultural resources to bureaucracy.
❖ Indira Gandhi started with a greater centralising drive.
She started plebiscitary politics reaching directly to the
people. The way to reach people was centrally sponsored
schemes. Schemes like food for work, drought prone areas,
minimum needs programmes were financed and
administered by the Central Government. There was little
scope for local initiative. One dysfunctional impact of
centralising drive was that state leaders adopted similar
types of measures with respect to the local elites.
❖ The result was failure of Panchayats to take ground.
Elections were postponed. The State Government seized
initiative and authoritarian political culture developed. As a
result of the green revolution dominant classes emerged.
This class dominated the politics and empowerment of
people could not take root.
❖ In this phase, there were few states where Panchayats
could gain ground. For example- West Bengal, Maharashtra,
and Gujarat. According to Atul Kohli, in West Bengal
Panchayats could not gain ground because of successful
implementation of land reforms. He suggests that such
politics can be successful only if it matches with the
ideology of the ruling party. West Bengal is one of the most
successful examples of “Parliamentary form of
Communism.”
According to Subrata K. Mitra, in Maharashtra and Gujarat,
only administrative decentralisation has happened and not
democratic decentralisation.
================================================
==

73rd Amendment Act (Part-2)

Ashok Mehta Committee (1977)
❖ The second important attempt to revive the Panchayats
was during the regime of the Janata Party. The movement
of Jai Prakash Narayan was responsible for this new thrust.
The Ashok Mehta Committee gave important
recommendations and findings.
❖ Findings:
➢ Panchayats were dominated by the privileged sections.
➢ Bureaucracy played a major role in weakening the
system.
➢ There was a lack of clarity with respect to the approach
of these institutions. It was not clear whether they are
instruments of development or instruments of devolution of
power.
➢ There was a lack of political will.
❖ Ashok Mehta Committee gave following
recommendations:
➢ It suggested a two-tier system. The term of Panchayats
should be for four years.
➢ It recommended the reservation of seats for SCs and STs
in proportion to their population.
➢ It suggested the introduction of political parties in
Panchayats.
❖ Follow up/Analysis of Ashok Mehta Committee:
➢ With the coming back of Indira Gandhi, the idea was
pushed back. Indira Gandhi started anti-poverty
programmes.
A District Rural Development Agency was set up and
Panchayats were to be integrated with respect to the
development programme.

New Initiatives:
❖ The Hanumantha Rao Committee was set up.
❖ G. V. K. Rao committee
❖ L. M. Singhvi Committee: Singhvi Committee suggested
constitutional status for Panchayati Raj institutions.
❖ P. K. Thungon Committee: It was a consultative
committee of Parliament. It also suggested Constitutional
status.
❖ Rajiv Gandhi started extraordinary concern, he took a
radical move to bypass states in PRI. He introduced the
64th Amendment Bill. The Bill was rejected in Rajya Sabha.
Finally, in 1992, a new bill was introduced. This bill became
the 73rd Amendment Act. The 73rd Amendment Act was
enforced on 24th April 1993. This bill gave Constitutional
status to PRIs.

Provisions of 73rd Amendment Act:

❖ Panchayats were made the Constitutional bodies. It
introduced the third tier in Indian federal structure. There
were two types of provisions.
➢ Compulsory Provisions
➢ Optional Provisions.

❖ Compulsory Provisions:
➢ Structure: All states having population above 20 Lakhs
will have an uniform three tier structure.
✓ Three tier structure: Gram Panchayat Mandal Panchayat
Zila Panchayat
✓ It was mandatory to constitute Gram Sabha in each
Panchayat. Gram Sabha is to be the soul of Panchayati Raj
System. It will comprise all adult members registered as
voters in Panchayat area. Gram Sabha was mandatory but
what functions Gram Sabha will perform were made
optional.
✓ Analysis: According to critics, except a few states like
Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, the state acts
of other states do not give specific power to the Gram
Sabha. They are simply an assembly of discussions. The
strongest Gram Sabha is of Madhya Pradesh. Here, Gram
Sabha has the right to recall Panchayat representatives. It
is necessary to specify the functions of each level of
Panchayat as well as the role and power of Gram Sabhas.
➢ Elections: It is compulsory to have all the three levels of
Panchayats directly elected by people. The term of
Panchayat is 5 years. However, Panchayats can be dissolved
earlier by the state legislature. It is mandatory that fresh
elections will be held within 6 months of the dissolution.
✓ Significance of this provision: Earlier intermediate and
district level Panchayats in many states were indirectly
elected but now each level is directly elected. It ensures the
existence of Panchayats at least.
✓ Drawback: It is silent with respect to the grounds of
dissolution of Panchayats.
✓ It is with respect to the mode of appointment of
Adhyaksha at different levels.
➢ Provisions with respect to reservations:
✓ At least one-third of the seats at all levels are reserved
for the women including the post of President. Seats are
reserved for SCs and STs in proportion to their population.
One-third of the seats so reserved will be for the women of
SCs and STs.
➢ Provisions with respect to Transfer of Subjects: 29
subjects from state list are transferred to PRI.
✓ Loopholes: Actual transfer depends upon the state
legislature. Each state will decide out of 29 subjects how
many subjects to be transferred.
➢ State Finance Commission: State government will appoint
State Finance Commission once in 5 years. This Commission
will examine the financial position of local governments in
the state. It will review the distribution of revenues between
the state and the local government.
✓ Loophole: Financial devolution is not binding. It creates
dependency of local bodies on the State government. The
State Government themselves are short of funds. Hence,
local bodies suffer from a deficit of funds.
➢ State Election Commissioner: State will appoint State
Election Commissioner who will be responsible for
conducting the elections in PRIs.
➢ Audit of Accounts: It is an optional provision. State
Legislature may make provisions with respect to
maintenance of accounts by Panchayats and auditing of
such accounts.
➢ District Planning Committee: The Act talks about the
Constitution of DPC to synchronise the urban and rural
components of plans.
✓ Loopholes: Act does not tell about the chairman of DPC.
It is optional for states to decide. There was no time limit
for the constitution of the DPC. Hence, there was an
unnecessary delay.

Conclusion:
❖ The 73rd Amendment Act creates the structure of
Panchayats, but a lot depends upon the will of the State
Legislature. The will and commitment of State Legislatures
is evident in the manner states have made changes in their
Panchayat acts at the last minute. There is a lack of
seriousness in the state acts. At times, there is a mismatch
between the level of Panchayat and the responsibility given
to it.
❖ Nevertheless, the 73rd Amendment Act is significant
because it makes Panchayat a constitutional body. Gram
Sabha is given a legitimate place in the basic law of the
country. It is a recognition of popular sovereignty and
general will.
❖ Today about 32 Lakhs members are elected to these
bodies and at least 10 Lakhs of them are women. This
number is quite large if we compare it with the elected
representative of Parliament and State Legislatures
together which is about 5000. There are at least 200 women
Adhyaksha in Zila Parishad, 2000 women Presidents at
block level and around 80,000 women Sarpanchs. So, the
73rd amendment act has made our democracy more
representative and gender sensitive. It has ensured the
place of dalits in the governance of the country at the
grassroot level.

73rd Amendment Act

❖ The 73rd Amendment Act is called “half-baked cake”
meaning it was a half hearted attempt. It is said that the
73rd Amendment Act introduces just a skeleton. Flesh and
blood has to be added to make it successful. Some scholars
define 73rd Amendment as a compromised document
because it makes a compromise between two types of
provisions, i.e.,
➢ Compulsory provisions which are primarily institutional,
which create structure.
➢ Voluntary provisions- the provision on which the state
had objections were turned into voluntary provisions. These
provisions are related to the empowerment of Panchayats.
(Flesh and Blood). These provisions have been left on the
will of the states.
❖ Following are the key features of the 73rd Constitutional
Amendment:
1. Three tier structure at the District Level
❖ Article 243-B envisages Gram Panchayat at the village
level, Intermediate Panchayat at the Block Level and Zila
Parishad at the district level.
2. Elections at every five years
❖ Article 243-E says, every Panchayat shall continue for
five years from the date of appointment.
3. Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes
❖ Article 243-D envisages reservation of seats for the
Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes in proportion to their
population for membership of Panchayat.
4. Reservation of seats for women
❖ Article 243- D (3) provides that not less than one third of
seats for women (including the number of seats reserved for
women belonging to Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribe)
of the total number of seats to be filled up by direct election
in every panchayat shall be allotted by rotation to different
constituencies in a panchayat.
5. Establishment of State Finance Commission
❖ Article 243-I provides for the constitution of the State
Finance Commission to review financial position of PRIs
and to make recommendations to the Governor and
distribution between the state and the PRIs of the net
proceeds of the taxes, duties, tolls and fees levied by the
State.
6. Establishment of State Election Commission
❖ Article 243-K provides for the establishment of the State
Election Commission. The superintendence, direction and
control of the preparation of electoral rolls for and the
conduct of all elections to the Panchayats shall be vested in
the State Election Commission.
7. Establishment of District Planning Committee (DPCs)
❖ Article 243 ZD provides for the constitution of DPCs to
consolidate the development plans prepared by the Gram
Panchayat.
8. 29 Duties and Responsibilities
❖ Article 243 (G) made addition to the Eleventh Schedule
and assigned duties and responsibilities on 29 subjects.
9. Establishment of Gram Sabha
❖ Article 243 provides for Gram Sabha to exercise such
power and perform such function at the village level as the
legislature of a State may by law provide.

Panchayat Finance
❖ Article 243G of the Act deals with the question of powers,
authority and responsibility of Panchayats where the states
are given the powers to endow them with the following
powers:
➢ Prepare plans for economic development and justice.
Article 243H says that the State Legislature can enact laws
for this purpose.
➢ Authorise Panchayats to levy, collect and appropriate
some taxes, duties, and tolls and fees.
➢ Provides for grants-in-aid of their revenues from the
Consolidated Fund of the State.
❖ Article 243I deals with the State Finance Commission that
is to be established to review the financial position of the
panchayats and to make recommendations to the Governor
regarding the principles governing the major issues
mentioned in Article 243H.
❖ According to N. C. Saxena, poor delivery of PRIs is due to
inadequate devolution. PRIs are dependent on government
funding. There is excessive bureaucratic and political
interference. Public funds meant for villages are stolen at
every stage.
❖ Scholar Nirmal Mukherjee raises the question whether
constitutional provisions are adequate, or whether it shows
the lack of political will.

Panchayati Raj Institutions and Women Empowerment

❖ The leadership position has been provided to women,
now women are responsible for shaping their own destiny.
Leadership position to women can act as catalyst for social
transformation such as fostering inclusive work
environments, emphasising teamwork, empathy, and
collaboration.
❖ It is truly a silent revolution in the Indian context as
stated by Meena Devi- "PRIs have changed my life. Before,
I was just a housewife, but now I am a leader in my
community. I am involved in decision-making, and I am
working to improve the lives of other women and children."
- Meena Devi, a PRI member in Rajasthan, India
❖ PRIs -leadership role of women is having transformative
efforts on women as stated by Lakshmi Devi- "Before,
women in my village were not respected. They were not
allowed to participate in decision-making, and they had no
voice. But now, women are leading PRIs, and they are
making a real difference in our community. They are
building schools and hospitals, and they are working to
improve the lives of women and girls." - Lakshmi Devi, a
resident of a village in Rajasthan, India
❖ Reduced violence against women: PRIs have worked to
reduce violence against women by raising awareness of the
issue and promoting gender equality. They have also
established mechanisms to protect women from violence
and provide support to survivors.
❖ Economic empowerment: PRIs have supported women's
economic empowerment by providing them with access to
training, employment opportunities, and credit. This has
helped them to become more financially independent and
improve their standard of living.

Panchayati Raj Institutions and Rural Development

❖ PRIs have played an important role in rural
development, they are:
➢ Planning: PRIs are responsible for preparing and
implementing Gram Panchayat Development Plans (GPDPs),
which are the primary instruments for rural development at
the village level. GPDPs identify and prioritise the needs of
the village and allocate resources accordingly.
➢ Implementation: PRIs are responsible for implementing a
wide range of rural development programs, including the
Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act
(MGNREGA), the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana
(PMGSY), and the National Rural Drinking Water Mission
(NRDWM). PRIs also play a key role in implementing social
development programs such as the Integrated Child
Development Services (ICDS) and the National Rural Health
Mission (NRHM).
➢ Monitoring: PRIs are responsible for monitoring the
implementation of rural development programs and
ensuring that they are meeting their objectives. PRIs also
play a role in monitoring the performance of government
officials and holding them accountable for their actions.
➢ Mobilising resources: PRIs can mobilise resources for
rural development from a variety of sources, including the
government, central and state government schemes, and
civil society organisations.
➢ Empowering women and marginalised groups:
PRIs can play a key role in empowering women and
marginalised groups by ensuring that their voices are heard
and that they have access to rural development programs
and services.
➢ Promoting social cohesion and harmony:
PRIs can play a key role in promoting social cohesion and
harmony by bringing together people from different
backgrounds and working towards common goals.
❖ Examples of how PRIs have contributed to rural
development in India:
➢ In the state of Rajasthan, PRIs have played a key role in
the implementation of the MGNREGA, which has helped to
reduce poverty and improve rural infrastructure.
➢ In the state of Madhya Pradesh, PRIs have played a key
role in the implementation of the Food Security Act, which
has helped to ensure that all rural people have access to
subsidised food.
➢ In the state of West Bengal, PRIs have played a key role
in the implementation of the Swachh Bharat Mission, which
has helped to improve sanitation and hygiene in rural
areas.
Quotes on Panchayati Raj Institutions
❖ "Panchayati Raj is a powerful tool for the upliftment of
rural India and empowering local communities." - Mahatma
Gandhi
❖ "Panchayati Raj is the means through which we take
democracy to the grassroots and make it a part of daily
life." - Jawaharlal Nehru
❖ "Panchayati Raj is the foundation of true democracy,
allowing people to actively participate in decision-making."
- Lal Bahadur Shastri
❖ "Local self-governance empowers individuals to take
charge of their own destiny and collectively shape the
future of their communities." - Amartya Sen
❖ "Local self-government is the first step toward achieving
social and economic justice for all." - B.R. Ambedkar
================================================
==

74th Constitutional Amendment Act

Urban local self-government: An insight into its History

❖ A member of the Viceroy’s Council, Samuel Laing (British
railway administrator and a politician) proposed that local
services shall rely on local resources.
❖ The 1st Municipal Corporation was established in 1687 in
Madras. Later on in 1870, Mayo’s Resolution introduced the
elected representatives in municipalities.
❖ Local self-government in cities was established almost
200 years earlier before their rural counterparts. However,
the contemporary form and the structure of local self
government institutions are due to Lord Ripon's Resolution
on Local self-government of 1882.
❖ Government of India Act, 1935 brought the local
government under the purview of the provincial
government and powers were given accordingly.

Background of the Introduction of 74th Amendment Act

❖ Urban centres have been identified as engines of
economic growth. Presently, urban areas contribute about
63 percent to the GDP of India, which is expected to reach
almost 75 percent by 2030. Further, as part of structural
transformation, most of the GDP from non-farm sectors
which constitute around 86 percent of GDP is generated
within and around cities particularly among census towns
and outside the Urban Local Bodies areas in the urban
agglomerations.
❖ After independence, there was hardly any attention
towards municipal governance. While Panchayats were
mentioned in directive principles, municipalities were a
major missing.
❖ There has been the neglect of urban administration in the
past because Lok Sabha was dominated by rural
constituencies. Urban areas are sources for generating
funds, hence there is greater reluctance among politicians
to devolve power to municipalities.
❖ Now 40% of the population is living in urban areas.
India is aspiring to become a major power. It requires
faster economic growth and faster economic growth will
require revamping of Indian cities. It is a paradox that
India is a democracy, still municipalities lack power.

74th Constitutional Amendment Act 1992

❖ The 74th Constitutional Amendment Act passed in 1992
which came into force in 1993 provided for 12th Schedule
and Article 243W which delegate certain functions to urban
local bodies such as planning, regulatory and
developmental functions.
❖ The salient features and their significance under 74th
Amendment Act are as the following:
➢ Ward Committees– 74th CAA introduced a provision for
ward committees in areas exceeding the population of
3,00,000. The major objective of constituting the ward
committees is to bring governance closer to the people and
enhance their participation in local affairs.
➢ Continuity– As there is a provision for the holding of
timely periodical elections and for the reconstitution of a
municipal government within six months.
Therefore, this has ensured continuity of the municipalities
with five years duration for an elected municipality and
re-election of municipalities before the expiry of the
five-year term or within six months of their dissolution.
➢ 3-tier system– A uniform structure of three tiers
municipal corporations for large urban areas, municipal
councils for small urban areas and nagar panchayats for
transitional areas has been provided.
➢ Reservation of seats– 74th CAA has provided for the
reservation of seats to SC and ST and also not less than
one-third of the total number of seats in a municipality are
reserved for women. This helped in increasing the political
participation and empowerment of the downtrodden
sections of the society.
➢ Power, authority and functions– 74th CAA provided for
states to endow municipal powers and authority to enable
them to function as institutions of self governance. The
municipal functions envisaged under Article 243W are of
development nature.
➢ State Finance Commission– The constitution of a State
Finance Commission (SFC) every five years to strengthen
the financial domain of the ULBs. The Commission reviews
the financial position of the urban bodies, their revenue and
capital account requirements, recommends devolution of
taxes, charges, fees, toll, duties, shared revenues, inter-
government transfer and grants from the state to the
municipalities and suggests measures for the mobilisation
of municipal resources.
➢ State Election Commission– Act provides for the
constitution of a state election commission (SEC) every
five-year to regulate municipal elections. It is a progressive
step to ensure democratic process at the local level. We can
say that the 74th Amendment Act was aimed at making
urban governance institutions more representative, more
accountable and more efficient.

Reasons for Strengthening of Urban Local Bodies

❖ The urban population of India has increased in recent
years at rapid rates. In 1961 about 79 million persons lived
in urban areas of the country; by 1991, their number had
increased to over 217 million, registering an increase of
over 250 % in the last three decades.
❖ Almost all population projections indicate that India will
enter the 21st century with an urban population of about
300 million, which will further increase to over 400 million
in the year 2011 and 553 million in the year 2021.
❖ Trends of urbanisation in India is depicted through
following table and graph:
Municipal Government or Urban Local Government
❖ Municipal Government / Urban Local Government
Municipal government is a type of local authority created
by any province or state to offer services that are best
managed under local control. They impact daily lives of
people in many ways, from garbage pick-up and public
transit to fire services, policing and programs at community
centres to libraries and pools, etc.
❖ The prima facie role of any municipal government is to
establish justice, ensure peace, promotion of general
welfare and to secure the blessings of liberty provided by
the Indian Constitution.
❖ Prior to the passage of the 1992 Act, urban local
government was defined generally by the Municipal
Corporations, Municipal Councils, Town Area Committees
and Notified Area Committees. In this context, the structure
and composition of municipalities varied, with wide
differences in definition and structure between states.
❖ Hence, the 1992 Act attempted to instil some uniformity in
the constitution of municipal bodies by classifying them as
Municipal Corporations for large urban areas, Municipal
Councils for smaller urban areas and Nagar Panchayats for
suburban government bodies.
➢ The Municipal Corporation (Nagar Nigam)– It is often
referred to as the commissionerate system, it is known by
the name of Nagar Nigam in Delhi, Haryana, Pouro Nigam
in West Bengal, etc. Municipal Corporation deals in
providing essential services in Cosmopolitan Cities. The
executive arm of the corporation is the Municipal
Commissioner, who is the chief Executive Officer and head
of the executive arm of the Municipal Corporation. All
executive powers are vested in the Municipal Commissioner.
Although the Municipal Corporation is the legislative body
that lays down policies for the governance of the city, it is
the Commissioner who is responsible for the execution of
the policies. Each Municipal Corporation has a committee
that comprises a Mayor with Councillors. They were formed
under the Corporations Act of 1835. The number of
councillors depending upon the area and population of the
city should be a minimum of 3,00,000. Members of the
Municipal Corporation are elected from the wards of the
specific city on the basis of adult franchise for a term of five
years. The Councillors are elected by direct election from
electoral wards in the Municipal Corporation. Six
metropolitan cities Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai,
Bangalore, Hyderabad have major corporations. The
important functions of the municipal corporations are
urban planning and management, providing health
services, establishment of primary health centres and
primary schools, supply of drinking water, sanitation, and
construction/repair of roads, street lighting, establishment
of cooperative societies, and establishment of youth
organisations, water management and waste disposal,
social services, social welfare, technical training, poverty
alleviation and electrification, providing fire records of
birth and death.
➢ The Municipality (Nagar Palika)– A municipality
administers an urban area of population 200,000 or less.
Municipalities interact with the state government through
the Directorate of Municipalities or the District Collector.
Members of Municipalities are elected for a period of five
years. The head of the Municipality is the President, elected
by and from the members. The state government also
appoints a Chief Officer and other officers such as Health
Inspector, Sanitation Inspector, etc to assist the President.
Their sources of income and functions are similar to that of
Municipal Corporations.
➢ The City Council (Nagar Panchayat)– City Council
administers urban areas having populations greater than
30,000 and less than 1,00,000. However, as an exception,
all previous Town Area Committees have been reclassified
as City Councils. City Councils have a chairman and ward
members. Ward members included elected members
(minimum 10) and nominated members (minimum 3).

Functions of Urban Local Bodies

❖ Functions of the Urban Local Bodies Under the Schedule
12 of the Indian Constitution, 18 functions and
responsibilities are ensured to ULBs which are as follows: -
1. Urban Planning including town planning.
2. Planning of land use and construction of buildings.
3. Planning for economic and social development.
4. Roads and bridges
5. Water supply for domestic, industrial, and commercial
purposes.
6. Public health, sanitation conservancy and solid waste
management.
7. Fire services.
8. Urban forestry, protection of the environment and
promotion of ecological aspects.
9. Safeguarding the interests of weaker sections of society,
including the handicapped and mentally retarded.
10. Slum improvement and upgradation.
11. Urban Poverty alleviation.
12. Provision of urban amenities and facilities such as
parks, gardens, playgrounds.
13. Promotion of cultural, educational and aesthetic
aspects.
14. Burial and burial grounds; cremations, cremation
grounds and electric crematoriums.
15. Cattle pounds; prevention of cruelty to animals.
16. Vital statistics including registration of births and
deaths.
17. Public amenities including street lighting, parking lots,
bus stops and public conveniences.
18. Regulation of slaughterhouses and tanneries.

Municipal Finance
Municipal Finance Municipal finance falls under the
discretion of respective state governments. There is no
separate list of taxes for municipal bodies. Municipal
revenues are primarily of the following types: -
❖ Tax Revenue – ULBs levy major taxes such as property
tax, professional tax, etc.
❖ Non-tax revenue – ULBs can charge and collect fees for
regulatory purposes as well as for providing services. Fee
may be charged for public utilities, parking, swimming
pools, etc.
❖ Grant-in-aid – General Purpose Grants and Specific
Purpose Grants are given to ULBs. While GPGs supplement
the revenues of local bodies to carry out their regular
functions, SPGs are used for specific purposes such as
education grants, public health, etc.
❖ Borrowings and loans – ULBs can borrow from state
governments and other agencies under Local Authorities
Loans Act of 1914. They can borrow for developmental
activities and debt repayment.

Issues surrounding Urban Local Bodies

❖ A recent report of RBI says that ULBs in India are
amongst the weakest globally in terms of fiscal autonomy
with elaborate state government controls on their authority
to levy taxes and user charges, setting of rates, granting of
exemptions, and borrowing of funds as well as on the
design, quantum and timing of intergovernmental transfers.
❖ Report added that excessive reliance on grants from the
central and state governments, and inability to
autonomously access capital markets have weakened the
ability of ULBs to fulfil their mandated functions.
❖ Looking at the finances of 201 municipal corporations
across the country, the RBI noted that there has been “no
significant rise in overall municipal revenue in India which
remained broadly unchanged from 1946-47”. Municipal
revenues in India have stagnated at around 1 percent of
GDP for over a decade while municipal revenues account for
7.4 per cent of GDP in Brazil and 6 per cent in South Africa.
❖ The RBI has said that there are several ways for
municipalities to tap alternative sources of financing,
including credit from banks, raising funds from the bond
market, and pooled financing, where smaller ULBs’ access
to the capital market can be enhanced through a common
bond issued by pooling the resources of several local
bodies.
❖ The various issues surrounding ULBs are as follows:
➢ Autonomy: States devolve a limited number of taxation
powers which results in increased dependence on higher
levels of the government.
➢ Staff: Lack of skilled staff leads to inefficiency in service
delivery and governance process.
➢ Improper maintenance of accounts: CAG points out
lacunae in the preparation of municipal accounts, such as
lack of budget preparation, accuracy, updating, and timely
presentation of accounts by ULBs.

74th Amendment Act: An unfulfilled dream

❖ A former NITI Aayog Director said that even after thirty
years of the passing of 74th Constitutional Amendment Act
1992 which aimed at the strengthening of democracy at
grass root level in urban areas through local bodies; only 11
states have managed to devolve municipal functions to
Urban Local Bodies. Municipal bodies are still dependent on
states for funds and decision making.
❖ Enacted in 1992, the Constitution (74th Amendment) Act,
also known as Nagarpalika Act, came into force on June 1,
1993, and was aimed at supplementing the inadequate
Constitutional provision for Local Self Government. It was
through this amendment that the local self-government in
urban areas was made a clear-cut constitutional obligation.
❖ Today schemes such as AMRUT, Smart City and Housing
for All are incentive based and open up huge opportunities
for ULBs which have to come forward and grab them. The
ULBs have to demonstrate their work through initiatives
and should work to map their potential sources of revenue
rather than depending on the Central and state grants.
❖ According to a research study of National Institute of
Urban Affairs, out of 18 delegated functions recommended
under 12th schedule of the Constitution, Mumbai and Pune
are the two cities which have devolved 14.5 functions (14
fully and one partially), while Jaipur has devolved only
seven functions. Research study mentioned that not even a
single city in India can be a match to the cities like London,
New York or even Johannesburg in terms of the city
governance.

Deepening of democracy via ULBs

• However, challenges like resource constraints, political
interference, and capacity limitations can hinder the full
realisation of their potential.

Conclusion
❖ UN Habitat III (2016) states
―urban governance systems in most countries are currently
not fit for purpose and need critical reform to enable
sustainable urban development. The 74th Constitutional
Amendment Act was expected to devolve sufficient powers
to the Urban Local Governments to enable them to function
as institutions of Self-Government.
❖ However, they continue to be plagued by the problem of
3Fs- Functions, Functionaries and Finance. While there is
increasing realisation of the necessity of reforms to devolve
adequate power to these bodies, a strong political
commitment would be needed to sustain it.
===============================================

Grassroot Movements, Statutory Bodies

Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG)

❖ The Constitution of India U/A 148 provides for an
independent office of the CAG. He is the head of the Indian
Audit and Accounts Department. He is the guardian of the
public purse as he controls the entire financial system of the
country at both the centre and the state level.
❖ Dr. B.R. Ambedkar said that the CAG shall be the most
important officer under the Constitution of India as it
controls the public purse. He is one of the bulwarks of the
democratic system of government in India.
❖ Dr. D.D. Basu considers the office of the Comptroller and
Auditor General as "pivotal" to the control of the entire
financial system of the country.
Audits conducted by the CAG
❖ Comptroller and Auditor General is a representative of
the Parliament and conducts audit of expenditure on behalf
of the Parliament. Therefore, he is responsible only to the
Parliament. Audits conducted by the CAG are as follows: -
➢ Compliance Audit- It is a transaction audit in which
particular transactions of an entity for a specific financial
year is chosen for investigation for example a purchase
made by a medical officer or contract made by the public
works division for building a road.
➢ Financial Attest Audit- It is a supplementary audit with
the primary auditor usually being a chartered Accountant.
It is used to certify how far the accounts are true and fair
i.e. whether the financial statements are properly prepared,
complete in all respects and are presented with adequate
disclosures.
➢ Performance Audit- Performance audits seek to establish
at what cost and to what degree the policies, programmes
and projects are working. In addition to all the 3 financial
audit checks, it evaluates whether a scheme or activity
deploys effective means to achieve its intended
socio-economic objectives.
Successful Examples of CAG's Reports
❖ 2G-spectrum scandal - 2010-2011 report of the CAG
highlighted the 2G spectrum issue. It alleged that the
arbitrary and auction-less sale of 122 telecom licences cost
the Indian government loss of the Rupee 1.76 lakh crore
(31.3 billion USD).
❖ The 2010 Commonwealth Games - In its report, CAG
faulted the governance, planning, and financial
management of the biggest sporting event India ever
hosted. It cited corrupt deals, incompetent senior officers,
disregard of procedures, intentionally bloated budgets,
security lapses, and other related issues.
❖ Question mark on programmes to strengthen Indian
coast guards - In August 2011, a CAG performance report
criticised the ICG for its persistent inability to protect
Indian coasts. The scathing report listed several structural
as well as management flaws.
❖ Highlighting inefficiencies of the civil aviation sector - In
a series of reports, CAG took aim at India's incompetent
civil aviation sector. A performance audit noted that the
dismal state of Air India (Al) is a result of chronic
operational deficiencies, risky acquisitions, dependence on
debt funding, and incompetent officials. CAG noted that
acquisition processes for the new aircraft were flawed,
opaque, and took way too long.

Issues faced by CAG

❖ Appointment Procedure - The CAG is appointed by the
president on the advice of the Prime Minister and his
Council of Ministers. The CAG's appointment is in the hands
of the executive without any role for the legislature in the
process. Given that the CAG's findings may often be critical
of the government. policies, government may appoint a
more lenient individual or an individual with a conflict of
interest to favour the government and its policies. For
example, Shashikant Sharma's appointment as the CAG in
2013 was questioned on the ground of his past tenure in the
defence ministry where he supervised defence
procurements.
➢ This could have easily led to the CAG going soft on the
audit of defence procurements under his monitoring.
➢ To address this issue, 2nd ARC suggests establishing a
bipartisan multi member committee for appointing the CAG
which shall also include the leader of opposition.
➢ Amitabh Mukhopadhyay in his book, Rethinking Public
Institutions in India, argues that the Public Account
Committee (PAC) must also be consulted while appointing
the CAG.
❖ Scope of CAG Audits - The current challenge before the
CAG is to handle the criticism of its performance audits
specially when findings are critical of government policies.
For example, during the UPA-2 regime, the CAG's report on
2G spectrum allocation and Coal Block allocation were
critical of the government. policy which caused a huge
revenue loss to the state and unduly benefited the private
players.
❖ Quality of Audits - The quality of CAG reports had often
been questioned especially when they criticise government
policy. The CAG submitted itself to a peer-to-peer
assessment conducted by INTOSAI (International
organisation of Supreme Auditing Institutions) in 2012. The
INTOSAI assessment for the 2010-11 period analysed 35
reports of CAG to evaluate their quality. It found 50% of
CAG reports could have been more balanced in context and
findings in 50% of the reports were not supported by
enough evidence.
❖ Delay in tabling of reports of CAG in the Parliament -
This delay can be intentional by the ruling government to
avoid embarrassment.
➢ This deprives the legislature and the public of credible
evidence to hold the executive accountable.
➢ 2nd ARC and the PAC have proposed a time bound
procedure for tabling CAG reports and PAC findings
preferably within a year before the parliament.
Role of the CAG in meeting challenges of Good Governance
❖ "Do the policies help the poorest and weakest man? If
yes, that is good governance." - Mahatma Gandhi
❖ The CAG is intrinsically linked to the governance of the
country. Its role as the highest auditing authority is
intrinsically linked to augmenting the efficacy of
government policies and undertakings. Therefore, the
relationship between the CAG and good governance is
incontrovertible.
❖ In his famous 'tryst with destiny' speech on 14 August
1947, Jawaharlal Nehru articulated the central challenge as
'the ending of poverty and ignorance and disease and
inequality of opportunities'.
❖ With a burgeoning population and increasing resource
crisis, the nation is faced with a vast conundrum of
economic, social and political problems. Each of these three
different facets is interlinked with one another. The
economic woes form the base of the pyramid. With a string
of corruption scandals now facing the incumbent
government, there must be a swift consensus to mitigate
these problems.
❖ Corruption and political scandals have ensured
unimaginable losses to the exchequer. This creates a
paucity of funds for implementation of beneficial schemes
for the populace besides getting black money in the hands
of those who can easily stash them in tax havens across the
globe. This loss has a trickle- down effect. It is
incontrovertible that in circumstances of financial burden,
the poorest of the poor are the biggest losers. With a
population of nearly 37.2% below the poverty line,
mismanaged audits and tampered accounts do not augur
well for our nation in the future.
❖ Economic development without growth of human
development factors is meaningless. More than half of the
expenditure on social development programmes by the
Central Government is through the non-government
organisations and CAG has a role in ensuring that these are
monitored closely for benefits to reach the people.
❖ If attributes of good governance are transparency,
efficiency, responsiveness, cost effectiveness and
accountability then governance is the means to attain these
attributes. The National Knowledge Commission had
suggested that to make an immediate impact on citizens, it
is critical to identify and simplify important processes and
services which are currently cumbersome, bureaucratic and
prone to unnecessary delays and corruption. Initially these
services could include providing online record of land
rights, computerised land registration, computerization of
social security systems, ration and ID cards. ❖ If
implemented, it would make the CAG's task much easier and
improve its efficacy.
❖ The CAG must also ensure its accessibility to the common
man. Its audit record and accounting could provide
overwhelming benefit for people at the grassroots. A
grievance ventilation mechanism needs to be set up which
could go a long way in alleviating people from their plight.
❖ With the quartet of corruption, criminalization,
communal tension and casteism as the cancers afflicting the
Indian society, the CAG is being increasingly looked at as
the bulwark in the fight against corruption. Maintaining its
image of probity and impartiality in spite of several
adversities has been its hallmark.
Criticism faced by the CAG ❖ The functioning of the
Comptroller and Auditor General in India is gripped under
several criticisms. ❖ In India, the emphasis is on audit
rather than on control of expenditures. In England, the
government departments require authorization from the
Comptroller. Thus whenever money is withdrawn for
expenditure, the Comptroller is needed to be satisfied that
yes there is legal authority for the expenditure. In India,
the Comptroller and Auditor General starts its activity at
the audit stage after the expenditures have already been
made. Some critics also question the wisdom of commenting
on extravagance of the government by the Comptroller and
Auditor General.
❖ Paul H Appleby, in his two reports on Indian
Administration, was very critical of the role of CAG and
attacked the significance of his work. He also suggested
that the CAG should be relieved of the responsibility of
audit. In other words, he recommended the abolition of the
office of CAG.

Reforms needed:
❖ Ramaswamy lyer, a former member of the Indian Audit
and Accounts Service recommended following to improve
the effectiveness of the CAG:-
➢ Creating a growing awareness of all CAG reports in the
media and the public.
➢ Attending more CAG reports that are now collecting dust
in the PAC.
➢ Recharging the role of the auditor as a proactive
financial and accounting detective in order to uncover
scams and corruption rather than simply reporting on it
after a scam has occurred at. ➢ Making full use of the
constitutional and statutory provisions of CAG to convert
into a truly powerful body.
❖ Former CAG Vinod Rai in his book, 'Not Just an
Accountant' has suggested the following reforms to make
the office of CAG more effective: -
➢ Revision of the CAG Act of 1971.
➢ A collegium-style procedure for selecting a new CAG,
similar to how a Chief Vigilance Commissioner is chosen
(CVC).

Concluding Remarks
❖ The Comptroller and Auditor General of India ensures the
supremacy of the Parliament over the Executive in financial
matters. He/She is an officer of the Constitution and not an
officer of the Parliament.
❖ The independence of the CAG is guaranteed by the
Constitution in many ways to enable him/ her to perform
his/her functions without any interference from the
Executive. His/ Her primary duty is to uphold the
Constitution and the laws in the field of financial
administration.
Questions asked:
1. Examine the role and functioning of the CAG in the last
two decades. (2020)
2. The Comptroller and Auditor General of India enhances
the accountability of the government and serves as the
watchdog of the finances of the government. Explain. (2015)
3. Comment: The role of the CAG in promoting good
governance. (2014)
4. Comment: Comptroller and Auditor General of India.
(2002)
================================================
Grassroot Movements, Election Commission

Grassroots Movements
❖ DL Seth has described grassroot movements as micro
movements which have gained momentum since the 1970s
in India. These movements are the result of the struggles
faced by marginalised and excluded sections of the society.
❖ A grassroots movement is an organised effort undertaken
by groups of individuals in a given geographic area to
bring about changes in social policy or influence an
outcome, often of a political issue.
❖ By harnessing spontaneous support at local levels to
bring about policy changes at local, regional, national, or
international levels, grassroots movements are considered
bottom-up, rather than top-down efforts—much in the way
grass grows. Today, grassroots movements work to
influence social issues such as racial injustice, reproductive
rights, climate change, income inequality, or affordable
housing.
❖ Rather than money, the power of grassroots movements
comes from their ability to harness the effort of ordinary
people whose shared sense of justice and knowledge about
a given issue can be used to influence policymakers. In
growing the seeds of an idea into a flourishing cause
through increased participation in the political process,
grassroots movements are often said to create
democracy—government by the people.
❖ Drawing their power from ordinary people, grassroots
movements need large numbers of participants. By making
phone calls, sending emails, posting on social media
internet sites, and putting up posters, an activist group of
just five people can contact 5,000 people in a week.
❖ Grassroots organisations increase their size and power
by recruiting and training new volunteer leaders and
activists. ❖ The social media technique of hashtags (#) has
become an especially effective way of grouping postings
from across the network together to present unifying
messages.
❖ Rajani Kothari is of the view that there is a decline of
parliament and disconnect between people and their
representatives. Political parties have long abandoned the
movement aspect of politics and have reduced themselves
to the electoral machines.
❖ Smitu Kothari said that globalisation has given birth to
the rise of movements for peace, human rights,
discrimination, etc. ❖ Grassroots movements have played
an important role in the promotion of inclusiveness,
democratising socio-political spaces and in the
reformulation of relationship between citizens and the state.

Strategies adopted by Grassroot Movements

❖ Grassroots campaigns succeed by raising money,
increasing public awareness, building name recognition,
and increasing political participation. To accomplish these
goals, grassroots leaders employ a wide variety of
strategies including: ➢ Raising money to pay for political
advertising. ➢ Putting up posters, handing out flyers, and
going door-to-door. ➢ Conducting letter-writing,
phone-calling, and emailing campaigns ➢ Gathering
signatures for petitions. ➢ Holding get out to vote activities
and helping get to polling places. ➢ Organising larger
rallies and marches. ➢ Posting information on online social
media networks.

Elections -Organization of elections in India: ❖ The

Constitution lays down the following principles and based
on them that elections are organised in India.
➢ Article 325 prohibits the preparation of a special electoral
roll on grounds of religion, race, caste or sex. Thus, the
communal electoral roll has been banned. ✓ The
constitution provides for a single electoral roll known as a
general electoral roll for each constituency. ✓ For election
to both the houses of the Parliament and the state
legislatures. ➢ Further, no person shall be made invisible
for inclusion in the electoral rolls on the grounds only of
religion, race, caste sex or any of them. ✓ Article 326
provides for adult suffrage under which all citizens of India
who are not less than 18 years of age and who are not
otherwise disqualified under the constitution or any law
made by the Parliament or state legislature and grounds of
non-residents, unsoundness of mind, crime, corrupt or
illegal practices. ❖ Under Article 327, the parliament is
conferred with the power to provide by provisions for
regulating of the elections to either house of the Parliament
or two either House of the state legislature including the
preparation of electoral rolls, the delimitation of
constituencies etc. ❖ The parliament in this regard has
passed two important laws: ➢ The Representation of
People’s Act 1950. ➢ The Representation of People’s Act
1952. ✓ Both regulate the election of Parliament and the
State Legislature. ✓ The Parliament has also enacted the
President and Vice President Election Act 1952 which
regulates the election of the office of President and Vice
President. ✓ Under Article 328, the state legislature has
been conferred by the power to make provisions by law to
regulate elections with respect to the State Legislature
provided. The Parliament has not made laws in this regard.
✓ No state legislature in India so far made any regulation
for election to the state legislature. ✓ Under Article 329,
prohibits the court from interfering in the electoral matters
relating to the validity of any laws relating to the
delimitation of constituencies and contesting the election
except as provided under any law made by the appropriate
legislature. ✓ Under the Representation of the Peoples Act
1951 the elections to the Parliament and the state
legislature can be challenged only before the Supreme
Court and the high courts and after the declaration of the
official result.
Election Commission of India ❖ The modern Indian nation
state came into existence on 15th of August 1947. Since then
free and fair elections have been held at regular intervals
as per the principles enshrined in the Constitution. ❖ Under
Article 324 to 329 of the Indian Constitution, the Election
Commission is responsible for overseeing and conducting
periodical elections at the national and state levels. To
carry out these responsibilities, the Election Commission
must be a powerful and independent body. ❖ India is the
most successful of all the 3rd world democracies in the
world. The success of democracy goes to the election
commission. ❖ According to Rudolph and Rudolph, EC is a
bulwark for free and fair elections in India.
Composition: ❖ Under Article 324, the election commission
consists of the Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) and such
other number of election commissioners the president may
deem fit from time to time subject to any law made by the
parliament in this regard. ❖ If other election
commissioners are appointed, then the CEC shall act as the
chairperson of the election commission. ❖ The parliament
enacted the Election Commission (conditions of service of
election commissioner and transaction of business) Act
1993. It provides for an Election Commission consisting of
not more than four Election Commissioners. ❖ The Election
Commissioner shall enjoy the status of a judge of the
supreme court. ❖ The decisions of the election commission
shall be made on the basis of a unanimity or majority
principle. ❖ All the members of the election commission
including the CEC shall enjoy equal voting rights and the
presiding officer shall enjoy the right to cast a vote in the
event of a tie. ❖ The election commissioners have been
given a term of 5 years or till they attained the age of 62
years whichever is earlier. ❖ Election commissioners are not
eligible for reappointment except as the CEC. ❖ After
retirement an election commissioner is not eligible to hold
any office of profit under the state.
Structure of the ECI ❖ From its inception in 1950 and till
1989, the EC functioned as a single member body. But on
16th October 1989, the President appointed two more ECs to
cope with the increased work of the election commissioners
on account of lowering of the voting age from 21 to 18
years by 61st Constitution Amendment Act.In 1993, ECI was
made a multi-member body consisting of three election
commissioners. They hold office for a term of 6 years or
until they attain the age of 65 years, whichever is earlier. ❖
Currently the chief election commissioner (CEC) and the two
ECs are appointed solely by the executive without any
consultation with other political groups. Though most ECs
have been of impeccable integrity till now, there is an
urgent need to establish a bipartisan multi member
committee for appointing ECs. ❖ The 2nd ARC report
suggested a committee composed of the Prime Minister, the
Leader of Opposition in Lok Sabha, the Speaker, the Deputy
Chairman of Rajya Sabha along with the Law Minister to
select the ECs. Position of the Chief Election Commissioner:
❖ Under Article 324, the CEC shall not be removed except in
a manner a judge of the supreme court is removed. ❖ His
service condition shall not be changed to his disadvantage
after his appointment. ❖ The other service conditions of the
CEC shall be regulated by law by the parliament. ❖ The
parliament has passed the CEC Miscellaneous Provision Act
1951 under which he is appointed for a term of 5 years or
till he attends the age of 65 years whichever is earlier. ❖ He
is not eligible for reappointment and is ineligible to hold
any office of profit under the state after retirement. ❖ He
enjoys the status of a judge of the Supreme Court. ❖ An
election commissioner can only be removed by the
proceedings on the part of the president and then he can
only be removed with the recommendation of the CEC.
Regional election commissioner: ❖ He is appointed by the
President on the eve of general elections to the Lok Sabha
and the legislative assemblies and on the eve of the biennial
elections held to the legislative assemblies of the state. ❖
He is appointed by the president in consultation with the
election commission. ❖ He is removed after the election is
over. ❖ He is not a member of the election commission of
India. ❖ He is a senior civil servant who is appointed to the
post.
Powers of Election Commission ❖ In Kanhaiya Lal Omar Vs
R. K. Trivedi (1985) case, the SC ruled that the powers of the
EC under Article 324(1) were plenary (EC uncontrolled by
the executive) in character. The powers of the EC operate in
areas which are left unoccupied by laws made by the
Parliament and the State Legislatures with regard to the
elections. ❖ The expressions “superintendence, direction,
and control of elections and the preparation of electoral
rolls” enjoy the widest meaning to enable the EC to ensure
free and fair elections in the country. ❖ However, the EC
cannot defy any electoral laws made by the Parliament nor
the EC can act arbitrarily. The EC’s powers are subjected to
only the following conditions: ➢ The Parliament or the State
Legislature has enacted a valid law relating to or in
connection with the elections. Then, the EC shall act in
conformity with such laws. But, where such a law is silent,
makes inadequate provisions to deal with a given situation
in the conduct of elections, then Article 324, confers on the
Election Commission, a reservoir of powers on the EC to act
and ensure free and fair elections in the country. ➢ The EC
shall conform to the rule of law, act bonafide and shall be
subject to the principles of Natural Justice. ➢ In another
case, A.C. Jose Vs. Sivan Pillai, 1984, the SC held that the
superintendence, direction and control of elections shall be
meant to supplement and not supplant, i.e., replace the
electoral laws and cannot be used against a validly passed
law by the Parliament or State Legislatures concerning the
elections. Further, the decisions of the EC are subjected to
review by the courts. ➢ Re powers of the EC case, 2006: The
SC in this advisory opinion on the powers of the EC held
that the mandatory period of six months within which the
next session of the State Legislature shall be held. As per
Article 174(1), it does not apply to a dissolved Legislative
Assembly whose life has come to an end. In such cases, the
elections have to be held within six months from the date of
the dissolution of the State Assembly and not form the last
sitting of the House. The Court further held that the holding
of the election is in the exclusive domain of EC under Article
324. ➢ Further, under Section 14 and 15 of the
Representation of People’s Act, 1951 provides that the
President or the Governors shall issue the election
notification for holding the election on the
recommendations of EC. All the Constitutional authorities
shall assist the EC to hold free and fair elections within the
stipulated time period. Ordinarily, general elections may be
postponed beyond the 6 months period only on the grounds
of act of God and not on the basis of act of man. #Functions
of the Election Commission: The election commission
performs multi-ferrous functions: ➢ It is responsible for the
preparation of electoral rolls. ➢ Registration of political
parties. ➢ Recognition of political parties as national and
state parties. ➢ Allotment of symbols to political parties
and independent candidates. ➢ Advise the president and
governor of a state on the question of disqualification of MP
and the state legislatures (MLAs). ➢ To express its opinion
on cases of persons found guilty of corrupt practices which
come before the supreme court and high courts which are
referred to the election commission on that such a person
should be disqualified and if so far what period. The
Representation of People Act 1950: ❖ It provides for a
single-member territorial constituency for the Lok Sabha
and assemblies. ❖ It provides for a first-past-the-post
electoral system for the Lok Sabha and legislative
assemblies. ❖ It provides for administration machinery for
conducting elections. ❖ It defines what is a poll by-election
etc.
The Representation of People Act 1951: ❖ It is the most
important electoral law passed by the parliament. ➢ It
contains the qualification of votes. ➢ Disqualification of
votes. ➢ The method of preparation of electoral rolls. ➢
Filling out nomination papers. ❖ Scrutiny, rejection of
nomination papers, counting of votes, declaration of results,
the appointment of returning officers and other polling
officers etc.
Model Code of Conduct (MCC) ❖ It was formulated by the
election commission in 1984 in consultation with the major
political parties of the country. ❖ It does not enjoy legal
status and enjoys only moral authority. ❖ It has been
approved by the supreme court as a code formulated by the
election commission under the powers it enjoys under
Article 324 (6). ❖ It comes into force as soon as the
schedule announced by the election commission, which is
issued three weeks ahead of the election notification issued
by the president or governor as may be the case. It remains
till the official results are announced. ❖ The MCC stands for
a set of guidelines that are issued by the election
commission prior to the conduction of the election. ❖ Its
objectives are to ensure that the elections are free and fair
and to provide a level playing field for the political parties
and candidates contesting the election. ❖ It aims to prevent
misuse of governments position, resources and powers. ❖
Thus, the ministers and any person occupying a public
office from the ruling party or opposition party is not
expected to use the vehicles of the state except the Prime
Minister and the chief minister of a state for security
reasons. ❖ It applies to all the political parties' candidates
contesting the election. the civil servant engaged in election
duty and the other individual associated with the
government. ❖ The MCC is generally obeyed by all
concerned because of the fear of adverse publicity. ❖ If the
guidelines are disobeyed the election commission may also
take certain decisions including the disqualification of a
political party. ❖ In April 2005, the election commission
had written to the centre to provide a legal status to the
MCC and then the election commission shall be legally
vested with the power to disqualify and impose penalties on
the violators.
Returning Officer ❖ In the elections to the Lok Sabha and
legislative assembly the civil servants are appointed as the
returning officers. ❖ In the case of Lok Sabha election, the
district magistrate or district collector and in case of the
assembly election it is the SDM or a Deputy Collector or the
ex-officio (that are automatically appointed) returning
officer respectively. ❖ He functions under the control of the
election commission. ❖ He is responsible for the conduction
of elections in his constituency and ensuring free and fair
elections in his constituency. ❖ He is responsible for
receiving the nomination papers, scrutinising, accepting or
rejecting the nomination papers, and then counting votes
and the declaration of official results. ❖ His functions are
Quasi-judicial in nature because before rejecting a
nomination paper he shall give an opportunity to be heard
to the candidate and also give a reason if he rejects the
nomination paper.
Presiding Officer in an Election ❖ He is a civil servant
drafted for election duty who heads a polling booth. ❖ He
functions under the control of the returning officer. ❖ He is
responsible for holding free and fair elections in his booth.
Who is a Civil Servant for election? ❖ Under the
Representation of People Act 1951, the term civil servants
for the purpose of election includes the civil servants of the
central and state government, the local self-government,
the employees of PSUs, nationalised banks, nationalised
insurance companies and the employees of the central and
state universities. ❖ Loss of security deposit: If a candidate
secures less than 1/6 th of the valid votes polled and loses
the election, forfeits his security deposit.
Electoral System First-past-the-post System: ❖ It is
followed in the elections to the Lok Sabha and the
legislative assemblies in India. ❖ It is borrowed from
England. ❖ Under the system the results are announced in a
constituency, not on the basis of majority but plurality of
votes secured by a candidate. ❖ In case of multi-corner
contests the candidate, who obtains the largest number of
valid votes is declared elected. ❖ Advantages: ➢ It is the
simplest of all the electoral systems and suitable for India
where there is a significant percentage of illiterate
population. ➢ Since this electoral system is based on
territorial constituencies each constituency has a
representative in the legislature. Thus, there is a link
between a member of the legislature and the people
represented by him. ➢ The system more often throws up a
majority government than another electoral system which is
called the Proportional Representation System.
❖ Disadvantages: ➢ In case of the multi-cornered contest
the majority of the electorate in a constituency may not be
represented in the legislature (not truly a democratic
system). ➢ Under this system, larger political parties tend
to get overrepresented, and the smaller political party tend
to get underrepresented in the legislature and the political
parties may not be represented in the legislature according
to their electoral strength.
Proportional Representation System: ❖ Under the system
the entire country is treated as a single constituency and
only the political parties are allowed to contest elections
and not the candidates. ❖ The political parties are
distributed seats in the legislature in proportion to the votes
polled to them in the election. ❖ According to the law of the
country, political parties that obtain below a certain
percentage of valid votes (normally 5%) are not allotted
any seats. ❖ If any vacancy arises in the legislature the
political party concerned is allowed to nominate another
candidate to the legislature and no by-elections are held. ❖
This electoral system is followed in Israel, Spain, Portugal,
South Africa etc. ❖ Advantages: ➢ The political parties are
represented properly in the legislature in proportion to their
electoral strength. ➢ It dispenses with holding by-elections.
➢ A voter can cast his ballot from anywhere in the country
but only in national elections and in a state election vote
can be cast from anywhere in the state. ❖ Disadvantages: ➢
This system more often leads to the formation of coalition
governments and may be associated with political
instability. ➢ There is no direct responsibility of the
Legislators to the people. ➢ It aims to promote and
strengthen parochial loyalties based on religion, caste, race,
language etc. ➢ This system also leads to the
fragmentation of the political parties that too many
political parties will emerge in the scenario.
Criminalisation of Politics ❖ The process of introducing
criminal elements in the electoral system and other
democratic Institutions may be called the criminalisation of
politics. ❖ Why does it occur? ➢ Because of the nexus that
exists between the politicians and criminal elements. It
encourages criminals to enter politics. ➢ The increasing
role of money and muscle enables the criminal to play a
greater role in politics. ➢ The long delay in the built-in
criminal justice system and the low rate of conviction
encourages the criminal elements to continue with criminal
activities and remain active politically. ➢ The
first-fast-the-post electoral system does not discuss criminal
elements entering politics and getting elected. ➢ The
general decline in the value system of society and the
people are not quite sensitive to criminal elements entering
politics. ➢ The absence of a liquid electoral reform has not
discouraged the criminal elements from contesting
elections. ❖ Consequences: ➢ The most important
consequence is that the lawbreakers become lawmakers
and the parliament and state legislature lose their moral
authority to legislate. ➢ There is an increased incidence of
violence during elections and corruption in public life. ➢ It
also leads to the weakening of the state Institution and
people losing faith in democracy. ❖ Steps to take to control
the Criminalisation of Politics: ➢ By Judiciary: The supreme
court in the Association for Democratic Rights versus Union
of India 2002 case held that citizens enjoy the RTI under
which they have the right to know the assets and liabilities
of the contesting candidate, the spouses and dependent
children and their criminal antecedent if any, pending
criminal cases if any and their educational background. ➢
The supreme court in the Ramesh Dalal case 2005 held that
a convicted legislator shall be disqualified from contesting
the election under Section 4 of the RPA 1951. A sitting
member of a state legislature or parliament if convicted
and sentenced to not less than 2 years of imprisonment
during his tenure can continue to be a member of the house
if his appeal against the order of his conviction is pending
before a higher court and if the sentence stays. ➢ The
supreme court held that the object of section 8 (4) is to
protect the strength of the house and that of the party
concerned. ➢ Therefore, if a legislator is convicted by a
code during his tenure, he cannot contest the next election
at the expiry of the term of the house taking the protection
of section 8(4). ➢ If on the given date of filing the
nomination, his conviction exists then whether he is a
sitting legislator or not, is debarred from contesting the
election. ➢ The Supreme Court has directed the High Courts
not to suspend the conviction on appeal in a case filed
under the Prevention of Corruption Act 1998 until the appeal
is disposed of.
Electoral reforms: ❖ Tarkunde committee or J.P. Narayan
committee in 1975 recommended that the minimum age of
voting should be 18 years. This was implemented in the 61st
Amendment Act in 1989 which reduced the age from 21 to 18
years. ❖ It also suggested that a voter’s council should be
formed in many constituencies to help free and fair
elections. ❖ The Goswami committee in 1990 suggested that
there should be an increase in deposits from independent
candidates to remove non-serious candidates. It also
suggested a time limit for bye-elections. ❖ Indrajit
committee in 1998 suggested that Political parties should be
required to produce annual financial reports to the income
tax division that detail their receipts and expenses;
otherwise, the party or the candidate forgoes state funding.
❖ The N.N. Vohra Committee investigated the issue of the
criminality of politics and the connections between
criminals, politicians, and bureaucrats in India before
submitting its report in October 1993. ❖ Before the 2019 Lok
Sabha elections, the EC released a statement stating that
the results of exit polls could only be broadcast after the
conclusion of the election's final phase. This was done to
prevent potential voters from being biased in any way.
Issues associated with the ECI ❖ Election Expenditure –
The high cost of Indian elections can negatively affect the
functioning of democracy by raising entry barriers for new
political entrants and increasing the risk of elite capture of
electoral processes. For example, the 2014 national election
in India saw a disclosed expenditure of 8000 crores by all
major political parties which makes it the second most
expensive election in the world after the United States. ❖
Anonymous funding – According to a report published by
the ADR, over the past decade more than 70% of the funds
raised by political parties have been from anonymous
sources. ❖ Criminalization of Politics – The usage of muscle
power in elections made a way for law breakers to become
law makers. This weakens the political will to fight the
menace of corruption as it leads to politicisation of crime.
❖Exit polls are post-election surveys that try to elicit the
opinions of the voters during or after the election period
and Opinion polls are pre-election surveys that aim to elicit
the views of the electorate during or before the election
period. ❖ Paid News / Fake News – The Press Council of
India defines paid news as any news coverage by media
organisations during the electoral period that has been
paid for in cash or kind by vested interests. ❖ Legalisation
of the Model Code of Conduct – The MCC was introduced in
1967 after consensus among all political parties to provide
a level playing field to all political parties. ➢ Following are
the features of the MCC: - ✓ MCC kicks in as soon as dates
for elections are announced. ✓ No new schemes can be
announced. ✓ No transfers / new appointments. ✓ Any
transfer required will be done by ECI if it feels that it will
hamper elections. ✓ No hate speech. ✓ No personal attacks
on other leaders. ✓ MCC does not have legal sanctions, but
ECI has power to de-register political parties. But it never
happens in court since ECI’s such power does not have legal
backing. MCC must be given legal backing. The Election
Commission held Mr. Narendra Modi and Smt. Sonia Gandhi
for violation of Model code of Conduct for making
controversial remarks during election campaign in 2007
Gujarat Assembly polls.
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Election Commission, Finance Commission

Finance Commission of India

The Finance Commission is a Constitutionally mandated
body that is at the centre of fiscal federalism. It is set up
under Article 280 of the Constitution and its core
responsibility is to evaluate the state of finances of the
union and State Governments, recommend the sharing of
taxes between them, and lay down the principles
determining the distribution of these taxes among States.
Its working is characterised by extensive and intensive
consultations with all levels of governments, thus
strengthening the principle of cooperative federalism. Its
recommendations are also geared towards improving the
quality of public spending and promoting fiscal stability.
The first Finance Commission was set up in 1951 and there
have been fifteen so far. Each of them has faced its own
unique set of challenges.

Features of the Finance Commission (Article 280)

❖ It is a quasi-judicial body. ❖ It consists of a chairman
and four other members to be appointed by the president.
❖ They hold the office as specified by the President, they
are also eligible for reappointment.
❖ Qualification of chairman, he should be a person having
experience in public affairs and four other members should
be selected from among the following: ➢ A judge of the
High Court or one qualified to be appointed; ➢ A person
who has specialised knowledge of finance and accounts of
the government. ➢ A person who has wide experience in
financial matters and in administration. ➢ A person with
this patient knowledge of economics.
Functions of the Finance Commission ❖ Finance
Commission is required to make recommendations to the
president on the following matters: ➢ Distribution of net
proceeds of the taxes to be shared between the centre and
the state. ➢ Principles that should govern the grant in aid
to the state by the centre (out of the Consolidated Fund of
India). ➢ The measures needed to augment the
consolidated fund of the state to supplement the resources
of the panchayats and municipalities. ➢ Any other matter,
referred by the president. ➢ The Commission submits its
report to the president and he lays it before both Houses
along with an explanatory memorandum as to the action
taken on its recommendation.
Nature of recommendations made by the FC ❖
Recommendations made by the FC are only advisory in
nature and hence not binding on the government. However
as suggested by Dr. P V Rajamannar, the Chairman of the
Fourth Finance Commission, ‘Since the Finance Commission
is a constitutional body, expected to be quasi-judicial, its
recommendations should not be turned down by the Govt.
of India unless there are very compelling reasons’.
15th Finance Commission ❖ The Fifteenth Finance
Commission was constituted on 27 November 2017 in the
backdrop of the abolition of the Planning Commission and
the introduction of the Goods and Services tax (GST), which
has fundamentally redefined federal fiscal relations. ❖ The
Terms of Reference (TOR) of the current Commission have
distinct features which includes:- ❖ Recommending
monitorable performance criteria for important national
flagship programmes. ❖ Examining the possibility of setting
up a permanent non lapsable funding for India’s defence
needs. ❖ The reorganisation of the State of Jammu and
Kashmir into two Union Territories – one of Jammu and
Kashmir and one of Ladakh – presents a new dynamic. ❖
On the whole the Finance Commission faces new challenges
in the process of the evolution of our federal polity. ❖ As an
important Constitutional entity, the Commission is
committed to balance competing claims and priorities
among all three tiers of government in a credible manner. ❖
The Commission shall review the current status of the
finance, deficit, debt levels, cash balances and fiscal
discipline efforts of the Union and the States, and
recommend a fiscal consolidation roadmap for sound fiscal
management, taking into account the responsibility of the
Central Government and State Governments to adhere to
appropriate levels of general and consolidated government
debt and deficit levels, while fostering higher inclusive
growth in the country, guided by the principles of equity,
efficiency and transparency. The Commission may also
examine whether revenue deficit grants be provided at all.
❖ The 15th Finance Commission may consider proposing
measurable performance based incentives for States, at the
appropriate level of government, in following areas: ➢
Efforts made by the States in expansion and deepening of
the tax net under GST. ➢ Efforts and Progress made in
moving towards replacement rate of population growth. ➢
Achievements in implementation of flagship schemes of
Government of India, disaster resilient infrastructure,
sustainable development goals, and quality of expenditure.
➢ Progress made in increasing capital expenditure,
eliminating losses of power sector, and improving the
quality of such expenditure in generating future income
streams. ➢ Progress made in increasing tax/non-tax
revenues, promoting savings by adoption of Direct Benefit
Transfers and Public Finance Management System,
promoting digital economy and removing layers between
the government and the beneficiaries. ➢ Progress made in
promoting ease of doing business by effecting related policy
and regulatory changes and promoting labour intensive
growth. ➢ Provision of grants in aid to local bodies for
basic services, including quality human resources, and
implementation of performance grant system in improving
delivery of services. ➢ Control or lack of it in incurring
expenditure on populist measures. ➢ Progress made in
sanitation, solid waste management and bringing in
behavioural change to end open defecation.
Concluding Remarks
There has been considerable expansion in the role of the
commission being an architect of fiscal restructuring.
Despite the changing fiscal environment and considerable
expansion in its functions, the institution of the Finance
Commission has ensured smooth functioning of Centre-State
fiscal relations and ensured a just and equitable sharing of
financial resources both vertically and horizontally
contributing to the economic development and prosperity of
both union and states. Question asked 1. Discuss the policy
initiatives of the 14th Finance Commission aimed towards
promoting and strengthening agricultural development in
India.
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Election Commission, Finance Commission (Part-2)

Anti-defection Law
❖ This act provides for the disqualification of the members
of the Parliament and state legislature on the ground of
political defection.
❖ The Important Provisions are: ➢ If a member of a
legislature party resigns from his political party. He shall be
disqualified from being a member of the house. ➢ If a
legislative party member votes or abstains from voting
contrary to the whip issued by his legislative party. If his
action is not condoned within 15 days by his political party
then he shall be disqualified from being a member of the
house. ➢ If any Independence member of a house joins any
political party he shall be disqualified. ➢ If a nominated
member of a house joins a political party 6 months after
becoming a member of the house he shall be disqualified.
Exceptions: ❖ If a nominated member joins a political
party within 6 months of becoming a member of the House.
❖ If the speaker or deputy speaker of the Lok Sabha or a
state legislative assembly or deputy chairman of Rajya
Sabha or the chairman or deputy chairman of the
Legislative Council resigns from his political party upon
being elected to his office and does not join any other
political party and joins the same political party from
which originally resigned after relinquishing his office he
shall not be disqualified from being a member of the house.
❖ If not less than two-thirds (⅔ rd) of the members of a
legislative party break away and merge with another
political party, they shall not be disqualified from being
members of the house.
Other Provisions: ❖ The presiding officer shall be the
authority on all questions of disqualification under the act.
His decision shall be final and binding. ❖ The supreme
court in a case known as Kinota Hollohan vs Zachillhu 1992
the court held the to be constitutionally valid but
paragraph 7 provides that the decision of the presiding
officer is final and binding unconstitutional and void has it
taken away the power of Judicial review of the court. ❖ The
whip issued by a political party shall be binding on its
legislative party member only in the passage of the
following four instances: ➢ No confidence motion ➢
Confidence motion ➢ Vote of thanks to the president or
governor's address. ➢ The passage of a money Bill.
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Union Public Service Commission

❖ The Royal Commission on the Superior Civil Services in

India under the Chairmanship of Lord Lee, which submitted
its report in 1924, recommended the setting up of the Public
Service Commission. This led to the establishment of the
first Public Service Commission on October 1, 1926 under
the Chairmanship of Sir Ross Barker. The limited advisory
function accorded to the Public Service Commission and the
continued stress on this aspect by the leaders of our
freedom movement resulted in the setting up of a Federal
Public Service Commission under the Government of India
Act, 1935. The Federal Public Service Commission became
the Union Public Service Commission after independence
and it was given a Constitutional Status with the
promulgation of Constitution of India on January 26, 1950.
❖ With the inauguration of the Constitution of India in
January 26, 1950, the Federal Public Service Commission
came to be known as the Union Public Service Commission,
and the Chairman and Members of the Federal Public
Service Commission became Chairman and Members of the
Union Public Service Commission by virtue of Clause (1) of
Article 378 of the Constitution.
❖ Under Article 320 of the Constitution of India, the
Commission is, inter-alia, required to be consulted on all
matters relating to recruitment to civil services and posts.
The functions of the Commission under Article 320 of the
Constitution are: ➢ Conduct examinations for appointment
to the services of the Union. ➢ Direct recruitment by
selection through interviews. ➢ Appointment of officers on
promotion / deputation / absorption. ➢ Framing and
amendment of recruitment rules for various services and
posts under the Government. ➢ Disciplinary cases relating
to different Civil Services. ➢ Advising the government on
any matter referred to the Commission by the President of
India. Finance Commission, Union Public Service
Commission Constitutional Provisions related to UPSC -
Article No. Subject Matter 1. 315 ❖ Public Service
Commissions for the Union and the States. 2. 316 ❖
Appointment and Term of Office of members 3. 317 ❖
Removal and Suspension of a member of a Public Service
Commissions. 4. 318 ❖ Power to make regulations as to
conditions of service of members and staff of commission 5.
319 ❖ Prohibition as to the holding of office by members of
commission on ceasing to be such members. 6. 320 ❖
Functions of Public Service Commission 7. 321 ❖ Power to
extend functions of Public Service commission 8. 322 ❖
Expenses of Public Service Commission 9. 323 ❖ Reports of
Public Service Commission.
NOTE: Difference between Removal and Suspension
❖ Removal does not disqualify for future employment under
the government while the Suspension disqualifies for future
employment under the government.
Important Provisions ❖ Article 315-323 contains provisions
regarding composition, appointments and removal of
members. ❖ Composition: ➢ It consists of the chairman and
other members appointed by the president. ➢ The strength
is decided by the president which is usually 9-11 members
including the chairman. ➢ No qualifications are prescribed
for membership except that 1/2 of the members of the
Commission should be such persons who have held office
for at least ten years either under the Government of India
or the government of the state.
➢ The chairman and members hold office for a term of six
years or until they’re the age of 65 years, whichever is
earlier.
❖ Removal: ➢ The President can remove under the
following circumstances: ✓ If he is adjudged insolvent
(gone bankrupt). ✓ If he engages during his term of office
in any paid employment outside the duties of his office. ✓
If he in the opinion of the president unfit to continue in
office by reason of infirmity of mind or body. ✓ On grounds
of misbehaviour, but in this case, the president has to refer
the matter to the Supreme Court for an inquiry. If the
Supreme Court after the inquiry upholds the cause of
removal and advises so, the president can remove them
(Advice by the Supreme Court is binding upon the
president).
❖ Independence: ➢ He can be removed from office by the
President only in manners prescribed in the Constitution
and enjoys tenure security. ➢ Salary, allowances and
pensions are charged on the consolidated fund of India. ➢
The Chairman of UPSC (on ceasing to hold the office) is not
eligible for further employment under the Government of
India or the state. ➢ Members of UPSC (on ceasing to hold
the office) are eligible for appointment as chairman of
UPSC or SPSC, but not any other employment in the
Government of India or the state. ➢ The chairman or
member is not eligible for reappointment.
❖ Functions and Role: ➢ Conducts examination for
appointment to the All-India services, and central services.
➢ Advises government when consulted on promotion and
disciplinary matters. ➢ UPSC presents annually to the
president a report of its performance. The president places
this report before both Houses along with a memorandum
explaining the cases where the advice of the Commission is
not accepted. ➢ Assist the states (if requested by two or
more states) in framing and operating schemes of joint
recruitment for any services. ➢ It is not concerned with the
classification of services, pay and service conditions, cadre
management, training, etc. ➢ The role of UPSC is limited
even though its recommendations are only advisory in
nature, hence not binding on the government.
State Public Service Commission (SPSC): ❖ It consists of
the chairman and other members appointed by the
Governor. ❖ Strength is not fixed and decided by the
Governor. ❖ Qualification not prescribed except that half of
the members should be such a person who has held the
office for at least 10 years either in the Government of
India or the state. ❖ The chairman and members hold the
office for a term of six years or until they attain the age of
62 years, whichever is earlier.
➢ Removal (same grounds as of UPSC): In SPSC, the
Chairman and members are appointed by the governor but
removed by the president.
➢ Independence (same provision as of UPSC): The
Chairman of seizing office can be appointed as chairman of
UPSC or other SPSC. ➢ Role and Functions (same as of the
UPSC): SPSC is consulted by the governor while framing
rules for appointment to judicial services office state other
than the post of district judges, in this regard, the high
court is consulted.
Issue of Lateral Entry ❖ Lateral entry means when
personnel from the private sector are selected to an
administrative post of the government despite them not
being selected in or being part of a bureaucratic setup.
However, the success of lateral entry hinges entirely on how
it is designed. ❖ Governance is becoming more and more
complex, requiring specialised skills. For example,
increasing penetration of data dominance in our lives.
Generalist officers cannot always be expected to be
up-to-date with specialised knowledge. Therefore, people
with expertise and specialist domain knowledge are
required to navigate the complex needs of present-day
administrative challenges. ❖ According to Department of
Personnel and Training data, there is a shortage of about
1500 IAS officers. Lateral entry can help bridge this deficit.
❖ Lateral Entry helps in bringing the values of economy,
efficiency, and effectiveness in the government sector. It
will help in building a culture of performance within the
government sector.
❖ Critics argue that there is a difference between bringing
expertise and being part of the decision-making process.
They also criticise this reform on the ground that the
approach of the private sector is profit-oriented, on the
other hand the motive of the government is public service.
This is also a fundamental transition that a private sector
person has to make while working in government. Hiring of
the private sector into administrative positions raises issues
of potential conflict of interest.
Concluding Remarks ❖ In the present scenario, the
governance demands a more vigorous role from UPSC. It is
a body which has proven its abilities. The role of
commission should not be restricted to appointment related
recommendations. It should be given supervisory authority
over performance of service under the Union. Question
asked 1. Comment: Union Public Service Commission.
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National Commission for Scheduled Castes, National
Commission for Scheduled Tribes, National Commission for
Women

National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled

Tribes ❖ The framers of the Constitution took note of the
fact that certain communities in the country were suffering
from extreme social, educational and economic
backwardness arising out of age-old practice of
untouchability and these people need special consideration
for safeguarding their interests and for their accelerated
socioeconomic development. ❖ In the original constitution,
Article 338 provided for Special Officers for SCs and STs to
protect their interests and evaluate their progress in the
country. In 1988, the union government initiated the 65th
Constitutional Amendment Act after finding that the
institutional support was insufficient. In 1990 National
Commission for SC and ST was established as a
constitutionally approved institution to protect the interests
of SCs & STs. ❖ Later in 2003, the 89th Constitutional
Amendment Act replaced the National commission for SC
and ST with two separate commissions - Article 338
established NCSC and Article 338(A) established NCST.
Functions and Duties of the Commission ❖ The functions,
duties and powers of the Commission have been laid down
under clauses (5), (8) and (9) of the Article 338 and 338(A) of
the Constitution. ❖ Article 338(5) and Article 338(A)(5) lists
the following functions of the NCSC and NCST:- ➢ To
investigate and monitor all matters relating to the
safeguards provided for the Scheduled Castes/Tribes under
the Constitution or under any other law for the time being
in force or under any order of the government and to
evaluate the working of such safeguards. ➢ To inquire into
specific complaints with respect to the deprivation of rights
and safeguards of the Scheduled Castes/Tribes. ➢ To
participate and advise on the planning process of
socioeconomic development of the Scheduled Castes/Tribes
and to evaluate the progress of their development under the
Union and any State. ➢ To present to the President,
annually and at such other times as the Commission may
deem fit, reports upon the working of those safeguards. ➢
To make such reports/recommendations as to the measures
that should be taken by the Union or any State for the
effective implementation of those safeguards and other
measures for the protection, welfare and socioeconomic
development of the Scheduled Castes/Tribes. ➢ To
discharge such other functions in relation to the protection,
welfare and development and advancement of the
Scheduled Castes/Tribes as the President may, subject to
the provisions of any law made by Parliament, by rule
specify. ❖ Article 338(8) and Article 338(A)(8) holds that the
Commission while investigating any matter or inquiring
into any complaint have all the powers of a civil court
trying a suit and in particular in respect of the following
matters:- ➢ Summoning and enforcing the attendance of
any person from any part of India. ➢ Requiring the
discovery and production of any document. ➢ Receiving
evidence on affidavits. ➢ Requisitioning any public record
from any court or office. ➢ Issuing summons for the
examination of witnesses and documents. ➢ Any other
matter which the President may determine. ❖ Article 338(9)
and Article 338(A)(9) holds that The Union and every state
government shall consult the Commission on all major
policy matters affecting Scheduled Castes/Tribes. SC ST
Prevention of Atrocities Act 1989 ❖ The act prohibits the
commission of offences against members of SC and ST and
establishes special courts for such offences and
rehabilitation of victims. It defines atrocities as being
forced to: ➢ Eat or drink something offensive. ➢ Parading
an individual naked. ➢ Sexually assaulting a woman. ➢
Forced to leave the house or village. ❖ They are termed
atrocities, only when committed by non- SC/ST members
against SC/ST individuals. ❖ The offences registered under
the act are cognisable offences with no requirement for the
police to obtain a warrant against an errant individual.
Moreover, it is a nonbailable offence under which bail can
be denied. ❖ The punishment under the act ranges from a
minimum of 6 months to 5 years. ❖ Under the act, public
officials, if failed to uphold the act or neglect its
implementation, can become a ground for punitive action
against them including a jail term upto 1 year. Act also
talks about the need for the state to ensure the
rehabilitation of the victims.
The Panchsheel Principles for Tribal Development by JL
Nehru
❖ Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru formulated five guiding principles
to address the development and welfare of tribal
communities in India. These principles are as the follows:-
➢ People should develop along the lines of their own genius
and imposition of alien values should be avoided. ➢ Tribal
rights in land and forest should be respected. ➢ Tribals
should be trained in the work of administration and
development. ➢ Tribal areas should not be over
administered or overwhelmed with a multiplicity of
schemes. ➢ Results should be just not by statistics or by the
money spent but the human character that is evolved.
Panchayat Extension to Scheduled Areas Act 1996
❖ PESA was introduced to institutionalise the panchayati
raj system in tribal areas listed under the schedule 5. ❖ The
important provisions of the act are:- ➢ State legislation to
be in conformity with customary law, social and religious
practices and customary modes of dispute resolution. ➢ The
Act emphasises the importance of hamlet level villages and
Gram Sabhas in the decision making process. ➢ Every Gram
Sabha shall be competent to safeguard and preserve the
customs of the people, their cultural identity, community
resources and the customary mode of dispute resolution. ➢
Ownership of gram Sabha on minor forest produce.
Concluding Remarks ❖ Our society is so ingrained with
social identities that they frequently determine an
individual's fate. Jobs, programmes, and policing are not
the only means by which India can achieve social equality
and access to dignity. Restructuring NCSC's and NCST's
responsibilities is one of many moves in this direction. ❖
Empowerment in the true sense can only be achieved by
cultivating sensitive and sympathetic cultures that
recognize their obligation to try to alleviate the suffering
and shame experienced by exploited and disadvantaged
people.

Questions asked ❖ Discuss the working of the National

Commission for Scheduled Castes to curb violence against
Dalits. (2014) ❖ Comment: Role of National Commission for
Scheduled Castes. (2011) ❖ Comment on the functions,
duties and powers of the appropriate National Commission
as laid down in Clauses (5), (8) and (9) of Article 338 of the
Constitution. (2009)

National Commission for Women ❖ Women are said to

suffer from ‘womb to tomb.’ The various women issues can
be categorised as the following:- ➢ Cognitive – Identity of
women. ➢ Social – Gender stereotypes. ➢ Economic –
Economically dependent in most cases. ➢ Political –
Representation. ➢ Psychological problems. ❖ Year 1974-75
was the year of the emerging women's movement in India
as well as around the world. Due to which it was recognized
as the International Year of Women. ❖ In India ‘Towards
Equality Report’ was released by the committee on ‘status
of women in India’. The 1974 document is said to lay the
foundation of the women's movement in independent India
highlighting discriminatory socio-cultural, political and
economic processes. ❖ Women do not fall in minority
groups and also they are not in backward class category
and since ours is a patriarchal society, women are highly
disadvantaged in this context. ❖ In this regard a National
Commission for Women was constituted under the ‘National
Commission for Women Act 1990’ to aid the legislative and
judicial processes to empower women.
Mandate of the Commission ❖ The Commission’s mandate
can be divided under four heads:- ➢ Safeguarding rights of
women granted by the Constitution and laws. ➢ Study
problems faced by women in the current scenario and make
recommendations to eradicate those problems. ➢
Evaluating the status of Indian women from time to time. ➢
Funding and fighting cases related to women’s rights
violations. ❖ In keeping with its mandate, the Commission
initiated various steps to improve the status of women and
worked for their economic empowerment during the various
years. The Commission completed its visits to all the
States/UTs except Lakshadweep and prepared gender
profiles to assess the status of women and their
empowerment. It received a large number of complaints
and acted suo-moto in several cases to provide speedy
justice. ❖ It took up the issue of child marriage, sponsored
legal awareness programmes, Parivarik Mahila Lok Adalats
and reviewed laws such as Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961,
PNDT Act 1994, Indian Penal Code 1860 and the National
Commission for Women Act, 1990 to make them more
stringent and effective. ❖ It organised
workshops/consultations, constituted expert committees on
economic empowerment of women, conducted
workshops/seminars for gender awareness and took up
publicity campaigns against female foeticide, violence
against women etc. in order to generate awareness in the
society against these social evils. Functions of the NCW ❖
Review women’s development under the Union or the State
Government. ❖ Study reasons for deprived status of women
and suggest remedial actions. ❖ Take up cases of
Constitutional Rights violations. ❖ Participate in
socio-economic development planning for women. Powers of
the NCW ❖ Civil Court powers in examining matters,
summoning, and enforcing attendance. ❖ Requiring
discovery of production of documents, receiving evidence
on affidavits. ❖ Requisitioning public records from any
court or office. ❖ Any other prescribed matter.
Scholarly Opinions ❖ Lalitha Kumarmangalam, former
chairperson of NCW argued that the NCW has the mandate
to review the constitutional and legal safeguards for
women, recommend remedial legislative measures, facilitate
redressal of grievances and advise the government on all
policy matters affecting women. However, it soon found
itself in shackles and virtually powerless. Today, the
commission is desperately fighting for its own
empowerment. ❖ Girija Vyas, a former NCW chairperson
says, “The government has never taken NCW seriously. The
policy is to adjust the commission somewhere in the
process.” She feels that instead of taking the commission as
an ‘adjustable seat’, the government should extend support
and empower it. ❖ Critics argue that the NCW chairperson
has a lower status than the heads of other statutory bodies.
For example, the chairperson of the national commission
for scheduled castes and of the scheduled tribes have the
status of a cabinet minister. The national human rights
commission chairperson is a former chief justice and hence
enjoys an exalted status. In comparison, the NCW head
enjoys the status of a secretary to the government. And
given the hierarchy in Indian bureaucracy, this difference
can have a significant impact on the functioning of the
commission. Way Forward ❖ Office holders shall bear this
in mind that it is the National Commission for Women and
not National commission of Women. ❖ Its
recommendations should be made mandatory. ❖ The
commission should hold consultative mechanisms with other
sections of the society including NGOs and Civil Society. ❖
Chairperson should be of high repute and independent of
political interference.
Questions asked ❖ Discuss, in brief, the role of the National
Commission for Women. Do you think it is a toothless
organisation? (2019) ❖ Comment on Role of National
Commission for Women in India. (2012)
—-----------------------------------------------------------------
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National Human Rights Commission, National Commission
for Minorities, National Commission for Backward Classes,

National Human Rights Commission

❖ The history of the Human Rights movement can be traced
from the 13th century: ➢ Magna Carta of 1215 ➢ The
Petition of Rights, 1628 ➢ Bill of Rights, 1689 ➢ Virginia
Declaration of Rights, 1776 ➢ The American Declaration of
Independence, 1776 ➢ The French Declaration of the Rights
of Man and Citizens, 1789 ➢ The American Bill of Rights,
1791 ❖ After the 1st world war, the world community started
showing its concern for global mechanisms to protect
human rights. But it was only after the formation of the UN
that the human rights movement got momentum. ❖ On 10th
of Dec 1948 UN adopted the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights and subsequently adopted two more
covenants: Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights and Covenant on Civil and Political Rights on 16th of
December 1966 and they came into force on 3rd January
1976 and 23rd March 1976 respectively. Both of these
covenants are binding on the rectifying states. ❖ Protection
of Human Rights Act 1993 drew its inspiration mostly from
these two covenants. Even in defining human rights the act
has mentioned these covenants frequently. 3 Establishment
of the Commission ❖ The National Human Rights
Commission, abbreviated as NHRC of India is an
autonomous public body founded on 12th October 1993
under the Protection of Human Rights Ordinance of 28th
September 1993. It was given a statutory base by the
Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993. ❖ The Commission is
the watchdog of human rights in the country, that is, the
rights relating to life, liberty, equality and dignity of the
individual guaranteed by the Constitution or embodied in
the international covenants and enforceable by courts in
India. Vision and Mission of the NHRC ❖ The Commission is
responsible for spreading human rights awareness amongst
the masses and encouraging the efforts of all stakeholders
in the field of human rights literacy not only at the national
level but at international level too. ❖ NHRC is a unique
institution because it is one of the few National Human
Rights Institutes (NHRIs) in the world whose Chairperson is
the former Chief Justice of the country. The world looks at
NHRC of India as a role model in promoting and monitoring
effective implementation of promotion and protection of
human rights. Global Recognition of the NHRC ❖ The
National Human Rights Commission, India has retained its
'A' status of accreditation with the Global Alliance of
National Human Rights Institutions (GANHRI) for the fourth
consecutive term of five years. It is given to those NHRIs,
which, after a rigorous process of review every five years,
are found fully compliant with the UN mandated Paris
Principles. ❖ The NHRC, India got 'A' status of accreditation
first time in 1999 which it retained in 2006 and 2011
reviews. It was under the process of review for 2016, which
was deferred to the second session of 2017, when the Sub
Committee on Accreditation of 4 GANHRI recommended
giving 'A' status again to the NHRC, India in November,
2017. ❖ NOTE:- Paris Principles require NHRIs to protect
human rights, including by receiving, investigating and
resolving complaints, mediating conflicts and monitoring
activities; and promoting human rights, through education,
outreach, the media, publications, training and capacity
building, as well as advising and assisting the Government.
Composition of the Commission ❖ The commission is a
multi-membered body consisting of a chairperson and five
members. ❖ The chairperson should be a retired chief
justice of India or a judge of the Supreme Court. ❖
Members should be a serving or retired judge of the
Supreme Court. ❖ A serving or retired chief justice of a
High Court. ❖ Three persons (out of which at least one
should be a woman) having knowledge or practical
experience with respect to human rights. ❖ In addition to
these full-time members, the commission also has seven
ex-officio members. ➢ Chairperson National Commission
for Minorities. ➢ Chairperson NCSC ➢ Chairperson NCST ➢
Chairperson NCW ➢ Chairperson NCBC ➢ Chairperson
NCPCR 5 ➢ Chief Commissioner for Persons with Disabilities
❖ The chairperson and members hold office for a term of 3
years or until they attain the age of 70 years, whichever is
earlier. ❖ They are eligible for re-appointment. After their
tenure, the chairperson and members are not eligible for
further employment under the central or a state
government. Appointment of the members ❖ The
chairperson and the members are appointed by the
President on the recommendations of the six-member
committee consisting of: ➢ The Prime Minister as its head ➢
The Speaker of the Lok Sabha ➢ The Deputy Chairman of
the Rajya Sabha ➢ Leader of the Opposition in Lok Sabha
➢ Leader of the Opposition in Rajya Sabha ➢ Minister of
Home Affairs Limitations of the NHRC ❖ Soli Sorabjee has
called NHRC - India’s Teasing Illusion - due to its
incapacity to provide any actual solution. ❖ NHRC suffers
from the following set of limitations which hinders its
efficiency and effectiveness. ❖ The Recommendations made
by the NHRC are not binding. ❖ Violation of Human Rights
by private parties cannot be considered under NHRC
Jurisdiction. ❖ NHRC doesn’t have the power to penalise the
authorities that do not implement its recommended orders.
6 ❖ 3 of the NHRC members are judges which give the
functioning of the Commission a judicial touch. ❖ The other
members that are recommended by the Selection Committee
may not necessarily be Human Rights experts. ❖ The NHRC
does not consider the following cases: ➢ Cases that are
older than one year. ➢ Cases that are anonymous,
pseudonymous or vague. ➢ Frivolous cases. ➢ Cases
pertaining to service matters. ❖ The NHRC has limited
jurisdiction over cases related to armed forces. ❖ The NHRC
faces other issues like excess cases/complaints, insufficient
funds, bureaucratic functioning style, etc. Performance of
the Commission ❖ The various human rights issues taken
up by the commission are as follows:- ➢ Abolition of
Bonded Labour ➢ Issues concerning Right to Food ➢
Review of the Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929 ➢ Abolition
of Child Labour ➢ Guidebook for the Media on Sexual
Violence against Children ➢ Trafficking in Women and
Children: Manual for the Judiciary for Gender Sensitisation
➢ Sensitisation Programme on Prevention of Sex Tourism
and Trafficking ➢ Abolition of Manual Scavenging ➢ Rights
of Persons Affected by HIV/AIDS ➢ Steps to Check
Custodial Deaths, Rape and Torture 7 ❖ On its 25th year
anniversary, NHRC highlighted its long list of achievements
— disposal of more than 17 lakh cases, payment of more
than Rs. 1 billion to victims of human rights violations,
carrying out over 750 spot enquiries of human rights
violations, apart from conducting over 200 conferences to
spread awareness of human rights across the country.
Concluding Remarks ❖ Former CJI and also the former
chairperson of NHRC, H.L. Dattu, called NHRC, A Toothless
Tiger. Mr. Dattu suggested that the Union government need
to increase the power of the commission so that it can have
more teeth. Questions asked ❖ Examine the objective and
role of the National Human Rights Commission. (2016) ❖
Assess the effectiveness of the National Human Rights
Commission in redressing grievances pertaining to human
rights violations in India. (2010) National Commission for
Minorities ❖ In order to preserve secular traditions and to
promote national integration, the GoI attaches the highest
importance to the enforcement of the safeguards provided
for the minorities and is of the firm view that effective
institutional arrangements are urgently required for the
enforcement and implementation of all the safeguards
provided for the minorities in the Constitution. ❖ With the
enactment of the National Commission for Minorities Act,
1992, the Minorities Commission became a statutory body
and was renamed as National Commission for Minorities.
NCM Act further outlines the functions and powers of the
commission. ❖ Initially five religious communities, viz.,
Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists and Zoroastrians
(Parsis) were notified as minority communities by the Union
8 Government. Further vide notification dated 27th January
2014; Jains were also notified as another minority
community. Definition of Minorities ❖ In India, we do not
have a set definition or a policy to define minorities. ❖ The
UN sub-committee on prevention against discrimination
and protection of minorities define minorities as
‘non-dominant groups’ in population wishing to preserve
their ethnic, religious or linguistic traditions which differ
from the rest of the population. Scholarly Approach towards
Minorities ❖ There are largely two approaches. First one
emphasises on assimilation and the latter talks about
cultural pluralism or multiculturalism. The Melting Pot
Theory The Salad Bowl Theory “The Melting Pot Theory” of
multiculturalism assumes that various immigrant groups
will tend to ‘melt together’, abandoning their individual
cultures and eventually becoming fully assimilated into the
predominant society. Typically used to describe the
assimilation of immigrants into the United States, the
melting pot theory is often illustrated by the metaphor of a
foundry’s melting pots in which elements of Iron and
carbon are melted together to create a single, stronger A
more liberal theory of multiculturalism than the melting
pot, the salad bowl theory describes a heterogeneous
society in which people coexist but retain at least some of
the unique characteristics of their traditional culture. Like a
salad’s ingredients, different cultures are brought together,
but rather than coalescing into a single homogenous
culture, retain their own distinct flavours. In the United
States, New York City, with its many unique ethnic
communities like “Little India”, “Little 9 metal- steel.”
Odessa,” and “Chinatown” is considered an example of
salad bowl society. Composition of the NCM ❖ It is a
multi-membered body whose members hail from the
minority community. ❖ NCM has one chairperson, one vice
chairperson and 5 members to be nominated by GoI from
persons of eminence, ability and integrity. Important
Concerns ❖ Despite its mandate, the NCM faces several
challenges and limitations such as it lacks constitutional
status and the power to investigate safeguard violations.
Additionally, there is no mandatory consultation with the
Commission on minority development matters, and the
commission’s membership is often politically influenced. ❖
To address these concerns, it has been suggested that the
NCM be given constitutional status, the power to investigate
and inquire into complaints, and a more significant role in
shaping government policies for minority communities. ❖ It
is notable that former Chief Justice of India, M.H. Beg, who
regulated the Minorities Commission from 1981 to 1988, in
his very first report powerfully, 10 recommended that “the
Minorities Commission should be replaced with or merged
into a National Integration-cum-Human Rights
Commission”. Concluding Remarks ❖ The National
Commission for Minorities protects the constitutional and
legal rights of minorities in the nation. The minorities are
one of the communities on whom the constitution of India
has made special safeguards so that they could preserve
their religion, language, script and culture, and this has
been done by carving out an exception to the principle of
equality and secularism. ❖ In the era of populist
majoritarianism that render minority rights ignored the
NCM has the potential to rise as an institution that can
serve as the beacon of minority rights, especially in diverse
country like India, which is constantly face with trial of
proving, its resilience & commitment to idea of 'Unity in
diversity'. Questions asked ❖ Comment: National
Commission for Minorities. (2023) ❖ Examine the role of the
National Commission for Minorities in preserving,
protecting and promoting the rights of minorities in India.
(2017) National Commission for Backward Classes ❖ In the
Mandal case judgement of 1992, the Supreme Court directed
the central government to constitute a permanent statutory
body to examine the complaints of under-inclusion,
over-inclusion or non-inclusion of any class of citizens in
the list of backward classes. Accordingly, the National
Commission for Backward Classes (NCBC) was set up in
1993. ❖ Later, the 102nd Amendment Act of 2018 conferred
a constitutional status on the commission. ❖ For this
purpose, the amendment inserted a new Article 338-B in the
Constitution. 11 ❖ This was done in order to safeguard the
interests of the socially and educationally backward classes
more effectively. Composition of the Commission ❖ The
Commission consists of a chairperson, a vice-chairperson
and three other members. ❖ They are appointed by the
President by warrant under his hand and seal. Functions of
the NCBC ❖ Article 338-B outlines the following functions of
the commission:- ➢ To investigate and monitor all matters
relating to the constitutional and other legal safeguards for
the SEBCs and to evaluate their working. ➢ To inquire into
specific complaints with respect to the deprivation of rights
and safeguards of the SEBCs. ➢ To participate and advise
on the socio-economic development of the SEBCs and to
evaluate the process of their development under the Union
or a state. ➢ To present to the President, annually and at
such times as it may deem fit, report upon the working of
those safeguards. ➢ To make in such reports
recommendations as to the measures that should be taken
by the Union or any State for the effective implementation
of those safeguards and other measures for the protection,
welfare and socioeconomic development of the Socially and
Educationally backward classes. ➢ To discharge such other
functions in relation to the protection, welfare and
development and advancement of the Socially and
Educationally backward classes as the President may,
subject to the provisions of any law made by Parliament, by
rule specify. 12 Powers of the Commission ❖ The NCBC has
the powers of a civil court and can summon witnesses,
demand documents, and conduct inquiries. This provides a
legal framework for its functioning and investigative
powers. ❖ While the NCBC has the power to make
recommendations, its recommendations are not binding on
the government. The final decision on including or
excluding communities from the list of backward classes
rests with the government. ❖ This limits the effectiveness
and impact of the NCBC’s recommendations, as they may
not always be implemented promptly or fully. Criticism of
the Commission ❖ The NCBC has faced criticism for its
decision-making processes, lack of transparency, and
delays in addressing requests. At times, its
recommendations have been challenged and disputed,
raising questions about the credibility and effectiveness of
the commission. ❖ The perception of bias or political
influence on its functioning can undermine its authority and
trust. Questions asked ❖ How far is the National
Commission for Backward Classes an empowered body?
Assess its role in the context of rising demand for
backwardness among dominant communities.
================================================
===================
Caste, Religion, and Ethnicity in Indian Politics Meaning of
Identity Politics ❖ Identity politics refers to a situation
wherein people are mobilised on the basis of one's identity
that is religion, race, caste, language etc. ❖ Identity Politics
is a modern day phenomenon because emphasis on identity
based on the central organising principle of ethnicity,
religion, language, gender, caste are a sort of “compelling
remedy for anonymity” in an otherwise impersonal modern
world. It is thus said to be “pattern of belonging, a search
for comfort, an approach to community.” Identity Politics in
India ❖ In India, we find that despite adoption of a liberal
democratic polity, communities and collective identities
have remained powerful and continue to claim recognition.
State itself is seen as an active contributor to identity
politics through the creation and maintenance of state
structures which define and then recognize people in terms
of certain identities. ❖ Andre Beteille has shown that Indian
polity has consistently tried to negotiate the allegiance to a
liberal spirit and the concerns and consciousness of
community. ❖ According to Bhiku Parekh this process of
identity politics has recognized a wide array of autonomous
and largely self-governing communities. ❖ James Manor in
his book “ethnic politics in India” suggests that there can
be four ways to describe politics of identity in India. ➢
Religion ➢ Language ➢ Race ➢ Caste 3 The Role of Caste in
Indian Politics ❖ Caste is a system of social stratification.
It is based on the notions of purity and pollution, hierarchy
and difference. Myron Weiner says that caste is one of the
most important features of Indian politics. ❖ Pratap Bhanu
Mehta writes in his book, The Burden of Democracy, “when
universal adult suffrage offered all social groups the right
to vote, caste emerged as one of the most significant issues
for political mobilisation” because caste was an axis of
domination and subordination in Indian society. ❖
However, caste politics in the last four-five decades have
been marked by desire for power rather than a substantial
agenda for social reform. This has been beautifully summed
up by Dipankar Gupta when he elaborates the differences
between Ambedkar and Mandal Commission’s view of caste.
While Ambedkar designed the policy of reservations or
protective discrimination to remove untouchability as an
institution from Indian social life and polity, the Mandal
Commission considered caste as an important political
resource. Mandal Commission transformed caste-based
identity to an asset that may be used as a basis for securing
politico-economic gains. ❖ Ashutosh Varshney wrote that,
in India the lower castes vote more than the upper castes,
and the poor vote as much or more often than the rich.
Similarly, the illiterate cast ballots more often than the
educated and rural voters more than urban populations. ❖
According to M.N. Srinivas, caste is present at the level of
subconscious in India and this makes it clear that caste is
going to be present in some form or other in Indian politics.
Relation between caste system and political parties ❖ The
caste influences political activity from Panchayat right up
to the Parliament. 4 ❖ In the opinion of Ghurgy,
unfortunately, in this country elections are fought and won
on the basis of caste. Candidates contesting elections seek
support from their castes. These leaders, when elected,
maintain casteism even after election by showing special
treatment to their caste members. ❖ Political Parties in
India sponsor candidates having social base, which is
nothing but the numerical strength of a caste of candidate
in the constituency. We have the upper caste dominated
BJP, the lower caste dominated BSP or the SP. Left parties
have tacitly followed the caste pattern to extract mileage in
electoral politics. Impact of Caste System on Indian Politics
❖ Rajani Kothari on Caste in Indian Politics studied how far
caste is influencing rural policy. He finds that caste is
becoming more and more strengthened because these
castes are forming caste associations. ❖ In Karnataka state
politics, there is rivalry between Vokkaligas and Lingayats,
the two leading castes. In Andhra Pradesh the chief
contesting castes are Teddies and Kamas. ❖ Muslim and
Harijan vote banks have been the stronghold of the
Congress; such vote banks as AJGAR (Ahirs, Jats, Gujjars,
Rajputs) later becoming MAJGAR, with the addition of
Muslims in U.P. and Bihar and KHAM (Kshatriyas, Harijans,
Adivasis, Muslims) in Gujarat. ❖ Although the politics in
India cannot be explained entirely in terms of caste, caste
is an important element in the politics. While the caste
system is breaking down in social and cultural fields;
conflicts between castes are intensified by party politics. ❖
According to D.N. Seth, caste is present in Indian politics in
following forms:- ➢ Caste based political parties and
pressure groups. ➢ Caste based political ideologies. 5 ➢
Caste based idioms of Indian politics like modernisation of
politics or casteisation of politics. ❖ Above roles of caste in
politics is termed as casteicization of politics by Rajani
Kothari or traditionalisation of modernity by Rudolf &
Rudolf. ❖ Rajani Kothari, Christophe Jaffrelot, Yogendra
Yadav, Satish Deshpande are of the view that caste has
strengthened the Indian democracy. On the other hand,
Andre Beteille, Ashutosh Varshney, C.P. Bhambri is against
the role of caste as it weakens Indian democracy. They
consider it as a threat from a long term perspective. ❖
Scholars Rajani Kothari and M.N. Srinivas has provided the
functional and dysfunctional aspect of caste on Indian
politics in their writings respectively.

❖
There is a link between casteism and communalism. It is
said that against the castebased politics of Congress, BJP
has played the card of religion. The replacement of the
Congress domination from the Union by the domination of
BJP is treated as a perfect example. What Congress had
done was minority appeasement which resulted into
separatism and now what the BJP is doing is majority
appeasement due to which we are seeing the trends of
emerging fascism. 6 Conclusion ❖ Caste has grown to be a
significant factor in Indian society and politics. The
emergence of organised political movements and increased
awareness of caste affiliations among historically
marginalised groups have reshaped Indian politics. This
transformation has brought about changing alliances
between caste and class. The overall outcome of these
mobilizations based on caste identities has empowered new
groups and heightened the intensity of political conflicts,
potentially contributing to a governance crisis.

Caste, Religion and Ethnicity in Indian Politics (Part - 2)

Religion and Politics
❖ Sumit Ganguly writes, “Religion is part and parcel of
Indian politics.” ❖ Religion and politics stand in a
paradoxical relationship with each other. In modern
democracy, secularism comes to mean the separation of
politics from religion. In a country like India, religion is
deep-rooted in the veins of our social fabric. ❖ Like caste,
religion works both ways: positively, it provides a basis of
mobilisation for people of the same faith and negatively, it
constitutes a source of cleavage. Religious Politics by nature
is politics of exclusion as it is always for its followers. ❖ The
concept of religious politics has assumed a heightened
significance in contemporary times. ❖ Religious Politics is a
situation where religion itself becomes the basis of political
articulation and of defining the purpose of politics. Here
religion itself becomes a kind of politics, for example,
reinterpretation of religious tradition for defining
nationalism or for drawing a political programme of action.
❖ After the end of the cold war, the world has witnessed the
rise of religious fundamentalism. Academic world has
produced theories like clash of civilization to determine the
role of religion in coming times. Religion in Indian Politics
❖ In Indian context, communalisation of politics has been
a byproduct of politicisation of religion. ❖ The process
began in 1909 when the British granted communal
representation to the Muslims in Indian Councils. From the
mid-1980s, Hindutva as an ideology has become a
dominant force in the society and politics and since 2014 in
the government too. ❖ The communal riots on the eve of
India’s partition, in the wake of pre and post Indira
Gandhi’s assassination, the Gujarat riots, or the terrorist
attacks engineered from across the border are all examples
of the communalisation of politics. ❖ In India, Hinduism,
Islam, Sikhism, Christianity, Zoroastrianism are some of the
major religions practised by the people. Numerically the
Hindus are considered to be the 3 majority which inspires
many Hindu loyalist groups like the RSS or the Shiv Sena
and political parties like the BJP or the Hindu Mahasabha
to claim that India is a Hindu state. ❖ The rise of
majoritarian assertiveness is considered to have become
institutionalised after the BJP, that along with its ‘Hindu’
constituents gave political cohesiveness to consolidate
Hindu consciousness. ❖ According to Neera Chandokhe, the
Indian model of secularism itself allowed space for
legitimization of communalism. BJP has been successful in
establishing the Congress model as pseudo secular and its
own communal model as genuinely secular. Views of Gandhi
and Savarkar on Religious Politics ❖ Gandhi and Savarkar
both believe that religion should inform politics. But their
versions of what it means to be a Hindu were so different
that it gave rise to two very different conceptions of politics.
❖ Gandhi was of the view that spiritual values should
influence politics or otherwise politics will become
impoverished. He took an inclusive view of both religion
and politics. Politics for him was a coalition of
emancipatory faiths. ❖ In contrast to this, Savarkar
thought that instead of spiritual values it should be the race
and ancestry, history and tradition, and the sacredness of
land of Hindus (Punya Bhoomi) which should be the basis of
the Hindu view of politics. He also emphasised that only
those whose religion has its origin in India can subscribe to
this view of politics. Others like Muslims or Christians
cannot commit their allegiance to India because these
people cannot treat India as their Punya Bhoomi Phases of
communal politics in India 4 Conclusion: ❖ Rajani Kothari
on Caste in Indian Politics studied how far caste is
influencing rural policy. He finds that caste is becoming
more and more strengthened because these castes are
forming caste associations. ❖ In Karnataka state politics,
there is rivalry between Vokkaligas and Lingayats, the two
leading castes. In Andhra Pradesh the chief contesting
castes are Teddies and Kamas. ❖ Muslim and Harijan vote
banks have been the stronghold of the Congress; such vote
banks as AJGAR (Ahirs, Jats, Gujjars, Rajputs) later
becoming MAJGAR, with the addition of Muslims in U.P. and
Bihar and KHAM (Kshatriyas, Harijans, Adivasis, Muslims) in
Gujarat. ❖ Although the politics in India cannot be
explained entirely in terms of caste, caste is an important
element in the politics. While the caste system is breaking
down in social and cultural fields; conflicts between castes
are intensified by party politics. ❖ According to D.N. Seth,
caste is present in Indian politics in following forms:- ❖
Caste based political parties and pressure groups. ❖ Caste
based political ideologies. ❖ Caste based idioms of Indian
politics like modernisation of politics or casteisation of
politics. Communalism Meaning of Religious Politics ❖ It is
a situation in which religion becomes the basis of
mobilisation or the basis for defining the purpose of
politics. Religious politics by its nature is a politics of
exclusion. It is always for its followers. It is also known as
the politics of community. For ExamplePolitics of Hindutva,
politics of Islam, politics of Sikhism, etc. Meaning of
Communalism ❖ It is a traditional type of politics. The
politics of the community is treated as a threat to the
politics of nationalism. The politics of nationalism is
integrative politics. Hence in heterogeneous society, politics
of secularism is desirable. Secularism can take a different
form that is either negation of religion from politics or
equal treatment of all religion. 5 ❖ Communalism can be
defined as an allegiance to one’s own community which
may be linguistic, racial, etc. This allegiance to one’s own
community is shown even at the cost of national interest. ❖
When one community feels that their secular interest i.e.
social, economic and political interest are different from
other community, then it gives rise to mild form of
communism, which is not a bad thing for larger society but
when secular interest of one community is not only different
but also antagonistic to the interest of other community
then it gives rise to virulent form of communalism. Such a
form of communalism has the potential to tear apart the
social fabric of India. Communalism in its extreme form
results into hatred towards other groups leading to violent
attacks on other communities. Factors giving rise to
Communalism ❖ Historical Factors: ➢ British policy of
Divide and Rule under which various communities were
divided in India first on the lines of religion then on the
lines of caste. ➢ Grievances of religious communities with
each other. ❖ Socio-cultural Factors: ➢ Conflicting religious
ideology. ➢ Intolerance and hostility against other
communities. ➢ Dogmatic religious beliefs. ❖ Political
Factors: ➢ Basis of mobilisation is political, communal. ➢
Political parties should not be mobilising people in the
name of caste, religion, language, ethnicity, etc. ➢ Speeches
given by Political leaders. ❖ Educational/Economic Factors:
➢ Uneducated and backward sections of society have
always been prone to provocation by religious leaders. ➢
Level of illiteracy is very high in India. 6 ➢ Lack of
opportunities and educational advancement of various
communities. ❖ Grievance Issues: ➢ Conflict resolution
mechanism is ineffective. ➢ Ill-Equipped and ill-trained
police personnel. ➢ Intelligence gathering system in India
is not accurate. ❖ Administrative Factors: ➢ Administration
fails to anticipate and fails to read indicators which can
lead to communal riots. ➢ Administration and police are
slow to react. ❖ Psychological Factors: ➢ There is a lack of
trust and understanding among various communities which
leads to fear, feeling of danger, hatred towards each other,
etc NOTE: ❖ Media also does not behave responsibly in fact
it puts sensationalism over public interest. Its irresponsible
behaviour also results into forming communal riots. Role of
social media in recent times has further created challenges
because of circulation of fake news, propaganda leading to
communal hatred. ❖ India has also been facing hybrid
warfare by its adversaries. India’s adversaries are using
social fault lines existing among communities in India to
fan communal hatred. Consequences of Communalism ❖
Violence against other communities or rumour of violence
leading to exodus of people. Example- The spread of
rumour against the people of North East states that
communal riots or violence against them has happened in
Bengaluru in 2012 leading to their exodus. ❖ A sense of
distrust develops among members of various communities
which threatens social fabric. ❖ Attitude of investors
against the country would become negative. ❖ Eruption of
communal violence results into undermining of democratic
values and democratic credentials. 7 ❖ Perception of the
international community towards the country becomes
negative. ❖ It also affects the Indian State’s ability to
ensure justice, liberty and equality. What can be done to
stop the spread of communalism? 1. Political parties should
stop playing majority/minority politics. 2. Even SC in its
directives stated that political communalism should be
avoided. 3. Planning and profiling of the communal riot
prone areas. 4. Children should be taught the values of
maintaining communal harmony. 5. There should be a quick
response from the state against organisations accused of
radicalisation of youth. 6. There should be an overhaul of
the criminal justice system as it was recommended by the
Menon-Malimath Committee. 7. Political Parties should
refrain from using communal relevance like religion and
caste for vote bank politics. 8. Implementation of UCC 9.
Religious leaders should be involved to promote communal
harmony. ❖ Note: Communalism can also be defined as the
antagonism practised by the members of one community
against the people of other communities and religions. Post
Riots Measures ❖ Planning and Profiling of the region, a
meeting of the state-level integration committee headed by
the Chief Minister should be held on a regular basis. ❖ At
State level nodal cells should be set up to study the pattern
of communal disturbance and then prepare appropriate
preventive plans. ❖ Preparation: ➢ At State and District
Level there should be a crisis management plan to identify
special roles and the responsibilities for different agencies
when any crisis like situation arises. ➢ District
administration should prepare a detailed contingency plan
to deal with the situation. ➢ Police stations and posts
should be set up in all trouble prone areas. 8 ➢ Police and
intelligence agencies should be well aware of the person
who has a record of communal riots directly or indirectly. ❖
Personnel Policy: ➢ Training Police forces with a view to
inculcating in them the attitude of communal harmony and
secularism. ➢ In communally sensitive areas, police and
administrative officials of proven integrity, impartiality,
and non-partition outlook should be promoted. ➢
Composition of police forces deployed in communal
sensitive areas be representative of the social structure of
the region so as to ensure credibility of the police force. ❖
Police Reforms: ➢ Reform should be taken as per guidelines
of SC. ➢ Police need to be equipped with modern
technology of crowd dispersion. ❖ Citizens Peace
Committee: ➢ It has been found useful in many areas
reducing communal tension. ➢ In communally sensitive
areas, a citizen peace committee composed of prominent
citizens, community leaders, representatives of political
parties, etc. should be set up. Periodic contact with them
should be maintained by concerned officers at different
levels. ➢ These committees should be institutionalised as an
important forum for conflict resolution between groups and
communities. ❖ Management of Religious Affairs: ➢ There
should be a code of conduct for management of various
religious festivals in consultation with leaders of various
communities. ➢ There should be a mohalla committee
composed of all communities. It should be constituted for
proper and peaceful observation of festivals. ➢ There
should be security arrangements along the route of
religious procession to prevent any untoward incident. ➢
Use of provocative slogans should be banned. ➢ There
should be a ban on lethal weapons. 9 Conclusion: Every
form of communalism is bad. Minority communalism results
into separatism and majority communalism results in
fascism. It is the most serious challenge faced by Indian
security today. It challenges the identity of India as a
secular nation as well as the capacity of the Indian state to
secure justice, equality, liberty, etc. However, it cannot be
said that communalism is the dominant mode of thinking in
the Indian context. Indian people are secular and even in
those areas which have witnessed communal riots there is
no permanent divide between the communities. In no part
of India we see a situation where an aggressive majority is
standing up against a weak minority.

Caste, Religion, and Ethnicity in Indian Politics (Part-3)

National Integration Meaning of Nation
❖ Concept of Nation emerged in the West. In the West, we
see the beginning of Nation State. These are the units of
international society. Nation States were formed on the
basis of the principle of National Self-determination. ❖ The
term nation has cultural, political, ideological, racial and
psychological dimensions. The concept of nation is nearest
to the concept of race. Race develops in a specific
geography. Every geography results into a specific way of
life. This way of life becomes a culture which is expressed
through language. Thus, nations, culture, and language get
mixed up. ❖ Pure forms of nation are cultural nations and
large countries like India having immense diversity and
heterogeneous population are political nations. In this
context, the psychological aspect of nationalism becomes
important. The basis of nationalism is a psychological
feeling of oneness. This feeling may emerge because of a
common past and belief in a common future. It emerges
when the community visualises common threats and
understands the concept (benefits) of cooperation. National
Integration in Post-Independence Phase: ❖ Project of
Nation building and national integration was taken up by
the national leadership because nation building was
important for bringing economic development as well as
modernisation of Indian society because India had
witnessed a painful partition and communal riots. ❖ After
independence, the Indian Constitution adopted various
provisions for the feeling of National integration. Indian
leaders provided the basis for the project of nationalism.
Gandhi visualised future India in which all communities
shall live in perfect harmony. 3 Nehru openly declared that
no attempt will be tolerated which threatens the territorial
integrity of India. Any attempt at balkanisation of the
country will be met with all forces at our command. ❖
Sardar Patel successfully accomplished the integration of
various princely states and North Eastern states into one
territorial unit. The Indian Constitution promotes National
Integration through its various provisions. The Constitution
was designed to meet the challenges of National integration
coming from areas like communalism, casteism, etc. ❖ After
Independence, India started centralised planning to
integrate the entire country into one economic unit.
Planning aimed at best possible utilisation of national
resources to eradicate regional imbalances. Other Measures
adopted by Government ❖ Linguistic reorganisation of
states to establish cultural homogeneity within a state. ❖
Formation of National Integration Council. ❖ Mechanism
like Zonal Councils. ❖ Programmes like NCC, National
Youth Festival, Awards, Research and promotion of games.
Various Constitution provisions were inserted keeping in
mind National Integration which includes: ➢ Strong Centre
➢ Emergency Provisions. Status of National Integration ❖
Despite Constitutional provisions and mechanisms like
strong centre, emergency provisions, Zonal councils, we see
that the project of Nation building in India comes under
crisis like situation. This crisis at times emerges in the form
of communal riots, caste based violence, interstate disputes,
regional movements, etc. 4 ❖ According to Paul Brass,
regionalism has been a long term tendency in the Indian
context. It is rooted in Indian history whereas
centralisation and Nationalism has always been a short
term trend. According to many scholars the feeling of
Nationalism in India only emerges during a crisis like
situation. Suggestions to ensure National Integration ❖
Politics of Majority/Minority should be stopped. ❖ Regional
imbalances still exist. It is necessary that the government
provides fair distribution of resources in the country. ❖
Political Parties should be involved in developmental
politics. India should improve its record of implementation
of existing laws which grants protection to vulnerable
sections of society.

Ethnicity in Indian Politics

Meaning of Ethnicity
❖ Traditionally ethnicity was defined in narrow terms of
race. Later on, ethnicity as a term came to include various
types of identities like culture, religion, region also.
Scholars like Paul Brass take the broader meaning of
ethnicity. He believes that communal mobilisation will also
come under ethnicity. ❖ Scholars like Dipankar Gupta does
not include communal mobilisation under the ambit of
ethnicity. At a broad level, ethnic movements. are seen as
subrational movements which challenge the project of
nationalism and national integrity. In this practical sense of
the term we can include various movements like caste,
regional or cultural movements as ethnic movements.
Significance of ethnic politics ❖ Ethnicity has always been a
major factor in politics. This Factor is not limited to 3rd
world societies. Even the western world has witnessed ethnic
movements. After the end of the Cold War, ethnic politics
has gained centre stage at global level. Significance for
India ❖ India has been one of the worst sufferers of ethnic
politics. India had to pay the price in the form of India's
partition. India's trouble did not stop with the creation of
Pakistan. The Indian State had to face numerous ethnic
challenges and some of them are still existing and new
movements are also emerging. The nature of Indian Society
❖ India represents composite culture. This is different from
the melting pot tradition of the USA or the tradition of a
multinational state as it was existing in erstwhile USSR. In
India, we see the existence of Unity in Diversity. Normally, 2
types of policies are Followed by nations to promote unity:-
3 ➢ the policy of assimilation, ➢ the policy of integration.
❖ India has adopted the second approach i.e., the policy of
integration. Thus, India allows the existence of various
religious and linguistic minorities. The Indian constitution
not only gives freedom to practise or propagate religion. It
also gives special rights to minorities to conserve their
culture. This philosophy of integration is theoretically linked
to the ideology of the Congress party. Against this strategy,
the rightist section of Indian society talks about adoption
of the policy of assimilation. It means all people living
within Hindustan can be called as Hindus and we should
make an attempt to develop a single identity of the nation.
Case study of India ❖ India is a political nation. India has
adopted the Concept of composite culture. India presents a
fairly good example of a democratically managed case of
ethnic diversity. There is no subordinate or dominant
relationship existing among various ethnic groups.
However, we do have an example of the emergence of ethnic
moments that have challenged the Sovereignty of the
Indian state. Potential for conflict and their protection in
India ❖ Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, talked about Indian
identity in terms of unity in diversity, was conscious of the
possibility of conflict between unity and diversity. He
himself said that it is true that strong bonds of culture,
objectives and affections exist in India but unfortunately
India also inherits separatist and disruptive tendencies. ❖
After independence, India engaged itself with the project of
motion building. In this project India has adopted different
mechanisms: ➢ Provisions in Indian Constitution 4 ✓ The
Indian Constitution has made provisions for protection of
minority rights. It also makes provision of affirmative
actions for Scheduled Caste, Scheduled Tribes as well as for
OBCs. This was an attempt made in the Constitution to
integrate different sections. of society. It was an attempt to
build on Indian identity based on the concept of pluralism.
It was an attempt to challenge Jinnah’s 2 Nation Theory as
well as to bring close those sections of society which were
on the margins. ➢ India has adopted Federalism
Federalism is a mechanism that gives sufficient autonomy
to different groups within the framework of one single
nation. Indian Constitution makes an elaborate provision
with respect to the distribution of Legislative powers
between centre and states. Besides the Constitutional
provisions, the Central government also created bodies like
the Inter State Council, Zonal Councils, to promote
cooperative federalism in the Indian context. Ethnicity and
Nation-State ❖ Ethnicity is considered as the mobilisation
of a group of people who share common attributes in terms
of culture, language, religion, history, etc., and who are
different from another group which also shares certain
common attributes. ❖ Mobilisation on the basis of language
and religion is known as communalism in Indian context
while language, caste or tribe is considered as ethnic
mobilisation. In the changing context of time and space,
communalism can turn into ethnicity and viceversa. Paul R.
Brass uses the term ethnic mobilisation and communal
mobilisation interchangeably. While Dipankar Gupta
differentiates between ethnicity and communalism. 5 ❖
Ethnicity denotes mobilisation of a group in relation to
another with reference to the nation-state – the territory
and the sovereignty. An ethnic group either proclaims itself
to be the real adherent of the faith in the territory of a
nation or wants to set up a sovereign state or questions the
loyalty of another group. ❖ A nation-state is a sovereign
geographical entity whose foundation is the shared
sentiments of a community based on the history, culture,
language, religion, etc. But some scholars do not consider
India as a nation state. They argue that the basis of the
foundation of a nation-state is a single nation or
nationality. Since there are a large number of nationalities
in India who speak different languages, share different
cultural attributes, histories, religions, therefore she is a
multinational state, not a nation-state. ❖ Homogenous
nations are cultural nations (natural) whereas multi-ethnic
nations are ‘political nations’. It means, they have to be
built politically, for example, the Indian constitution
provided for Federalism, Secularism, Welfare state to
convert India into a nation. ❖ To project that India is a
nation-state is virtually a denial of the existence of
pluralism and the diversity in the country. Perspectives to
study Ethnicity ❖ There exists three perspectives to study
ethnicity:- ➢ The Primordial Perspective ➢ The
Instrumentalist Perspective ➢ The Perspective which
combines the traits of both the above perspectives. ❖
According to the primordial approach, the ethnic differences
among the people are inherited by them. 6 ❖ The advocates
of instrumentalist approach believe that the ethnic
differences are not inherited; rather they are created by the
elites, who could be politicians, teachers, religious leaders,
etc. The latter manipulate the social cleavages for the
attainment of their goal. ❖ The third perspective believes
that both these perspectives – primordial and
instrumentalist, are unable to explain the issue of ethnicity.
Advocates of this approach argue that the primordial
approach does not explain how people sharing commonness
get activated into the ethnic groups. Similarly, the
instrumentalist approach does not explain why people
sharing common attributes respond to the call of the elite
who manipulate them into the ethnic groups. Manifestations
of Ethnicity ❖ Started with the revolt of Nagas in the
North-East, it spread to Tamil Nadu in the South, and
Punjab and Jammu and Kashmir in the North. Ethnic
challenges to nation-building continued in almost all parts
of the country on the lines of caste, religion, region,
language, tribes, etc. ❖ The ethnic challenge to the
nation-state building took the following shapes in India: ➢
Autonomy movements ➢ Demand for secession ➢
Insurgency ➢ Conflicts and riots on the basis of identity
markers like tribe, caste, language, religion, etc. ❖ First
three forms of ethnic manifestation are called
self-determination movements. From the 1950s onwards the
conflicts based on these have been common in many parts
of the country. 7 The Main Cases of Ethnicity in India ❖
Kashmir conflict: A long-standing dispute between India,
Pakistan, and China over the region of Jammu and Kashmir.
It involves multiple ethnic and religious groups, including
Kashmiri Muslims, Kashmiri Pandits and Buddhists in
Ladakh. ❖ Northeast Insurgency: Various insurgent groups
in the north-eastern states have been seeking autonomy or
independence. States like Assam, Manipur, Nagaland,
Mizoram, and Tripura have witnessed prolonged conflicts
involving different ethnic groups. There are mainly two
perspectives which analyse the issue of ethnicity in the
context of the N-E India:- ➢ NationState building
perspective and Federation-building perspective. ➢
Proponents of the former perspective are S K Chaube, V B
Singh, B G Verghese, Myron Weiner. And the proponents of
the latter perspective are Sanjib Baruah, Udyan Sharma,
Sanjay Hazarika. Urmila Phadnis is of the opinion that the
main leadership in entire South Asia followed the notion of
nationhood as per the considerations of the dominant
groups and ignored the minority constituents of the society.
Sanjib Baruah suggests that the mainstream leadership of
the country should replace their nation-building approach
in favour of federation-building in order to retrieve the
situation. ❖ Punjab conflict: Also known as the Khalistan
movement, it was a violent separatist movement in the state
of Punjab, primarily involving the Sikh community in the
1980s and early 1990s. ❖ Naga-Kuki Conflict: In Manipur,
there have been historical conflicts between the Naga and
Kuki communities over land and political representation. ❖
Manipur violence: Manipur experiences repeated
inter-ethnic clashes between the Meitei and Kuki, two local
communities. The recent violence in Manipur was sparked 8
by the Manipur High Court's suggestion to consider
granting Scheduled Tribe status to the Meitei community,
which is the majority population in the state. Conclusion ❖
The intricate interplay of ethnicity in Indian politics
underscores the rich diversity of the nation. While it can be
a source of unity, it also poses challenges. ❖ Striking a
balance between acknowledging ethnic identities and
fostering a cohesive national identity remains an ongoing
endeavour. The future of Indian politics depends on
embracing diversity as a strength, ensuring equitable
representation, and working towards a more inclusive and
harmonious society. Concluding Remarks ❖ Summarising
the topic, “Caste, Religion and Ethnicity in Indian Politics”
we can say that the intricate web of caste, religion, and
ethnicity in Indian politics has had a profound impact on
the nation's social and political landscape. While these
factors can be divisive, they also reflect the country's
vibrant diversity. The future of Indian politics lies in
harnessing this diversity for inclusive development,
ensuring equal representation, and fostering a society
where individual identities are respected while national
unity is preserved. Balancing these elements is the key to a
more harmonious and equitable political landscape in
India.
Ethnicity in Indian Politics, Planning and Economic
Perspective, Nehruvian and Gandhian Perspective
Insurgency in North-East
❖ Insurgency in North East states is primarily because of
isolation of North-East from the rest of India. As partition
of India resulted into isolation of the North East
(Geographical isolation). North East states are connected
through rest of India only through chicken-neck corridor or
Siliguri corridor. ❖ There has been governance failure
which resulted into the lack of development of the region.
This entire region is heavily dependent on the Central
Government because spending from the Central Government
is the only driver of the North East State’s economy. ❖
Moreover, the policy pursued by the Government of India
after India's independence also brought challenges.
Government of India followed policy of isolation
deliberately so that pristine beauty and distinct culture of
North East states can be protected which resulted in the
lack of industrialisation leading to high rate unemployment.
❖ Difficult terrain of North East states and India’s open
border with Myanmar which is full of lush green tropical
forests further makes development of North East states
difficult and provides a favourable environment for
insurgency. ❖ There are many reasons for insurgency in
North East States which are following: ➢ Geographical
isolation: North East states are connected with the rest of
India only through the Siliguri corridor or chicken neck
corridor. ➢ Cultural Isolation: Deliberate policy of
government of India to culturally isolate North East States
with rest of India to protect their distinct culture. ➢ Role of
Pakistan and China: For a very long time Pakistan and
China supported insurgent groups in North East States. ➢
Presence of Dense Forests: It provides ideal hideouts to
insurgent groups. 3 ➢ Lack of Emotional integration: When
the Indian National Movement was colouring consciousness
of the rest of India; North East states remained relatively
cut-off because of the excluded status enjoyed by North
East states during the British Period. ➢ Rivalry among
Tribals: There are frequent clashes between various tribal
groups in North-East groups. Examples- Clash between
Nagas and Meiteis of Manipur. ➢ Lack of Development:
There is a lack of region specific industries in North East
states. E.g.: Horticulture and Organic Farming can be
promoted. ➢ Illegal Migration: From Bangladesh into North
East states further causes conflict. Steps taken by India so
far ❖ India has been taking active steps to improve
connectivity of N-E- States. Those connectivity projects are-
➢ Trilateral highway from Moreh in Manipur to Myanmar to
Thailand- India plans to extend this highway to Cambodia
in future. ➢ Kaladan Project- This will connect Kolkata port
to Sithur. From Sithur via Kaladan goods will be transported
to Mizoram ➢ Kolkate to Chittagong port- and then via rail
road network goods will be transported to states like
Tripura. ❖ These connectivity projects will usher an era of
economic growth and prosperity in North East States and
thereby significantly removing causes of alienation among
people These connectivity proposals will also help in ending
geographical isolation of North East states to a great
extent. ❖ India has allowed Japanese investment in the
North East for infrastructure development. ❖ India has
taken a number of steps to economically integrate North
East States with South-East Asia. 4 ❖ India's Act East
Policy: This policy envisages establishing extensive ties with
countries of South East Asia. India has taken a proactive
approach in recent times to economically integrate North
East States with South- East Asia. ❖ A number of steps have
been taken to improve region specific industries in North
EastHorticulture and organic farming. ❖ The Government of
India has taken active steps to engage with various
insurgent groups of North East States So that those groups
can be brought into main Stream E.g. NSCN (Isak- Muivah),
Khaplang. Way Forward ❖ Greater engagement with
Myanmar & Bangladesh to curb insurgency in the North
East So that insurgent groups will not be able to use
territories of these two countries. ❖ Promotion of Region
specific industries. ❖ Promoting tourism. ❖ To ensure
emotional integration of the region with the rest of India-
because various experts have - pointed out that the major
reason of insurgency in the North East has been lack of
development which has alienated people. Traditionally the
region has not received adequate attention from the
National Government and also mainstream media. That is
why there is a need to break more focus on North East
States. Naga Insurgency ❖ Routes of Naga insurgency- can
be traced to pre-independence phase when Nagas made a
representation between Simon Commission and stated that
when British could leave India and grant independence to
India then also grant independence to Nagaland. ❖ Naga
National Council was formed in 1946 to look at issues
pertaining to the Naga tribe. Its aim was the upliftment of
Nagas. It declared independence of Nagaland on 14th.
August, 1947. 5 ❖ In 1955 armed rebellion began in
Nagaland leading to declaration of disturbed areas under
Disturbed Areas Act. Finally the Armed Forces Special
Powers Act came into force in 1958 in Naga inhabited areas.
Then Nagaland was born in 1963 and finally a ceasefire was
signed in 1964. ❖ In 1975 a Shilling accord was signed
between Naga leadership and Government of India which
was rejected by Naga Leadership. ❖ Later on, Naga
leadership was divided into two groups NSCN
(Isak-Muivah) and Khaplang. ❖ In the 1990s on the
initiative of civil society, a ceasefire was signed between
Isak Muivah and the Government of India. Later on, this
ceasefire was joined by the Khaplang group as well. ❖ In
2015 Naga Peace Accord was signed between the
Government of India and Isak Muivah but this Peace
Accord was rejected by Khaplang stating that they are not
ready for anything less than greater Nagalim consisting of
the areas of Myanmar, Assam, Manipur and Arunachal
Pradesh and Nagaland. ❖ This peace accord had following
terms - ➢ It was recognised by the Government of India
that Nagas have unique history, culture as well as
aspirations. ➢ It was declared that the Army of Isak
Muivah will be absorbed under State Police and a separate
unit on the lines of home guard will be created under state
police. ➢ The Government of India would grant autonomy
to Nagaland under Article 371 (A). ➢ Greater autonomy will
be given to Naga inhabiting areas of Manipur. Recent Peace
Talks ❖ In September 2019, NSCN (Isak Muivah) raised the
issue of twin demands of Naga people which includes. 6 ➢ A
separate constitution for Nagaland. ➢ Separate flag for
Nagaland which was rejected by Government of India. ❖
Government stated that it will not be possible for them to
accept these two demands because NSCN (Isac Muivah)
stated that these demands are Naga’s covenant (contract)
with God and no compromise of these two demands will be
possible. So far no decisions have been taken and a
stalemate continues between the Government of India and
Isak Muivah. Way Forward: ❖ Need to engage NCSN (Isak
Muivah) along with NSCN (Khaplang) to make the peace
process more exclusive and acceptable to all parties. ❖
There is a need to grant greater devolution of power to the
Naga tribe. ❖ Greater autonomy should be granted to areas
inhabited by Nagas in other states.

Planning and Economic Perspective:

Nehruvian and Gandhian Perspective
An Introduction to Gandhi
❖ Gandhi was not an economist in conventional sense, nor
has he given any systematic views on the model of
development to be adopted by India. ❖ We get the
blueprint of Gandhian idea of development in his book Hind
Swaraj. ❖ The fundamental idea governing Gandhian
approach to development was the principle of non-violence
and Swaraj. Gandhian Approach to Development ❖
Gandhian approach to development emerged from his
various writings and speeches, as such he does not
propound any systematic theory of development. ❖ The
three pillars of the Gandhian approach are:- ➢ Economic
Growth ➢ Redistributive Justice ➢ Moral Regeneration ❖
Gandhi views development in terms of empowerment. The
ultimate goal of any development strategy is attainment of
the situation of Swaraj. Essence of Gandhian Approach ❖
Gandhi has talked about the 7 sins and this can be summed
up as the essence of his approach. He said, “wealth without
work, pleasure without conscience, without character,
commerce without morality, science without humanity,
worship without sacrifice and politics without ethics has no
relevance.” Features of Gandhian Plan ❖ S.N. Agarwal in
1944 proposed the Gandhian plan. The key ideas of this
plan are:- 3 ➢ Agricultural Reforms– This will address the
issues of hunger and unemployment. Government should
focus on land reforms, cooperatives and rural credit. This
will help in bringing sufficiency in food stuff. ➢ Revival of
cottage industries– It can help in the vision of achieving
self-sufficient and self-serving village communities. ➢
Integration of production and employment & agriculture
and industry. ❖ From the above, we can clearly see that the
villages are at the centre of the Gandhian approach of
planning and development. Gandhian approach was to
make Indian villages self-sufficient entities. He was for the
revival of the village republic as he believed that ‘India
lives in villages’. Without revival of villages, the goal of
Swaraj would be incomplete. Gandhian Approach towards
industries ❖ There is a myth that Gandhi was against
machines and industrialization. Gandhi was not against
machines, he was only against imitating the western model
in the Indian situation. ❖ His primary concerns were that
basic industries should not hamper the growth of cottage
industries and human labour should not be replaced by
machines in a labour surplus country like India.
Contemporary Significance ❖ Years later on when APJ
Abdul Kalam was the President of the Indian Republic, he
gave the PURA Model which scholars also termed as a
Neo-Gandhian Approach. PURA means Providing Urban
Amenities in Rural Areas. It is neo-Gandhian in the sense
that it aims to bring rural regeneration through modern
technology. ❖ PURA is to act as a strategy of economic
upliftment and reduction of poverty in villages. It aims to
bridge the gap between Indian and Bharat. 4 ❖
Schumacher in his book Small Is Beautiful has suggested
the concept of sustainable development based on Gandhian
principles. An introduction to Nehru ❖ Nehru was a
modernist. He was impressed by the achievements of the
USSR. He was a Fabian Socialist and he wanted Indian
society to be based on socialist patterns. INC adopted this
goal in its Avadi session in 1955. The guiding principles of
Nehruvian Model are:- ➢ Economic Growth ➢ Social Justice
➢ Individual Freedom What does it mean to be a socialistic
pattern of society? ❖ It means that principal means of
production shall be socially owned. It advocates for
providing a sufficient space to the private sector. ❖ Nehru
acclaimed that our constitution does not adhere to any
particular ‘ism’ but sought to effect compromise between
individualism and socialism by eliminating the vices of
unbridled private enterprise and interest by social control
and welfare measures as far as possible. 5 ❖ This is why ‘a
socialistic pattern of society' not socialism was declared to
be the objective of our planning by Pt. Nehru. Nehru –
Mahalanobis Model ❖ The 2nd Five Year Plan of India
reflected the ideology of Nehruvian planning and
development. Salient features of this model are as the
follows:- ➢ The strategy emphasised the rapid development
of heavy industry so as to build an industrial base of the
economy. The objective was to make the economy
self-reliant in terms of the capital-goods sector. ➢ Since the
private sector was not likely to undertake investments in
the heavy industry sector which had a long gestation
period, but had low profitability, the government decided to
give this responsibility to the public sector. The government
conceived of the public sector as the engine of growth of
heavy industries and infrastructural facilities. The role of
the private sector was complementary to the public sector
in expanding the production of consumer goods and such
other areas in which public sector investment was directed.
➢ This model emphasised on export promotion and import
substitution. ➢ This model also talked of progressive
taxation. Achievements of the Nehruvian Model ❖ Vast
Expansion of the capital goods through heavy industry
model. ❖ There was a vast expansion in economic
infrastructure in the form of irrigation, energy, transport
and communications. ❖ There was an expansion of the
social infrastructure in the form of health and education
facilities- schools, colleges, universities, primary health
centres, dispensaries, and hospitals. ❖ Rise in savings and
investment rate. 6 Shortcomings of the Nehruvian Model ❖
High incidence of poverty. ❖ Unemployment and
underemployment. ❖ Development of an inefficient public
sector. ❖ Development of licence permit raj in the country.
❖ Failure to attract foreign capital. Concluding Remarks ❖
Critics of the Nehruvian model argue that the government
has adopted a strategy which has created a gap between
rural and urban India. It has converted rural citizens into
2nd class citizens. Indian villages entered into a
relationship of dependency and unequal exchange. ❖ Thus,
there occurred an attempt to incorporate the Gandhian
model during a short period of Janata Party rule in the 6th
Five Year Plan.

Green Revolution, Liberalisation, and Economic Reforms

Green Revolution
The introduction of high yielding varieties of Indian seeds
after 1965 and the increased use of fertilisers and irrigation
are collectively known as the Green Revolution. The
program was started with the help of the US based
Rockefeller Foundation and was based on HYV of wheat,
rice and other grains that had been developed in Mexico
and Philippines. The purpose of the Green Revolution was
to make India self-sufficient in food grain production.
Outcomes of the Green Revolution The major benefits of the
Green Revolution in India were mainly experienced in the
north and North-Western parts of India. The program
resulted in a substantial increase in the production of food
grains, mainly wheat and rice. According to VKRV Rao, the
Green Revolution has increased the gap between rich and
poor. It has increased rural indebtedness because small and
marginal farmers had to borrow to purchase implements
and seeds. GS Grewal claims that the green revolution has
resulted into migrant labour. Rudolph & Rudolph talked
about the political effect of the green revolution as it gave
rise to bullock-cart capitalists which strengthened the role
of caste in Indian politics. Ecological Impacts of the Green
Revolution Intensive use of fertilisers, HYV seeds,
irrigation, etc. created several disastrous impacts on the
ecology. Some of these are as mentioned:- Soil– Due to the
use of commercial agricultural practices, natural fertility of
the soil decreases. The Green Revolution also contributed to
the salinization of soil. Both salinization and waterlogging
happen when agricultural land is overwatered. Water–
Excessive water use required by HYVs called for increased
irrigation but in many areas this has led to water being
overused. Tube wells used to irrigate HYV crops have led to
draw down problems on the water table. 3 Genetic
Diversity– Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United
Nations has cautioned huge loss of plant genetic diversity
and the destruction of biodiversity. “The spread of modern
commercial agriculture and the introduction of new
varieties of crops are the main causes of the loss of genetic
diversity.” Political Fallout of Green Revolution The green
revolution heralded a new era for agriculture in India, but
it also changed the country’s politics. In a recent paper in
the American Political Science Review, the University of
California says the green revolution was influential in the
rise of agrarian opposition parties in the 1970s and
simultaneously accompanying the decline of the Congress.
The Green revolution has significantly reduced the
Congress’s share of votes and seats in assemblies. There
were three channels through which the green revolution
generated these changes. First, it provided wealth to
farmers, especially lower and intermediate caste farmers,
who until then had been excluded and unrepresented in
politics. Second, it intensified farmers’ dependence on the
government for inputs and subsidies which were needed for
growing HYV crops. This created a strong incentive for
farmers to seek political representation. Finally, increased
production from the green revolution depressed crop prices,
providing a rallying point for farmers and enabled
collective action. All these forces combined led to the
emergence of multi-party competition in Indian politics.
Green Revolution 2.0 Green Revolution 2.0 typically refers
to a modern-day effort to enhance agricultural productivity
and sustainability, building upon the original Green
Revolution that took place in the mid-20th century. Green
Revolution 2.0 aims to address current global challenges,
such as increasing food production to feed a growing
population while minimising environmental impacts. This
involves adopting advanced agricultural technologies,
promoting sustainable farming practices, and ensuring food
security. It is a broad and ongoing initiative with a focus on
innovation and ecological responsibility in agriculture. 4
Challenges such as growing population and increased food
demand, land degradation, water scarcity, and climate
change have posed threats to traditional farming practices,
which necessitated the urgency of the 2nd revolution in this
area. Objectives of the Green Revolution 2.0 Sustainability:
Green Revolution 2.0 aims to achieve sustainability by
reducing the environmental impact of agriculture,
conserving natural resources, and promoting organic and
agroecological approaches. Diversification: Diversification
of crops beyond staple grains to promote a balanced diet
and reduce dependence on a few crops. Initiatives in this
regard Soil Health Management: Promoting better soil
health practices to improve soil fertility and reduce the
need for chemical fertilisers. Water Management:
Implementing efficient irrigation systems and water
conservation techniques to address water scarcity issues.
Precision Agriculture: Using technology like GIS, GPS, and
remote sensing for precision farming, which optimises
resource use. Crop Diversification: Encouraging farmers to
grow a wider range of crops, including fruits, vegetables,
and pulses. Organic Farming: Promoting organic farming
practices to reduce the use of synthetic chemicals and
pesticides. The Indian government has launched various
schemes and programs such as Pradhan Mantri Krishi
Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) for irrigation, Rashtriya Krishi
Vikas Yojana (RKVY) for agricultural development, and
Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana for organic farming.
Questions asked What has been the political fallout of the
Green Revolution in India? Explain. (2019) What do you
understand by Green Revolution? Do you think that a 2nd
revolution is needed to adequately address the agrarian
challenge in contemporary India? Examine. (2017) 5
Critically examine the Green Revolution as a strategy for
sustainable agricultural development. (2012) Idea of
Planning The idea of planning had acquired popularity in
1934. JL Nehru was succeeded as Congress President by
another radical young man, SC Bose. He set up a National
Planning Committee with JL Nehru as chairman and
Professor K.T. Shah as secretary. In 1940, a group of
industrialists led by G.D. Birla prepared the Bombay Plan.
This plan envisaged the doubling of per capita income and
tripling of national income in 15 years. M.N. Roy published
People’s Plan towards the end of World War II. It primarily
emphasised agriculture and advocated nationalisation of
land. Issue of Planning Though there was a general
welcome to the idea of planning among all sections of the
Indian population, the ideas about the character of the
plan varied among them. According to Gunnar Myrdal,
economic decisions are not taken in a vacuum. There is
politics behind economics and this is known as ‘Politics of
Economics.’ Patel is believed to have strongly resisted the
establishment of a Planning Commission which he thought
would reflect the USSR’s economic ideology. It was only
after the death of Patel that a Planning Commission of
India could be set up. Normally, centralised planning is
seen as against the spirit of federalism. However, Nehru
never believed that Nehru felt that for the resolution of
Indian problems we require total national effort and
commitment. Planning is aimed at best possible utilisation
of existing resources and achieving the ideal of balanced
regional development. Achievements and Failures of
Planning Role of Public Sector Public sector is considered a
powerful engine of economic development and an
important instrument of self-reliance. The main
contributions of public enterprises to the country’s economy
are as the follows:- 6 Filling the gaps in capital goods.
Employment generation. Balanced regional development.
Export promotion and forex earning. Import substitution.
Concluding Remarks According to Bimal Jalan, former RBI
governor, PSUs were like old family silver where families
had to spend more to just keep silver shining. Sukhamoy
Chakraborty also highlighted that planning in India looks
only good on paper and they are rarely good in
implementation. Questions asked It is generally believed
that federalism suffers in a system of centralised planning.
Do you agree with this point of view? (2002) Liberalisation
and Economic Reforms Herbert Marcuse argued that
because there is no balance between economics and
politics, there exists a legitimation crisis in democratic
states. Planning was implemented as an instrument to
achieve constitutional goals of social harmony and
inclusive growth. But limitations of planning were much
more than that of its achievements which led to the
economic crisis in India. India needs to shift from
centralised planning and to prevent dominance of the state
in the economy; it felt the need to promote the private
sector to revive the crippling economy. In response to the
fiscal and BOP crisis in 1991, India launched a programme
of economic policy reforms. This programme consisted of
stabilisation-cum-structural adjustment measures to attain
macroeconomic stability and higher rates of economic
growth. Reasons for the liberalisation of the economy Areas
of reforms were industry, fiscal policy, monetary policy,
trade, disinvestment, currency devaluation. 7 Objectives of
these reforms were to sustain high economic growth,
alleviation of poverty, gaining high standards of living and
to bring social justice. Key Reform Areas Industrial
Decontrol: Reduced industrial licensing and allowed private
participation. Trade Liberalisation: Reduced import tariffs,
promoting international trade. Financial Sector Reforms:
Encouraged private banks and foreign investment. Tax
Reforms: Introduced the Goods and Services Tax (GST).
Privatisation: Disinvestment of state-owned enterprises.
Assessment of the liberalisation Extent of liberalisation can
be assessed on the basis of following four indicators:-
Openness to trade:- India is trading with the international
economy more than expected. Openness to foreign capital:-
Despite capital controls, the net inflow of foreign capital is
as normal as any other emerging economy. Extent of
PSUs:- Contrary to the myth that India has large PSUs,
India has significantly rolled back the public sector
including in sectors like civil aviation, telecom and financial
services. However, China continues with the policy of state
PSUs. Government Expenditure:- In case of India, the
expenditure is not more than what is normal for a country
in accordance to the level of development. Outcomes and
Challenges of the Liberalisation and Reforms Liberalisation
and economic reforms have reshaped India’s economy,
leading to both positive and negative consequences. The
positive outcomes of the reforms are:- Higher GDP growth.
Increase in foreign direct investment (FDI). Improved
infrastructure and technology. 8 The challenges posed by
the reforms are:- Income Inequality Regional Disparity
Environmental concerns Concluding Remarks Bimal Jalan
argues that there is no doubt that reforms released creative
energy, accelerated growth and productivity. But India’s
record in social indicators is among the bottom countries. It
would be a grave mistake if we do not go for critical
reforms. Questions asked Critically examine the politics of
economic growth in India. (2016) Comment: Economic
Liberalisation in India. (2003) Liberalisation of the Indian
Economy has not been accompanied with adequate reforms.
Comment. (2020)

Federalism
Meaning of federalism
❖ The term federalism comes from the Latin word foedus.
Foedus means contract. The formation of federation is an
act of contract among the contracting units. The
contracting units are bound with the terms and conditions
of the contract. This contract is codified in the forms of a
written constitution. ❖ Hence, the federal form of
government is based on a written constitution. There has to
be an independent judiciary to interpret the terms and
conditions of the contract. It is necessary that the contract
should not be changed easily. ❖ Hence, federal form of
government has following essential features: - ➢
Division/Distribution of power ➢ It Must have a written
constitution ➢ Authority of Courts-independent judiciary ➢
Supremacy of Constitution ➢ The rigid procedure of
amendment ❖ Thus, federations differ from the unitary
model of governance. In unitary form of government, the
sub-national governments are agencies of the national
government. Their powers are not original, USA is the 1st
example of the federal form of government, Hence, many
political scholars treat US federation as an ideal type. They
evaluate other federations on the model of the US
federation. The Constitution, which does not fulfil all the
features of the political system as found in the US
Constitution are not treated as proper federation. In fact,
we see the use of Quasi-federal or use of idioms like federal
in form but unitary in spirit exist. ❖ According to modern
theories of Federalism, the approach of traditional scholars
was legalistic. They have not given importance to the
dynamic aspect of the political system. Systems theory
shows that historical, Social, cultural or economic factors
play an important role in shaping political life and political
systems. Hence, each federation 3 should be evaluated not
by the standards of the US Federation but in the context of
above factors. According to modern theories, there is not
one model of federalism. There can be various models of
federalism. ❖ Federation itself is a dynamic concept and
within a federal system we can see movement from one
model to another model, e.g., the US began as federalism
however the challenges of world politics and the crisis of
world order resulted into the emergence of a new model of
federalism under American President Roosevelt. Thus, in the
USA we see the balance of power being shifted in favour of
the centre. Similarly in the case of India the condition of
partition and other types of challenges created the model of
cooperative federalism. With the emergence of coalition
politics and new economic policy we see the movement
towards emergence of bargaining federalism. Thus, modern
theory of federalism shows that more than the
Constitutional aspect, the dynamic aspect of the political
system shapes the nature of federalism. Nature of the
Indian Constitution ❖ The nature of the Indian Constitution
means what name can be given to the Indian Constitution.
❖ Can it be called federal or unitary or quasi-federal? ➢
The ‘Federation’ word is nowhere mentioned under the
Indian Constitution, though the Supreme Court and the
drafting committee called it a Federal Constitution. ❖
NOTE: ➢ The Drafting Committee was constituted on 29th
August 1947 by the Constituent Assembly. The drafting
committee was headed by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar. This
committee presented the draft of the Constitution to the
Constituent Assembly on 4th November 1948 (by Dr. B.R.
Ambedkar). The drafted constitution opened up for
discussion in the assembly Views of the scholars on the
nature of the Indian Constitution: ❖ Prof. D.D. Basu calls
the Indian Constitution a federal constitution. 4 ❖ Prof. K.C.
Wheare calls the Indian Constitution as a quasi-federal
constitution. ❖ Prof. P.K. Tripathi calls the Indian
Constitution a unitary constitution. Supreme Court
Landmark Cases: ❖ Satpal vs State of Punjab and Others
case (1963): In this case, the Supreme Court considered that
in comparison to the Federal or Unitary, Indian
Constitution is more quasi-federal. ❖ S.R. Bommai Case vs
Union of India Case (1994): In this case, the Supreme Court
considered that federalism is part of the Basic structure of
India’s Constitution. Why is there confusion regarding the
nature of the Indian Constitution? ❖ It is customary for
Western scholars to regard the US Constitution as the model
constitution of the world. ❖ If any constitution of the world
does not resemble the US constitution, then they reject that
constitution as being federal. ❖ But no two constitutions of
the world can have complete resemblance because every
constitution reflects the conditions of that particular
country like the Indian Constitution reflects the culture and
society of India. ❖ So, this is a wrong assumption that a
constitution is not federal if it does not resemble the
American Constitution. ❖ Any constitution to be called as a
federal constitution should satisfy five characteristics: ➢
Division of power or distribution of power: ✓ It means the
power of the Central Government and State Government is
divided or distributed. ✓ Therefore, division or distribution
of power supposes a form of government i.e., Central and
State government but these two are not subordinate to each
other. ✓ They are coordinating units; both these units are
controlled by the Constitution, and not by each other. 5 ➢
Supremacy of Constitution: ✓ The Constitution cannot be
amended either by the Central or State government alone.
It is amended through a joint action on the part of both the
Central and State Governments. ✓ If the Central
Government will have the power to amend the Constitution
alone then it can take away all powers of the State
Government. ✓ If the State Government will have the power
to amend the Constitution, then it will destroy the dual
polity again in favour of the State Government. ✓ To
sustain the division of power it is necessary that the
Constitution is amended by both the Central and State
governments. ✓ There are only certain provisions of the
constitution that take part in the division of power, those
provisions can be amended only by joint action and the rest
of the provisions can be amended by the Centre alone. The
following set of provisions take part in the division of
power: ❖ Article 54, Article 55: Election of President. ❖
Article 73: Extent of the Executive power of the Union. ❖
Article 162: Extent of the Executive power of State. ❖
Seventh Schedule: The division of powers between Union
and State is notified through three list: ➢ Union List ➢ State
List ➢ Concurrent List ❖ Representation of States in
Parliament. ❖ Article 368: It is related to the amendment to
the Constitution. ❖ Other than the above sets, the
Constitution can be amended by the Parliament only, then it
does not go to the State Legislature. 6 ❖ Federal
Constitution should necessarily be a written Constitution: ➢
The Federal Constitution must seek the supremacy of the
Constitution that is why the federal Constitution should be a
written Constitution. ➢ Unless the division of power is
clearly mentioned, the federation cannot function properly.
➢ Federal Constitution should be a written constitution for
the following reasons: ✓ Supremacy of the Constitution
cannot be maintained unless it is a written constitution. ✓
The division of power must be clearly demarcated in order
to ensure the smooth functioning of the federation. ❖
Rigidity of the Constitution: ➢ It means the provision for
amending the Constitution is difficult but not impossible. ➢
The Constitution can be only amended by the joint action of
the State Government and Central Government and it is a
difficult process. ➢ A major part of the Indian Constitution
is flexible and only a small part of the Indian Constitution
is rigid. ❖ Authority of Courts: ➢ There should be an
authority independent of the Central and State governments
with the power to resolve disputes that may arise between
the Central and State governments or between the State
Governments themselves. ➢ There shall be an independent
authority preferably a Court of law which shall act as the
final interpreter of the Constitution, whose decision shall be
final and binding. NOTE: ❖ The 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 5th
provisions are to maintain the 1st provision that is the
division or distribution of power. ❖ Since all the above five
conditions are satisfied in the Indian Constitution hence,
the Indian Constitution is federal in character. 7 India as a
Quasi-federal model ❖ Scholars like K. C. Wheare calls
India as the Quasi-Federal. According to him, the Indian
federation is Federal only in form but not in the spirit. The
scholars who do not consider India as a case of true
federalism give following arguments- ➢ The Indian
Federation is tilted in favour of the centre. This is clear
when we see the distribution- of legislative powers in India.
Not only is the central list the lengthiest but largest and
most important number of subjects have been provided
under the central list. Even residuary- powers have been
given to the central government. However, the case of other
federations is different like the US, Australia and Germany.
Residuary powers lie with states. Besides Union, we also
have a concurrent list. In this context, the union has
primacy. In case of subjects under the state list also, the
Union gets power to take final decisions because it is the
governor's discretion that the governor can reserve any bill
of the state government for consideration of the President.
➢ Emergency provisions of the Indian Constitution are also
unique. When emergency provisions are used, our federal
structure ceases to exist and India becomes a unitary type
of structure. In this context, Article 356 has created a lot of
controversy in the past within India. States have started
demanding amendments in the Constitution with respect to
Article 356. ➢ The US is an indestructible union of
indestructible states whereas India is an indestructible
union of destructible States. In the Indian context, the
territorial integrity of states is not guaranteed. Under
Article 3 of Indian Constitution, the name, area and
boundary of the state can be changed without the consent
of the state by Union Parliament by simple majority ➢
Appointment of Governor - Governor is appointed by the
central government in India and the governor continues in
his office till the pleasure of the President whereas in
countries like USA or Australia, Governor is directly elected
by the 8 People. Governor's office is one of the most
debatable offices under the Indian federal set up. Governor
is under dual responsibility. The Governor primarily acts as
an agent of the centre in the state. The Governor has a lot
of discretionary powers under the Indian Constitution which
are not even available to the Indian President. These
discretionary powers of the Governor become the
instrument of ensuring centre's control over states. ➢
Presence of All India Services: IAS, IPS and IFS are as All
India Services. Members of All India Services (AIS) are
recruited and trained by the centre whereas they largely
function under the state government. Thus, by controlling
them the centre can always affect the administration of the
state. ➢ If we see the financial aspects of federalism, the
distribution of taxes shows a tilt towards the centre. Besides
above provisions, the other provisions of Indian
Constitution which often come under the criticism from the
point of view of traditional theory of federalism are- ✓
Single citizenship ✓ Integrated judiciary ✓ Common
Election Commission ➢ Thus, on the basis of above
provisions traditional scholars often criticise the Indian
Constitution as being Quasi-federal. Evaluation of the
criticism ❖ The scholars challenge the Indian model of
federalism on above grounds. Within India we see the
emergence for demands of change in the nature of Federal
structure which gives greater autonomy to the states.
Despite this development and criticism, we can prove that
India presents a strong case of federalism. ❖ Supreme
Court of India itself in The S.R. Bommai Case held that
federalism is a basic structure of the Indian Constitution.
Paul Appleby believes that India is extremely federal. His
observation is based on the administrative relations
between centre and 9 states. According to Dr. B.R.
Ambedkar, in spite of the adoption of the principle of
Federalism, national interest is treated as paramount.
Granville Austin believes that India is an example of
cooperative federalism. Morris Jones calls India a
bargaining federalism. Above arguments show that India is
a federation and the Indian federation represents the needs
of the country at that specific time. The supporters of the
Indian federation believe that India represents the case of
a strong centre. It was necessary to contain separatist
tendencies at that point. ❖ According to Paul Brass,
contrary to Nehru's optimism, the Indian Constitution
emerged in a highly insecure environment. India was facing
problems of communalism and separatism. Similarly, the
reason for not granting sanctity to the territorial integrity
of states is that states at that point of time were created by
the colonial administration according to their own
convenience. They were not reflecting the aspirations of
people. It was expected- that as soon as Indians will get
independence the demand for reorganisation of political
map will emerge. This was necessary. ❖ Hence, India
adopted a flexible procedure with respect to it. Internal
political map of India is still unsettled. We see the rise of
demands for creation of new states like Vidarbha every now
and then. Similarly, certain territories were to be kept as
union territories because either they were too small that
could not be given status of a state or they differ
linguistically or culturally that they could not be merged
with the adjacent states, ❖ Thus, if we go by the modern
theories of federalism, we can understand that every
political institution is shaped by the social, political and
economic environment of its time. India is a federation.
India possesses minimum features of federation. It emerges
out of the needs of India. It avoids the tight mould of
federalism as well as Unitarianism. There is inner dynamism
in Indian polity which makes it very different from other
polities. With the breakdown of the Congress system,
emergence of judicial activism and adoption of new
economic policy, Federal features in India are getting
stronger day by day. 10 Distinctive Features of the Indian
Constitution: ❖ There are many unitary features in the
Indian Constitution. ❖ States do not have a separate
Constitution of their own. There is no dual citizenship
enjoyed by the people in India. Whereas, in the US, there is
a provision of dual citizenship. ➢ NOTE: Since states do not
have a separate constitution of their own so they cannot
confer certain extra rights of the people who are ordinarily
the resident of the state. ❖ Article 3: The Parliament can
change the name, area, and boundary of the state without
the consent of the state. This means, the states are
destructible units of the federation. Whereas in the US not
even an inch can be taken away from the state by the
centre without the consent of the State. ❖ Schedule 7 of the
Constitution: It provides for the distribution of subjects
between centre and state in the form of 3 lists: ➢ Union List
➢ State List ➢ Concurrent List ❖ The division of power is
heavily tilted in favour of the Centre; the largest and most
important number of subjects have been provided under the
Union list. ❖ Union List ➢ The central government has
exclusive jurisdiction over the subjects given under the state
list. ➢ The most important subjects have been included in
the union list. Example: Defence etc. ❖ Concurrent List 11 ➢
In the case of the concurrent list, both State and Centre can
legislate but the Centre will have a prior and superior claim
of legislation, i.e., both can legislate but the Parliamentary
law will prevail over the state legislation. ❖ State List ➢
The State legislature enjoys jurisdiction over the state list
but this jurisdiction is not exclusive. It means the
Parliament can also legislate on the subjects of the state list
under five extraordinary circumstances. These
conditions/circumstances are the following: ✓ Article 249: If
the Rajya Sabha passes a resolution supported by 2/3rd of
the members present and voting on the ground that it is
necessary for the national interest that Parliament should
assume jurisdiction over the state subjects then Parliament
assumes jurisdiction over the specified State subjects for a
period of not more than 1 year. ✓ Article 250: When the
national emergency is proclaimed under Article 352 then the
Parliament assumes jurisdiction over the State List
(Concurrent Legislative Jurisdiction). ✓ Article 252: If two
or more State legislatures pass resolutions authorising the
Parliament to legislate over one or more State subjects then
Parliament assumes jurisdiction over those State subjects
for States concerned only. ✓ Article 253: The Parliament can
legislate on the State subject in order to implement
international agreements or treaties. ✓ Article 356: If the
President's rule is enacted then the State Legislature is
either suspended or dissolved then Parliament legislates
over the state subjects. Residuary Powers ❖ Under Article
248 the residuary power lies with the Parliament and not
with the state government so any subject that does not
belong to any list belongs to the residuary list. 12 ❖ In
Canada also the residuary powers belong to the Centre and
India follows Canada in this regard. Appointment of the
Governor ❖ Under Article 155 the Governor of the State is
appointed by the President but the President is not bound to
consult the State Government. The Governor holds the
Office at the pleasure of the President; therefore, the
Governor’s function is under the control of the Centre. The
Governor is not accountable to the State Government in any
manner. ❖ Presence of All India Services in the State: IAS,
IPS and IFoS are called All-India Services because they
function under both the State Government and the Central
Government. But they largely function under the State
Government and they don’t come under the disciplinary
control of the State Government. ➢ They are recruited,
trained and appointed by the Centre, thus by controlling
them the Centre can influence the administration of the
State Government. ➢ NOTE: Under Article 312 if the Rajya
Sabha passes a resolution authorising the Parliament to
create one or more new All-India Services then Parliament
by law may create one or more All-India Services. ❖ Under
Article 360 the President may proclaim a financial
emergency and suspend the distribution of financial
resources with the states. Single and Unified Judiciary ❖
The Constitution does not provide for a separate state
judiciary. It provides for a single and united judiciary for
both the centre and the State with the Supreme Court at the
apex. The Supreme Court exercises the administrative
control of High Courts. Thus, the State judiciary has been
brought under the control of the central or federal judiciary.
13 Election Commission of India ❖ Under Article 324, a
common Election Commission of India has been provided to
hold the elections of both Parliament and the State
Legislatures. While the State Election Commission holds
elections only for Panchayat and Municipalities.
Administrative Direction ❖ Under Article 256 and 257, the
Centre can issue administrative directions to the State
indicating the manner in which Railway properties and the
means of communication shall be maintained by the State.
These administrative directions are binding on the States. ❖
If they are violated under Article 365 then it can be
assumed that the administrative machinery of the State
cannot be carried on according to the provisions of the
Constitution and the Centre will be justified in dismissing
such State Government. Unequal Representation of the
Rajya Sabha ❖ That the States are not represented in the
Rajya Sabha on the principle of equality of State. They are
represented on the basis of population. ❖ Example: In the
US all states are represented equally in the Senate
irrespective of their size and population. Each state sends
two members to the Senate so that the interest of States can
be protected. ❖ The Indian Federation is described as
“federation sui generis” which means a federation of its
own kind. Contribution of India towards theory of
federalism ❖ Not only India presents the case of the
Federal Constitution it also makes important contributions
towards the theory and practice of federalism. Following
can be treated as Indian institutional innovation:- 14 ➢ The
Finance Commission is a unique agency. In fact, the Indian
Constitution under Article 280 provides for an autonomous
Commission. It determines the amount to be returned to the
states under revenue sharing or grants for activities
involving all levels of government. It recommends the share
of centre as well as states. ➢ Zonal Council- They were
made after the Linguistic reorganisation of the states. Its
aim was to maintain the spirit of cooperative federalism by
promoting interaction among the adjacent states. ❖ Besides
the above institutions, we also see certain practices like the
creation of linguistic states. It was thought that such states
would be threatening the security and territorial integrity of
India. However, the manner in which states were formed
and the approach which allowed interaction among states
show that linguistic states have actually strengthened
Indian federation and have made administration easier. ❖
The approach adopted by the administration towards the
promotion of Hindi is also an important development.
Rather than giving Hindi, the status of national language, it
has been given the status of official language This was an
attempt to contain differences between North and South. If
we compare the language policy of India with that of Sri
Lanka, we can see that it has been an intelligent innovation
to strengthen the federal structure. ❖ The case of India
shows that federalism depends less on the constitutional
provisions and more on the nature of democratic politics
and the spirit of federalism. The Indian case helps us in
building the concept that federalism should be understood
from the systematic perspective taking into account other
elements like social, economic and cultural. The Indian
federation also saw the periods of crisis. Exploiting the
Flexible structure of the Constitution, the government in the
centre tried to convert Indian federation into unitary type.
The same procedures which resulted into the misuse of the
Constitution contributed to the rise of regional aspirations
and demands for greater autonomy for states. 15 Changing
trends of Centre-State relations ❖ Context ➢ Federalism is
a dynamic concept. More than the constitutional provisions,
federalism is shaped by other factors like economic policy,
nature of the party system, role of judiciary, etc. In the
Indian context, we see a major change in the functioning of
the Indian federal system since the 1990s. The factors
responsible for bringing these changes are: ✓ the
breakdown of Congress system, ✓ the rise of regional
parties, ✓ coalition politics at centre (before 2014), ✓
judicial activism, ✓ the presidential activism, ✓ New
economic policy based on liberalisation, privatisation and
globalisation, ✓ Rise of new threats like terrorism,
communal violence. ✓ Passage of Acts like Right to
Information Act, ✓ 73rd and 74th Constitutional
Amendment Acting. ✓ Passage of GST Act- One Nation, One
Tax. Legislative Relation ❖ Original design of the
Constitution ➢ The Constitution demarcates the jurisdiction
of Union as well as State government in the form of 3 lists
given in 7th Schedule. The analysis of legislative relations
show a tilt in favour of centre, e.g.: ✓ the largest and most
number of subjects have been provided under the central
list, ✓ in case of Concurrent list, Union has got prior and
superior claim of legislation, ✓ Residuary power also lies
with the centre. 16 ❖ Besides the above provisions, the
Union can legislate on the subjects given in the state list,
e.g., under Article 249,250 and under Article 252. ❖ Analysis:
- ➢ This shows that the Constitution has created a strong
centre. It was necessary for maintaining internal as well as
external security. It was necessary for planned economic
development and national integration.

Federalism (Part-2)
Original Design
The constitution aims to create cooperative federalism in
the context of administrative relations. However, the
constitution gives primacy to the union government: Article
256- It states that: State will exercise its executive powers
in the manner that due compliance is given to the laws
made by the centre. The article also says that the
government of India has powers to give directions to state
governments whenever it is necessary. Article 365:
Whenever any state government fails to exercise its power
to give effect to the directions given by the union
government, the union government can establish that the
state government is not running according to the provisions
of the constitution. Article 355: It is the duty of the centre
to see that the government in every state is being run
according to the provisions of the Constitution- it has been
given to protect states against any external aggression on
internal disturbance. Article 356: On receiving the report of
the Governor, if the president is satisfied that a situation
has arisen in the state that government of the state cannot
be run according to the provision of the constitution then
centre can impose president rule. Analysis: Article 356 is a
unique provision of Indian Constitution; it has been widely
criticised by the states for its misuse by the central
government. It has been misused by the central government
on a number of occasions. The use of article 356 in the past
has shaped Indian federalism. The excessive use of this
article has also challenged the federal character of the
Indian state. 3 Institution of Governor Constitutional
Design According to the original design, the institution of
governor was to facilitate the model of cooperative
federalism. The governor was to be the link between 2 levels
of government. Governor was given dual responsibility. He
was to act as the Constitutional head of the state and also
as the representative of the Centre at the state. Governor
was given certain special powers which were to be used for
special purposes like administration of scheduled areas or
discretionary powers to be used under specific conditions
which may threaten the internal security or functioning of
state administration as per constitutional machinery. The
use of central paramilitary forces Since the 1960s there has
been a serious conflict between centre and states on the
issue of deployment of paramilitary forces like CRPF, CISF
or BSF by centre. According to the Constitution,
maintenance of law and order is a state subject. Thus, the
state viewed such an attempt by the centre as an attempt to
encroach into the area of state. Centre justifies its action on
the ground that it is the constitutional duty of the Union to
protect states from internal and external rebellion.
Changing Trends There has been a change in this context.
In the context of increasing threats like terrorism,
communal violence and also because of natural disasters
we see states not opposing the deployment of forces rather
they have started inviting central forces. Certain
contemporary administrative issues NIA - National
Investigation Agency It is created in the context of the
increasing threat of terrorism in the country. Certain States
opposed the idea of creation of such agency; States were of
the view that it is likely to destroy federal balance existing
under Indian Constitution. 4 Views of Centre - As per entry
I of the Union list, the responsibility of the security of the
country lies with the centre. It is also the duty of the centre
to protect states against internal as well as external threats,
States on their own will not be in a position to deal with the
issues like terrorism. Thus, creation of NIA is not against
the spirit of federalism. Centre also believes that other
countries, e.g., USA also has similar type of agency like FBI.
National Counter Terrorism Centre Central government
wants to set up a mechanism like NCTC since 2008 after the
Mumbai Terror attack but so far it could not have been set
up by the central government because of opposition raised
by the state government. Central government wants
proposed NCTC to get operationally involved to tackle
issues like terrorism and proposed NCTC will also have
following powers: Power to make an arrest without
informing the state government. Power to make search
operations throughout India without informing the state
governments. Note: Can also include about CBI, ED States
objections: States are of the view that the federal axis of
India is already heavily tilted in favour of centre and such
a mechanism will have the potential to destroy India's
federalism, beyond recognition. That is why mechanisms
like NCTC should not come into existence. At times centre
and states come into conflict when states feel that centre is
giving preference to some states, eg, states like Punjab and
Haryana in the past opposed the move of Central
government to sanction special tax holiday to Himachal
Pradesh to boost investment in the state. Interstate Dispute
Context Federal politics is understood at 2 levels: Politics
between centre and sub-national governments and politics
among sub-national governments. Like all politics the
politics 5 of federation also reflects the element of
cooperation as well as conflict. The major dispute among
states in India can be studied under following heads: water
disputes boundary disputes Other minor disputes like
mining, etc. Constitutional provisions The Indian
Constitution is based on the spirit of cooperative federalism.
The Constitution provides for various mechanisms for
resolution of disputes among states as well as promotion of
cooperation among the units of federation. Article 131: It
provides for judicial settlement of disputes. It is the
exclusive jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. However, the
Constitution gives greater thrust on political resolution of
dispute. [NEET (National Eligibility cum Entrance Test)
exam can also be included as a dispute.] Article 262: it
provides for extra-judicial settlement of disputes emerging
in the area of inter-state water disputes. Parliament may by
law provide for adjudication of any such dispute and can by
law exclude the Supreme Court and other courts from
entertaining such disputes. For this purpose, extra judicial
tribunals are created. These tribunals are created under the
Interstate River Water Disputes Act, 1956. The act says that
the award of the tribunal is final. Article 263: President can
create an interstate council for advising upon the disputes
and for resolution. of disputes. It can also be created for
investigation. of disputes. Sarkaria Commission has
recommended the creation of a permanent Inter State
Council. Such a Council was created in 1990. It comprises
Prime Minister, Chief Ministers, relevant Cabinet Ministers
and relevant Ministers from states. 6 Article 261: This article
also aims to establish interstate cooperation and harmony.
According to the provisions of this article, full faith and
Credit will be extended to the public acts, records and
judicial proceedings of union and states throughout the
territory. Article 301: It ensures freedom of trade and
commerce throughout the country. Article 307: Parliament
can create an inter-state authority for the purpose of
regulation of trade and commerce. Other mechanisms
Formal Mechanisms: Zonal Councils: These councils were
created on the recommendations of the state reorganisation
commission. It was set up under the State Reorganisation
Act, 1956. The purpose was to cultivate the habit of
cooperative working among the states created after
linguistic reorganisation. Informal mechanisms: Various
informal mechanisms like chief ministers’ conference or
governors’ conference of district magistrates’ conference
are also existing for policy harmonisation and resolution of
disputes. Major inter-state disputes Water dispute Context
India is a water stressed country. Only 4% of the world is
found in India. Increasing need of water and decreasing
resources. Uneven distribution of resources in the country.
Mechanisms to resolve water problems in country
Interbasin transfers Construction of reservoirs 7 Water
transfer projects Interlinking of all major rivers of India
The Centre is planning to adopt some rivers as national
assets. Water has been a major issue of dispute among a
number of states. Hydro animosity is on the rise. This is
rising not only among different states but also among
different communities. The prominent water disputes in
India are: Kaveri Water Dispute: The states involved are
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Puducherry. The major
claimant states are Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. The Kaveri
dispute finds these states in conflicting relationships
especially during drought time. This dispute is very old.
Centre has created the Kaveri river tribunal for the
resolution of the dispute. This tribunal submitted the final
verdict in 2007. Ravi, Beas, Sutlej, Yamuna Link Canal: The
states involved are Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Rajasthan.
Controversy over construction of Hogenakkal Canal.
Mullaperiyar Dam controversy: The states involved are
Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The Kerala assembly has appealed
to the centre to support the state in its attempt to construct
a new dam to replace 126 years old Mullaperiyar Dam.
According to Kerala, the dam has become dangerous for the
people living in neighbouring districts. According to Tamil
Nadu, there is no need for a new dam as the existing one
can be allowed to continue by strengthening it. Tamil Nadu
complains that its officials are not allowed to carry out
maintenance of the dam. Politics of Water Disputes Water
disputes have serious consequences like ethnic riots. In
1992, the Kaveri water dispute led to anti-Tamil riots in
Karnataka. It had political implications for the state politics
in both the states. Thus, such disputes can affect federal
equilibrium between Centre and states as well as between
States themselves. There have been several efforts 8 to
resolve these disputes but with many negative spin-offs.
According to the study conducted by A. Richards and
Nirvikar Singh: Tribunals have remained ineffective
because of the advisory nature of water authorities. In
many cases, the awards of tribunals have not been
respected. The resolution of disputes depends upon
political considerations. States have a negative attitude.
States consider what is in the interest of another state as
against their interest. Political Parties look at disputes in
the light of their political base. Regional parties which take
opposite stands on other issues take common stands on
water issues. They are ready to defy even their leaders
because of the sensitive nature of politics at local level.

Federalism part 3
Context
Origin of boundary disputes can be traced to the colonial
arrangements. Boundary creates problems within states as
well as between states. Interstate boundary disputes are
related to the demand for creation of new states. In
contemporary times, we see the demand for the creation of
states like Vidarbha in Maharashtra and Harit Pradesh in
Uttar Pradesh. One of the important interstate boundary
disputes is related to Belgaum district. Belgaum is located
at north-western frontier of Karnataka. It borders
Maharashtra and Goa. Origin of the dispute goes back to
linguistic reorganisation of States. Belgaum district has a
significant Marathi speaking population. When Maharashtra
was created, some parts of Maharashtra where Kannada
was spoken were transferred to Karnataka in exchange of
certain districts of Karnataka going to Andhra. As a
compensation, certain Marathi speaking pockets went to
Karnataka. In this context, Marathi speaking pockets have
organised themselves into Maharashtra Ekikaran Samiti.
They want integration of their area with Maharashtra on
linguistic grounds. They believe that there is discrimination
against Marathi in education and jobs, Karnataka lays its
rights on Belgaum on historical grounds whereas
Maharashtra Ekikaran Samiti is talking of linguistic
grounds which has complicated the whole issue. Other
boundary disputes There are certain territorial disputes
between U.P. and Haryana. There is also a territorial dispute
between U.P. and Bihar because of the changing course of
the river. Odisha has disputes with Andhra Pradesh, West
Bengal and Jharkhand. There are many such disputes in the
north-eastern region also. In the case of the north-east, a
Commission has been set up for resolution of boundary
disputes in the area. Boundary dispute is linked with other
issues like distribution of forest wealth, mineral, resources,
mines, etc. 3 Note: We see a lack of balance in
development in the country which becomes a cause of
conflict between rich and poor states. Rich states are
against the idea that the centre should give greater grants
to the poor states. According to rich states it results into the
diversion of funds from productive areas. Rich states feel
that poor states are poor because of social backwardness,
political instability and lack of political will. Rich states
want greater share in the resources of the union. Poor states
feel that the reason for their poverty is that the centre has
given special favours to certain states. Cultural grounds of
Interstate dispute Another area of interstate dispute is the
cultural and linguistic area. This dispute exists between the
states of North India and the states of South India. The
Southern states resist imposition of Hindi. They feel that the
imposition of Hindi is a means for establishing the
hegemony of the North. Thus, there are different areas of
disputes between Centre and states as well as among states.
In different phases, different types of disputes have
dominated the Indian political scene. In contemporary
times, the water and territorial issues are more contentious.
Politicisation of issues have further complicated the
resolution of conflict. Competitive politics has been a
determining factor in this context. Political parties should
leave petty politics and narrow perspectives. Integrationist
tendencies and regional aspirations Meaning of nation The
concept of nation emerged in the West when the modern
age began. In the West, we see the beginning of nation
states. Nation states became the units of international
society. Nation states were formed on the basis of the
principle of national self- 4 determination. The concept of
one nation and one state emerged to counter the hegemony
of the Roman empire. The Roman empire was a political
arrangement which included people belonging to different
races and nationalities. Thus, the nation became a basis for
the breakdown of the Roman empire and modern nation
states emerged there. Nation is a complex term. It has
cultural, political, ideological and racial dimensions. It also
includes psychological dimension. The concept of nation is
nearest to race. Race develops in a specific geography.
Every geography results in a specific way of life. This way
of life becomes culture. Culture is expressed through
language. Thus, nation, culture, language gets mixed up.
The pure form of nations are cultural nations. The large
societies which have heterogeneous populations are
examples of political nations. In this context, the
psychological aspect of nationalism becomes important.
The basis of nationalism is a psychological feeling of
oneness. This feeling may emerge because of a common
past or belief in a common future. It emerges when the
community visualises common threats and understands the
benefits of cooperation. India is an example of political
nations. Importance of nationalism in Indian context
During British rule Britishers maintained their ideological
hegemony that India is nothing but a geographical
expression. It is not one nation. Many communities live in
India. Indians are divided on many lines. Hence, the
concept of national selfdetermination will not apply to
India. Once the British leave India, Indians will be fighting
among themselves. They also promoted Jinnah's two nation
theory. The British ideological project of thwarting the idea
of India being a nation was countered by nationalists like
Aurobindo Ghosh who went on to give his religiomystical
approach. He called India a divinity personified which has
been existing since time immemorial. It is not a human
creation. 5 To counter the British hegemony, the project of
nation building became important. Indian freedom -
struggle is not simply struggle for independence. It was
also aimed at establishing India as a nation. Nationalists in
all phases tried to promote this idea in different ways. After
independence Even after independence, we continued with
the strategy of nation building. Nation building was
important for bringing economic development as well as
modernization. India had suffered partition and communal
riots at the time of India's independence. During the
Freedom movement, we continued with the assertiveness of
Dalits who were favouring the continuation of British rule.
Dalits feared that once the British left they would be
subjected to atrocities in India. Hence, the Indian
Constitution has adopted various provisions for promotion
of national integration. Indian leaders like Nehru and
Gandhi, provided the ideological basis for the nationalism
project. Gandhi visualised future India in which all
communities shall live in perfect harmony. Nehru openly
declared that anyone who is trying to threaten territorial
integrity of India will be met with all forces at our
command. Any attempt of Balkanisation of the country will
be met with all forces at our command. Sardar Patel
successfully accomplished the integration of Various
Princely states and regions like NorthEast into one
territorial unit. Regionalism Meaning of region Region is a
geographical expression. The physical distinctiveness of an
area from another area is the basis for earmarking
different regions. It is not necessary that boundaries of the
region and administrative boundaries are always the same.
In the colonial world, there is a mismatch between
geographical and administrative boundaries. The reason is
that the colonial masters made administrative boundaries
according to their own convenience. It was also a part of
colonial administrative policy to divide people and thus
different communities were often clubbed together. 6
Concept of Regionalism It is a psychological feeling. It
means preference for one region. It is a natural feeling of a
person belonging to a particular region Nature of
Regionalism Regionalism is not bad in itself. Regionalism
provides the basis for political mobilisation in domestic
politics. Regionalism at times is also bad when regional
preferences become priority over the preference for the
nation as a whole. When we start identifying one region as
a separate identity different from the entire country then it
creates problems. Regionalism in Indian Context
Regionalism in Indian context is inevitable because of
following factors: large size of the country, enormous
geographical variations. cultural diversity Paul Brass
considers regionalism as a long-term tendency of Indian
politics. Meaning of politics of regionalism It means ability
to manage diversity. If managed properly, it adds to the
richness of the country in cultural, economic and political
terms. If not managed properly, it creates a threat for
national integrity in terms of territorial integrity also.
Manifestations of regional aspirations in India In India, we
have seen the articulation of regional aspirations in
different forms. We have seen regional movements
demanding autonomy of a region, protection of culture and
language, creation of new states and at times demand for
secession from the country. According to Prakash Rao, the
cycle of regionalism can be seen in the Indian context.
Regional movements begin with revival of poetry and
culture and goes to the level of secessionist demands and
ends up with the planned economic development and
autonomous life, E.g., Jammu and Kashmir - the reason for
regionalism in J&K are: 7 Some section wanted to remain
independent Pakistan factor The issue of Kashmiri culture,
They felt that provisions of Article 370 are not sufficient and
independence of Kashmir Valley is the need of the time,
Kashmir was not given autonomy in true sense of the term
(as per separatist forces), Development of the region was
neglected, Political process was never given a chance in
J&K and democratically elected governments in J & K were
never allowed to complete their full terms. Regionalism in
Punjab Akalis demanded greater autonomy, Issue of
Chandigarh and distribution of water Resources Misuse of
Article 356 was also the reason, Even the Central
government got involved in the internal politics of state,
The movement in Punjab became violent and ultimately the
government had to start operation Blue Star. This was
followed by the killing of Indian PM Indira Gandhi which
was followed by anti-Sikh riots. Ultimately violence was
stopped by the Rajiv GandhiSant Longowal Pact. The
prominent terms of the agreement were: Chandigarh will be
given to Punjab, Compensation will be given to the victims
of anti-Sikh riots Tribunal will be set up for distribution of
water of Ravi and Beas rivers The agreement was not well
received by a large section of Sikh population. The
Government of India also failed to give effect to the terms
of the agreement. Normalcy could not return to Punjab. It
took another 5 years to deal with the situation. Democratic
process was restarted in 1992. Even today religious identity
plays an important part in the politics of Punjab. 8 Assam
It was against immigration from Bangladesh and other
Indian states There was an economic dimension also.
Assam supplied tea, coal and oil to the rest of the country
but economic conditions of Assamese people was bad,
Movement in Assam was started by the All Assam Student
Union. Ultimately the movement became Violent. The
Central government, State government and All Assam
Students Union signed the Assam Accord in 1985. Terms of
Assam Accord: National Register for Citizens will be
created, 24th March 1971, was declared as the cut-off date
i.e., all those who came to India before this cut-off date will
be treated as Indian citizens. Other regional movements in
Assam: Assam also witnessed movement for Bodo land. In
the case of Bodo land, an autonomous council was
constituted. There is a movement for greater autonomous
hill areas. Nagaland Nagas did not accept sovereignty at
the time of India's independence. Ultimately the issue was
resolved with the creation of the state of Nagaland out of
Assam in the 1960s. The Naga movement is still continuing.
The range of Naga demand moved from greater autonomy
within the Indian Union to greater Nagaland consisting of
the areas of Assam, Manipur, Nagaland and Myanmar.
Dravida Movement It was one of the most effective
movements for regional aspiration. They demanded a
separate state of Dravida Nadu. The movement was
initiated by E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker. 9 He started a
self-respect movement. Later on, he formed the political
party known as DMK. The movement never took the path of
violence. It always took a political path. In 1965, the
movement Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam→ DMK became an
anti-Hindi agitation. Movement is a good example of
balance between regionalism and nationalism. Vidarbha
movement It is the eastern region of Maharashtra. It is
made up of Nagpur and Amravati division. This region is
known for cotton and oranges. This region is plagued by
poverty and malnutrition. There has been a call for
creation of a separate state because people feel that this
region has been neglected. This region has fallen behind in
attracting investment and development fronts.
Infrastructure is poor in this area. Explanation for
regionalism in India Modernization theory: Normally
modernization weakens the primordial loyalties. However,
in the Indian context it has strengthened such loyalties
because it provides a basis for political mobilisation and
political bargaining. Modernization theory is supported by
scholars like Rudolph and Rudolph. Uneven Development
Model by Robert Hardgrave: The economic grievances get
mixed up with cultural anxiety and give rise to regional
aspirations. Culture of scarcity model: Regional aspirations
emerge when people feel that they were deprived of the
benefits of the development policy, e.g., regional aspirations
in Assam Son of the soil theory - Myron Weiner: This shows
that a specific land, its resources and opportunities in the
field of development and employment are meant for
original inhabitants, e.g., Maharashtra Navnirman Sena
(CMNS) in Maharashtra. Politics of opposition theory by
Iqbal Narain: He finds that there is a political reason
behind such movements. Regionalism in India began in
opposition to the Congress system. 10 Politics of federalism
theory: Regionalism is inevitable in Indian context. In fact,
regionalism strengthens federalism. Regionalism is a
universal issue. Every type of regionalist is not bad.
Regionalism does not necessarily lead to Balkanisation.
Regionalism is an emotive issue. It should be dealt with
properly. It is wrong to see regionalism as a challenge to
nationalism. Regionalism should be treated as a crisis of
development rather than a crisis of nation building. In a
country like India, regionalism is inevitable and it is
necessary for the Indian state to devise ways to deal with
regionalism. A possible mix of strategy to deal with the
issue of regionalism can be following: Strengthening of
local self-government Balanced regional development,
Respect for human rights, Adoption of ethos of
multiculturalism, Respecting the federal structure of Indian
political system.

Centre-State Financial Relations Union-State Financial

Relations ❖ Among all the 3 relations vis legislative,
executive and financial relations, the 3rd one i.e., financial
relations is being considered oxygen of any system because
ultimately states need finances to carry out their Financial
objectives. ❖ Since India is a quasi-federal state known as
Union of States, Union has been given more powers
vis-a-vis states in the Constitution including in the financial
matters i.e., Union was kept financially very strong and then
a mechanism was provided under the Constitution to meet
the financial needs of the state. ❖ The mechanism includes
financial transfer through Finance Commission. Therefore,
Finance Commission came to be known as the balancing
wheel of Fiscal federalism i.e., it is the Constitutional
obligation of the centre to transfer Finances to states so
that they are able to function efficiently. Union enjoys
taxation powers in major areas and traditionally 4 major
areas have been the biggest contributor to Union's finances:
➢ direct tax ➢ corporation tax ➢ Customs duties. ➢ Excise
tax. ❖ These are the most important income of the Centre.
Although it also earns from other sources like capital assets
and proceeds coming from PSUs. States were given taxation
power to the subject matters which do not generate
substantial tax revenue such as: sales tax, profession tax,
entertainment tax, property tax, etc., of which sales tax was
the most important source of revenue for states but states
have very limited other capital generating income as most
of the PSUs are Central enterprises which earn profit. 3 ❖
Union has more important strong sources of tax and
non-tax revenue and states have limited sources of tax and
non-tax revenues. Hence, according different analysis it is
found that states are capable to meet their own expenditure
from their own revenue only up to 40%-60%. It means for
rest of the finances they are dependent on centre, e.g., U.P.,
Bihar, Odisha generate only 30-40% of revenues to cover
up their expenditure by their own revenue sources and for
rest of revenues they remain dependent on central
government. ❖ National Capital Territory of Delhi and
Telangana cover 60-70% of their expenditure by their Own
revenue Sources. Sources of Income

❖ Fiscal federalism or union-state financial relations have

undergone changes since 2014. Though paradigm shift
came when GST was introduced and Planning Commission
was replaced by NITI Ayog. In this new Federal
architecture, the role of finance commission is getting
re-invented as the role of non-planned transfer is now being
played by sectoral ministries and Ministry of Finance and
also by Finance Commission now a days. ❖ The new fiscal
architecture is laid down by: ➢ Finance Commission ➢ GST
and GST regime 4 ➢ NITI Ayog ➢ Sectoral ministries and
Finance Ministry ❖ But it is considered that Indian fiscal
federalism is at crossroad or it is experiencing a paradigm
shift. There is re-imagination of fiscal federalism in India.
Role of Finance Commission as balancing wheel of Fiscal
Federalism ❖ Finance Commission was created under
Article 280. Its composition, powers and functions have
been defined under the Constitution. ❖ Composition: ➢ It
consists of 5 members including Chairman, ➢ The Chairman
shall have experience in public affairs. ➢ One member
should have experience in economics. ➢ One member
should have experience in finance, ➢ One member shall be
a judge of Supreme Court or High Court. ➢ One member
shall have experience in financial administration. ❖ They
are appointed by President of India, It is an ad-hoc
commission i.e., nonpermanent commission. ❖ Its terms of
references are as Follows: ➢ the principle governing not
proceeds from taxes ➢ grants-in-aid, ➢ loans, ➢ to
recommend how to strengthen local finances, financial
conditions by augmenting state Consolidated fund, ➢ any
other term of reference 5 ❖ Note - It is the term of
reference which determines role and functions of Finance
Commission. It is determined by the Government. The 4
terms of references are fixed as mentioned above and the
government can give additional term of reference for
Finance Commission. For instance from time-to-time
additional term of reference are given on the basis of
problems and challenges faced in Fiscal relations between
union and states. It is a recommendatory body. It submits
its recommendations to President of India on which
government brings actions. As a healthy convention, the
government accepts the recommendations. When Finance
Commission submits its report, it gets dissolved and its
recommendations are implemented for a period of 5 years.
❖ Finance Commission after independence came into
existence in 1951. The government of India enacted Finance
Commission Act, 1951 which defines qualification,
appointment, powers and terms for Finance Commission.
Since framers of the Constitution envisioned Finance
Commission as balancing wheel of Fiscal federalism. It has
to device its own formulae for recommendations so that it
could balance the fiscal relations between centre and states.
Since Union enjoys vast powers in financial matters,
therefore, the role of Finance Commission was: ❖ To look
into the financial strength of the centre-how much finances
can be transferred from centre to states so that union is
able to maintain its strong fiscal condition. ➢ At the same
time, states' fiscal conditions are also being met. This came
to be known as vertical and horizontal devolution of funds
which is also known as balancing wheel. ❖ Since Finance
Commission has to balance between Union and states and
among states also. So, Finance Commission devices
formulae especially for horizontal distribution among the
states wherein its main concern is to address inter-state
disparity. Therefore, in the formulae of Finance Commission
the components used are: ➢ population ➢ income distance
6 ➢ area ➢ Fiscal discipline ❖ Population and income
distance are given high weightage due to which poorer
states with more population get more funds than smaller
but better states. Although the formula can have some
marginal differences adopted by respective Finance
Commissions but overall Formula has main intention to
minimize inter-state disparity. ❖ One major grievance by
better performing states is Fiscal discipline is given very
low weightage. In fact, fiscal discipline has been given less
weightage in comparison to population and income
distance due to which poorer states get more transfer of
funds vis-a-vis states having better fiscal conditions, for
instance, UP gets transfer equivalent to Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka and Kerala together. Southern states say that it
is like rewarding for poor performance and punishing good
performance. Hence, their demand becomes very vocal in
recent years. ❖ Due to liberalisation, privatisation and
globalisation inter-state disparity has increased. In fact,
better states benefit from foreign investment and poorer
states are having disadvantages in attracting investments.
Therefore, Finance Commission faces a challenge of how to
balance income disparity. Population remains an important
weightage and since Southern states have reduced
population so they get less weightage in distribution of
finances. However, this disparity is minimised to an extent
1971 census has become basis for Finance Commission till
13th Finance Commission but 14th and 15th Finance
Commissions have given 2011 census as the basis which
again has been criticized by Southern States. ❖ On the one
hand, due to concerns for planning and development,
planned expenditure has been increased but on the other
hand an artificial distinction between planned and
non-planned transfers was created. 7 ❖ Therefore, even if
Finance Commission has tried to address vertical and
horizontal transfer of finances still some issues remain.
Working of Finance Commission ❖ Finance Commission has
remained progressive and cooperative to states. Finance
Commission is a Constitutional body authorised for
maintaining fiscal balance between centre and states and
among states, ➢ It has maintained high stature. ➢ It has
remained apolitical in nature. ➢ Its recommendations are
also of high standards. ➢ It has extensive consultation with
states. ❖ As a healthy convention, the recommendations of
Finance Commission are accepted by government. Though
time to time there have been some issues with respect to
recommendations of Finance Commission: ➢ In case of
vertical and horizontal transfers of Finances, ➢ Its relations
with Planning Commission, ➢ The composition of tax
revenue - after recommendation of Sarkaria Commission
gradually. Income tax and corporation tax were also
included in divisible pool. ➢ Since Finance Commission is
not a permanent institution, it lacks institutional memory in
globalised environment; Fiscal conditions are rapidly
changing and there are many fiscal reforms. Hence, Finance
Commission is not able to deal with vastness of fiscal
changes as one has to wait for 5 years. ❖ However, Finance
Commission has promoted Cooperative Federalism in
following manner: ➢ it has given progressive
recommendations for- net proceeds from tax shares, 8 ➢
the total transfer to states of the gross revenue of central
government has remained around 50%. ➢ it has also
recommended fiscal reforms from time to time, for instance,
it has supported GST reforms, restructuring of centrally
sponsored schemes. ❖ Note- ➢ 14th Finance Commission
recommended abolishing special category status to states.
It has also recommended how to infuse financial
management practices by bringing accounting reforms. ➢
14th Finance Commission has also recommended for
improving state's fiscal conditions. Finance Commission has
also recommended how to improve functioning of State's
Finance Commissions. ❖ Therefore, Finance Commission
has not only been an instrument for balancing fiscal wheel
of Fiscal Federalism but it has also worked for Fiscal
management reforms. However, still they face new
challenges and there is need for changes in the role of
Finance Commission especially under the New Fiscal
architecture. Should Finance Commission remain a
permanent body? ❖ As of now, finance Commission is an
ad-hoc body it is expected that in the era of- ➢ LPG ➢
Financial management reforms ➢ Financial governance ❖
When new institutional structure is being created there
should be more institutionalised role played by finance
Commission. Due to rapid changes, it becomes difficult to
deal with physical challenges effectively. For instance, when
14th finance Commission was set up there was Planning
Commission and government was in the process to reform
Planning Commission but by the time 14th finance
Commission submitted its report Planning Commission was
no more and therefore a vacuum was created because one
has to wait for new finance Commission i.e., 15th finance
Commission to understand the challenges posed by
abolition of Planning Commission. 9 ❖ Meanwhile
government brought GST and GST regime which was
another paradigm shift and its impact will be known only in
the next 5-7 years. ❖ Madan Mohan Punchhi Commission
and present RBI governor Shaktikanta Das have also
recommended for a permanent Finance Commission which
will have a constitutional memory. Punchchi Commission
recommended that independent department should be set
up known as Finance Commission department which can
look into different physical conditions of the state from time
to time and recommend throughout the year rather than
every five years. Goods and Services Tax ❖ GST is
considered as one of the most important and radical fiscal
reform in India. It has brought transformation in fiscal
federalism. It has been introduced by Constitutional
amendment and a new Constitutional body has been
created which is known as GST council. ❖ The introduction
of GST consists of – ➢ Central GST ➢ State GST ➢
Integrated GST ❖ There are different slabs in GST and
bands in GST which give flexibility to states. GST is
considered as an important reform in globalized
environment to match with global standards because other
countries also have GST system. ❖ Hence, Indian fiscal
management practices gets to the standards of G20
countries practices. GST has been created by 101st
Constitutional Amendment Act, 2016 which came into force
since July, 2017. 10 ❖ The introduction of GST brings a sort
of single indirect tax market in the country i.e., one tax
regime in the country- One Nation One Tax. Since it has
created new institutional mechanism between union and
states which involves- ➢ GST council ➢ GST network ➢ GST
coordination committee ❖ Hence, these institutional
mechanisms have given GST regime and they are examples
of cooperative federalism and cumulative federalism.
Cumulative federalism means when Union and States share
their powers on basis of being equal shareholders rather
than superior and subordinate. Under GST Coordination
committee and GST Council they share powers even if the
centre has got veto power. Both centre and states enjoy
equal powers. Since it has happened for the first time that
states have been given equal powers in fiscal matters it is
considered as a kind of grand bargain, an example of
cumulative federalism. ❖ GST Council consists of states’
chief ministers and states’ Finance ministers in which states
enjoy 2/3rd share. Though centre has been given Veto
Power but decisions will be taken on the basis of majority.
It is recognition of equal powers to state vis-a-vis centre.
After creation of GST and GST council, new heights in fiscal
federalism have been set up in India. In Indian Fiscal
Federalism, Centre did not go for adopting big brother
attitude or unitary state character rather many rounds of
negotiations were held with states’ Finance ministers and
when a consensus was reached then it was introduced. After
its enactment, GST Council has met close to 40 times to sort
their differences and reach out to consensus. There is hardly
any such institution related to Union - States relations that
have this standard of functioning. 11 ❖ GST Council has
overcome the difference and challenges and they have
reviewed GST slabs. There are rationalization efforts. GST
Council is being considered as a highly successful platform
to increase cooperation between Centre and States.
Therefore, GST is being considered as- ➢ a grand bargain,
➢ new Fiscal federalism, ➢ Emergence of cumulative
federalism. ❖ Even Vijay Kelkar who has written a paper on
fiscal Federalism highlighted GST and GST Council as a new
architecture and he considers it as a grand bargain because
states are given equal powers.

Governor
Necessity of Governor ❖ The institution of Governor is one
of the most criticized and highly politicized in Indian
context. The office of Governor emerges in the context of :-
➢ Adoption of federal framework of Indian Political system.
➢ In context of the adoption of Parliamentary model of
governance even at the level of state. Envisaged role of
Governor ❖ Governor was supposed to play the role of
Constitutional Head of the state. In this context, the
Governor is supposed to be the guardian of the interest of
the people of the state. India has adopted the model of
cooperative federalism. In this context, the institution of
Governor was one of the various mechanisms adopted by
Indian Constitution. ❖ Indian constitution emerged in the
context of the partition of the country. Hence, Constitution
makers had created the model of federalism which is tilted
in favor of Centre. Governor was seen as an agency that
would see the administration of the state. It will see that the
administration is running as per the provisions of the
constitution. He has to see that the attempt towards
balkanization of the country is not taking place. ❖ He has
to bring national perspective at the level of state. Hence,
there was nothing wrong in the way institution of Governor
was created and envisaged under the Indian Constitution.
The Constitutional position of Governor vis-a-vis his Council
of Ministers as compared to that of the President is well
secured. ❖ The President largely wields influence but not
power. The office of President is largely ceremonial but not
of authority. The Governor of a state under Constitution
wields 3 both influence and power. His office is equally
ceremonial and equally an office of authority. ❖ Unlike
President, Governor can exist and exercise his executive
functions even in the absence of Council of Ministers. The
Constitution nowhere explicitly mentions that President
enjoys discretionary powers. His discretionary powers have
to be inferred under the various provisions of the
Constitution. ❖ It is because of compulsions of
parliamentary form of government the President has come
to enjoy certain discretionary powers. On the other hand,
Constitution explicitly states that the Governor of a state
enjoys discretionary powers. Further apart from enjoying
all the discretionary powers of at state level, the Governor
of state enjoys following extra-discretionary powers: - ➢
Under Article 𝟏𝟔𝟑(𝟏) the Governor of a state has to act on the
aid and advice of Council of Ministers. In the exercise of his
functions in so far as he is by or under the Constitution
requires him to act in his discretion. ➢ Article 𝟏𝟔𝟑(𝟐)- if any
difference arises whether a power of Governor is part of his
discretionary powers or not, then the decision of the
Governor in this regard shall be final and binding. ➢ Under
Article 166 it recognizes the discretionary powers of the
Governor. Powers of Governor ❖ Article 163 of Indian
Constitution provides the scope for the discretionary powers
of the Governor. ➢ According to it, Governor is to act on the
aid and advice of Council of Ministers except when he is
required to exercise his functions in his discretion. It is also
added that what issues will come under his discretionary
powers will be decided by the Governor himself. 4 Analysis
of this Provision ❖ The powers of Governor are different
from that of the President. The President of India only has
situational discretionary powers whereas Governor's
discretionary powers are constitutional. Such powers were
given to Governor to meet those exceptional circumstances
which can threaten security and territorial integrity of
India. Such discretionary powers were to be used only
under exceptional circumstances. However, the
discretionary powers of Governors were not used in
accordance with the vision of constituent Assembly. It was
used for the fulfilment of the interest of ruling party at the
Centre. ❖ Such use of discretionary powers of Governor
created controversy in the country. The Supreme Court in
Shamsher Singh Vs. State of Punjab Case, 1974 laid down
that India has adopted parliamentary form of Government.
Hence the powers of Governor are ceremonial. Only in the
rare circumstances, when the decision of the cabinet is
arbitrary or based on malafide then Governor can use his
discretionary powers. The Supreme Court in S.R. Bommai
case established that Federalism is a basic structure of
Indian Constitution and President's decision under Article
356 is subject to judicial review. ❖ Under Article 200, the
Governor can reserve any bill for the consideration of
President. Such powers of Governor are criticized by the
states. Such powers provide access to Centre on the entries
given under the state list. Centre has used this power of
Governor for bringing unnecessary delay in the passage of
the bills of those states where opposition party is in power.
❖ Hence, such discretionary powers can cause heavy strain
on Indian federal set up. Governors have not used their
discretion according to the constitutional mandate rather
they have used their discretion for the benefits of ruling
party. 5 Article 356 ❖ This article is also one of the most
controversial articles related to Governor's institution in the
Indian context. President’s Rule can be imposed under
Article 356 on the ground that it is not possible to run the
government of the state according to Constitutional
provisions. ❖ Article 356 has been misused through the
institution of Governor which has brought disrepute to the
office of Governor. Analysis ❖ Even after the judgement of
Supreme Court in S.R. Bommai case, the institution of
Governor and Article 356 has been misused by Centre for
political purposes. Governors have used their discretionary
powers in case of emergence of Hung Assembly in the state
in arbitrary manners. They have not tried to follow a
healthy convention or to establish a specific pattern of
behavior. ❖ The Governors sometimes have acted in blatant
disregard of Constitutional mandate. Ex → 2018-Governor
called a party to form Government in Karnataka despite not
having majority while other two parties with a post-poll
alliance were not invited. While President has tried to
establish healthy conventions at centre and minimise the
scope of situational discretion, same is not true in context
of Governors. That is why Sarkaria Commission has issued
guidelines to be followed by Governor in this context which
has not been followed by Governors. Thus, at the level of
state Governor has failed to maintain the spirit of
Westminster model in Indian context. Conclusion ❖ It is
indeed unfortunate that many Governors have failed to
understand the clear and proper conception of their own
role. There are many cases in which they have violated the
spirit of Fairness. 6 ❖ All political parties have utilized the
institution of Governor in their interest. There have even
been demands coming from certain states to have
substantial reduction in the power of Governor. ❖ Some
political scholars even suggested the abolition of the
institution. However, it is not advisable to abolish the
institution. It is necessary that the office of Governor should
uphold the spirit of fairness. ❖ Institution of Governor is an
essential part of constitutional machinery in Indian context.
A Governor can do great deal of good if the person is a
good Governor. Similarly, it can do great harm to the
federal structure and ultimately to the territorial integrity
of the state if they act otherwise. ❖ According to Soli
Sorabjee, it is not surprising that people call for abolition of
the institution. However, it will be like throwing the baby in
the bath water. What is essential is to teach the baby how to
swim. Thus, Soli Sorabjee points towards overhauling of the
institution. Views of Former PM Dr. Manmohan Singh ❖ He
has given 4 mantras to overhaul the institution: - ➢ You are
the sole judge of what is right and what is wrong, ➢ It is
your judgement to decide what is the mandate of the
Constitution, ➢ Judge what is in the best interest of the
country, ➢ See what people expect out of you. ❖ Various
viewpoints with respect to the office of Governor ➢ Vision
of Constituent Assembly ✓ Normally he should not be from
the same state, ✓ CM of the concerned state should be
consulted before appointment. ❖ Sarkaria Commission
recommendation ➢ He should not be an active member of
Party at power in Centre, 7 ➢ He should be appointed after
consultation with Vice-President, speaker of Lok Sabha and
CM of state. ❖ M.M. Punchhi Commission ➢ While inviting
the President Under Article 356 to take over the
administration of the state the Governor shall state in his
report that why he has come to the conclusion that the
administration of the state cannot be carried out in
accordance with the provisions of the Constitution.

Social Movement, Civil Liberties and Human Rights

Movements Introduction Understanding of social
movements is important not only for those who are
dissatisfied with the present social and political order but
also for those who are content with the system to
understand fragility of the political institutions and their
future. Our understanding of nature of political institutions
and their working, nature of constitution, political decisions
and legislation remain incomplete without understanding
social movements. We will have a better understanding of
the DPSPs and FRs if we carefully analyse political
processes which affected Indian Freedom Movement in
1930s and 40s. Similarly various land reform legislations of
the 1950s have antecedents in peasant movements in
different parts of the country. In short, our understanding
of political institutions and processes remain incomplete
without the understanding of social movements. Definition
of Social Movements Agitation or protests are not social
movements because they do not aim at bringing social
change. They are reaction to a particular situation.
According to Herbert Blumer, “Social Movements can be
viewed as collective enterprises to establish a new order of
life. They have their inception in the condition of unrest,
and derive their motive power from dissatisfaction with the
current form of life and from wishes and hopes for a new
system of living.” Social movement involves collective
struggle aiming at bringing social transformation
questioning prevailing hegemony and dominance, property
relations, power relations, assertion for Identity, struggle
for justice, influencing political authority. Social
Movements are spirit of democracy and the dynamics of
society. 3 Components of Social Movements Social
movements have five main components: Objectives
Ideology Programmes Leadership Organisation These
elements are interdependent and they keep influencing each
other. Social Movements and Democracy Do the movements
make democracy more effective to attain its objectives? Or
do social movements hamper functioning of democracy?
Alain Touraine and Jurgen Habermass argue that
democratic system in postmodern society is not able to
guarantee individual freedom, equality and fraternity. Both
scholars argue that democracy is degenerating into an
authoritarian and technocratic state. The state in turn has
become subjugated to market forces. There are no longer
workers, but only consumers. In this role, people are
manipulated entirely by the market. For this reason,
Habermass view Social Movements as defensive reactions to
defend the public and private sphere of individuals against
the inroads of the state system and market economy. Those
who dominate and occupy seat of power tend to claim to
have ultimate and all wisdom for the ‘good of society’.
There is a tendency among the political leaders not to step
down from power. Sometimes they feel that without them
others would harm society. Such a tendency leads to
intolerance towards dissent and opposition. Dissent is a
spirit of democracy. And social movement is one form of
organised dissent. 4 Social movements provide a possibility
for articulation of grievances and problems. They bring
pressure on the state; keep check over the authority needed
for healthy democracy. Social movement is a way of
people’s collective politics to express their aspirations and
priorities. Without understanding politics of the people, we
cannot understand complexities and dynamics of political
system. Social movements play positive role in democracy
in different ways:- Social movements are the outcome of
people’s political consciousness. It is an expression of
people’s consciousness for asserting their demands. Social
movements encourage participation of people on political
issues. Success and effectiveness of social movements
depend on extent of mobilization. Greater mobilisation
tends expand political horizon and lead to further
democratisation of society. Social movements express
aspirations, needs and demands of the people. They keep
policymakers on toe and accountable for their decisions.
New Social Movements (NSM) The movements based on
Marxist theoretical framework, focusing on class structure
of the participants, with ultimate objectives to overthrow
the present state aiming at bringing total change in
production relations, is considered as ‘Old’ social
movement. These are also called classical movements.
Peasant or working-class movement against feudal
structure falls in this category. Against this, recent
movements in and after the 1960s such as peace movement,
ecological movement, women’s movement are called ‘new’
social movement. In India the movements around the issue
of identity – Dalit, Adivasi, Women, Human Rights,
Environment, etc are labelled as the ‘New’ Social Movement.
They are called new social movements because they have
raised the issues related to Identity and autonomy which
are non-class issues and do not confront with the state. 5
Scholars identify the following characteristics of the New
Social Movements: NSM are not directing their collective
action to state power. They are concerned with individual
and collective morality. Andre Gunder Frank finds that
NSMs share the force of morality and a sense of justice in
individual motivation. NSM are not class-based. They are
multi-class. In fact, they do not subscribe to the theory that
society is divided on class line and the classes are
antagonistic. Gail Omvedt treats the contemporary farmer’s
movement as new and non-class movement. The NSMs are
confined to and concerned with civil society. According to
the proponents of NSM civil society is getting diminished; its
social space is suffering shrinkage and the ‘social’ of the
civil society is eroded by the controlling ability of the state.
NSMs raise the issues of self-defence of the community and
society against the increased expansion of the state
apparatuses: agencies of surveillance and social control.
NSMs are concerned for the good of everyone irrespective of
the class, its glaring example is environmental movement.
NSMs generally confine themselves to social action with a
spirit of what Cohen calls ‘self-limiting radicalism’ Civil
Liberties and Human Rights Movements Civil Liberties and
Human Rights Movements Rights which make you a
complete member of the civil society are called Civil Rights.
Rights like freedom of speech and expression, freedom of
press, freedom of movement comes within the purview of
civil rights. Civil rights are based on philosophy of
liberalism. Rajani Kothari noted the basic weakness of civil
rights movement in India is its conceptual reliance on the
West. They failed to understand the complexity of Indian
society because civil rights movement in India gives no
single picture. There are multiple movements and every
movement reflect different ideology and also every
movement is in different stage of its life cycle. 6 Evolution of
Civil Liberties Movement The evolution of civil liberties
movement in India be traced back in pre independence era
when the national liberation struggle was stirring up
against the British despotism. The main focus of these
movements was on indefinite detention without trial which
posed a serious threat to the civil liberties. Hence civil
liberty movement got pace as a part of national movement.
As a consequence, Indian civil liberty union was established
by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru in 1931. The 1970s witnessed
the first phase of the Human Rights Movement the ‘civil
liberties phase’ working within the framework of state-civil
society complementarity. The 1980s were marked by a shift
to the second phase the ‘democratic rights phase’ with a
new state versus civil society framework. Towards the end
of 1990s, the third phase the ‘human rights phase’
reconstituted itself on a new civil society versus political
society framework. The civil liberties movement was a
product of the emergency. Arbitrary detention, custodial
violence, prisons and the use of the judicial process were on
the agenda of civil liberties movement. Meaning of Civil
Rights Civil rights are those rights which are required by
an individual to become full participant in civil society.
Right, like freedom of speech and expression, freedom of
press, freedom of movement, freedom of arbitrary arrest,
etc., come within the purview of civil rights. History of Civil
Rights in India The first organised attempt to form civil
rights association was taken up by Pandit Jawaharlal
Nehru. He formed Indian Civil Liberties Union (ICLU) in
1936. Nehru defined civil liberty as a right to resist the
authoritarian state. Hence, civil liberty movements are
directed against the arbitrary actions of the state.
Rabindranath Tagore became the first President of ICLU. 7
Other important landmarks of civil rights movement in this
phase are the report of Nehru Committee which gave the
list of civil and political rights. The Human Rights
movement during this phase was exhibited in the form of
resistance against atrocities committed by colonial state.
Civil Rights Movement after Independenc After
independence, we see the growth of civil rights movement
under 2 traditions: the liberal tradition the communist
tradition During the Nehruvian era the primary activities in
the area of civil rights were led by leftists. The leftist
movement considered the nature of Indian state from very
beginning as authoritarian. They believed that economic
policies adopted by the state are ultimately in favour of
capitalist state. Indian state has always responded with
force towards the legitimate demands of the marginalised
Sections. These organisations point out the actions taken by
Indian state in initial phases: the unconstitutional
dissolution of communist led government in Kerala, in 1959,
arrest of communists under Preventive Detention Act during
India - China conflict in 1962, Repression of DMK
supporters during anti-Hindi agitation in Tamil Nadu in
1960s. Communists believe that such actions expose the
real nature of Indian state and it explodes- the myth of
liberal democratic state in India. Civil Rights Movement
during Indira Gandhi-1970s 1970s saw a renewed thrust
towards civil rights in India. During this phase we see the
growth of Civil rights movement in 2 directions. The 1st
direction was led by the leader like Jai Prakash Narayan.
Under the inspiration of Jai Prakash Narayan PUCL
(People's Union for Civil Liberties) was formed in 1976. Jai
Prakash Narayan himself advocated for total revolution. Jai
Prakash Narayan 8 himself laid the foundation of
Non-party organisation known as Citizens for Democracy.
Besides PUCL, we see the growth of other organisations like
Association for protection of democratic rights. This was
formed in Calcutta. Andhra Pradesh Civil Liberty
Committee- this committee campaigned for democratic
rights of Naxalites. Over the years in 1970s the situation
was worsening within the country. Ultimately, on 26th June,
1975 Government imposed emergency and suspended all
types of civil rights movement. Views of A.G. Frank -The
imposition of emergency clearly shows the capitalists
nature of Indian State. The analysis of A. G. Frank shows
that Marxist scholars believed in the legitimacy of the
movements like Naxalism because they believed that Indian
state does not allow open dialogue and right to register
protest. Civil Rights Movement after emergency: After
emergency, the movement led by Janata Party lost its
direction. Janata Party felt that with the displacement of
the government of Indira Gandhi, the objectives of Civil
rights movement have been fulfilled. It believed that now
there is no need for independent movements. They believed
that Janata Party has restored democracy in India.
However, left oriented movements primarily campaigned for
the release of political prisoners and fair trial for prisoners.
They also exposed the gross violation of democratic rights
through various cultural means like poetry, drama and
documentaries. During this phase, a committee was formed
in West Bengal for the release of prisoners and enforcement
of democratic rights. Civil rights movement during 1980s:
Initially civil rights movement was primarily protective in
nature. It was concerned with the protection of democratic
rights against arbitrary actions. Now it began to engage in
corrective actions. In this phase, organizations like PUCL
become active. 9 The primary methodology adopted by
PUCL was the use of institutions like judiciary for
achievement of the rights of marginal section. PUCL took up
the issue like minimum wages to contract labourers, rights
of pavement dwellers, compensation for those killed by
army in North-East. During this time, we also see the
emergence of PIL in Indian context. PIL has provided the
scope for the legal battle for such organisations. 1980s saw
the strengthening of civil rights movement because this
phase also saw the enactment of many such act which are
considered as restrictive for civil rights like National
Security Act (NSA), Terrorism and Disruptive Activities Act
(TADA). Response of Indian State: Indian state tried to
weaken civil rights movement. There was disagreement
between Indian State and civil rights activists. Civil rights
activists regarded their actions as affirmative because
democratic states should allow protest. Indian state
considered such protests as questioning the legitimacy of
Indian state leading to arrest of various activists. Civil
rights movement in 1990s and 21st century: In 1990s we
see revolutionary changes taking place in India. 73rd and
74th Constitutional Amendment Acts provided scope for
political representation for subaltern class. The emergence
of globalisation further resulted into the emergence of
global civil society. The civil rights movement in India also
developed transnational linkages. There was also resistance
to civil rights coming from both states as well as civil
society. Certain Sections of Indian Civil Society was against
the issues taken up by activists in 1990s. During this phase
primarily women issues and issues of tribals and those who
were dislocated because of New Economic Policy and
ongoing developmental projects dominated. 10 Even civil
rights activists faced ambivalence with respect to the
emergence and proliferation of terrorist organisations.
Thus, the civil rights movement found itself in a confused
state. In Indian context, civil rights movement is also
divided on caste and community lines. According to Rajani
Kothari, the basic weakness of civil rights movement in
Indian context is that they have imported western context.
They failed to understand the complexity of Indian society.
The major weakness is its conceptual reliance on west. The
civil rights movement in India gives no single picture. There
are multiple movements and different movements reflect
different ideology. Different movements are in different
stages of life cycle. Some are based on liberal ideology and
some are based on Maoist tradition. As for as the nature of
civil rights movement in India is concerned it is primarily a
middle class led movement.

Human Rights Movement; Women Movements

Human Rights Movements
According to Upendra Baxi, there is intense debate between
political philosophers and jurists to explain Human Rights.
Protection of Human Rights Act of 1993 stated that human
rights means the rights relating to life, liberty, equality and
dignity of the individual guaranteed by the Constitution or
embodied in the International Covenants and enforceable
by courts in India. The human rights movement in the
post-independence period is normally divided into two
phases: pre- and post-Emergency. The Civil Liberties
Committee was formed in West Bengal in 1948 to dissent
against the state repression on the communists. There is no
account of this phase of the movement. The major civil
liberties movement began in the late 1960s with the cruel
attack by the state on the naxalites. The movement elevated
the issue of democratic rights of the oppressed sections of
society for justice and equality. Globalization has increased
the number of advocacy groups in India. It has resulted in
various International NGOs like Amnesty International
opening their offices in India and have actively
participated in Human Rights movements. Status of Human
Rights in India: Government of India has always shown its
faith in UN led Human Rights system. In 1991, UN
sponsored a meeting in Paris. In this meet, it was decided
that different countries should establish a national
institution for protection and promotion of Human rights.
Consequently, Government of India has also attempted to
establish National Human Rights Commission. This
Commission is the first of its kind in South Asia. The
Commission came into existence in 1993 as a result of
Protection of Human Rights Act. This Act defines human
rights as those rights which are related to the dignity of life.
Indian Constitution also provides set of such rights under
Part III and Part IV of the Constitution. 3 Composition of
Human Rights Commission: Human Rights Commission will
comprise of:- 1. Chairperson - he has to be the retired Chief
Justice of Supreme Court. 2. One member who has been the
judge of Supreme Court. 3. One member who is or has been
the Chief Justice of High Court. 4. Two persons amongst
those who are having practical experiences in matters
relating to human rights 5. The chairpersons of other
commissions like National Commission for women, for
Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and for minorities are
also included. Methods of Appointment The members are
appointed by the President. The autonomy of commission is
ensured by providing security of tenure. Functions and
powers of Human Rights Commission: 1. It can inquire
suo-motu against any alleged violation of human rights, 2.
They can visit any jail or other institutions for monitoring
the situation of prisoners, 3. They can intervene in the
proceedings of court with the approval of court. 4. They can
review the cases of terrorism, 5. They study the treaties
related to human rights and suggest measures to implement
it, 6. The commission can also conduct public inquiry, 7.
They promote research in the field of human rights, 8. They
provide advice and assistance to government 9. They
coordinate actions of other human rights institutions like
State Human Rights Commissions, international
organisations, etc, 10. Their special job is to create human
rights literacy and consciousness. Powers 1. They have
powers of a Civil Court. As a civil court they can summon
and enforce the attendance of witnesses and they have
powers to ask for evidences 4 Analysis of the functioning of
Human Rights Commission Over the years, we see that the
number of cases coming before Human rights commission is
increasing. The Commission has provided relief to large
number of people. The important cases dealt by NHRC are:-
1. In case of Chakma refugees in Arunachal Pradesh, NHRC
has intervened and it has forced government to grant rights
to all such refugees. There was protest against such
refugees in Arunachal Pradesh. The issue was brought to
NHRC by an NGO. It was because of its efforts that
government was forced to give protection to these refugees.
2. NHRC took suo-motu action in the context of communal
riots in Gujarat. It has prepared a confidential report which
was later on made public. 3. A writ petition was filed by
Indian Council of Legal Aid. This Council was concerned
with the life of people in Odisha. In certain villages of
Odisha people were dying because of starvation. NHRC
established that such an act was the denial of basic human
rights to people. It requested the Government of Odisha to
take fast actions in this context. It also suggested that we
should have right to food as a set of core rights in the
Constitution. It has also directed DMs, and SPs of entire
country to report directly to any instance of death or rape
in Police custody within 24 hours. 4. NHRC also took actions
to stop child marriages, child labour and rehabilitation of
displaced persons. Human rights commission are
institutional responses towards protection and promotion of
human rights. The legitimacy of these commissions rest on
their ability to address the problems related to human
rights in society. Since these institutions create unparallel
social expectations so it became necessary that they should
have sufficient powers and resources at their disposal.
Human Rights Commission can work in an effective manner
only when they enjoy functional independence, adequate
level of funding and institutional autonomy. In case of
Indian Human Rights Commission, it is suggested that we
can improve its effectiveness in following manner:- 5 1. its
recommendations should be made binding, 2. Other
institutions should support the activities of Human Rights
Commission, 3. it is said that NHRC is overburdened, still
there are many states which have not set up their own
Commissions to reduce the workload of NHRC, 4. it is
necessary to increase the awareness of Human Rights in
Indian context. NHRC has done great service towards
building Human Rights culture in India. However, it is
necessary that Indian state should also show its
commitment towards the concept of human rights. A
comprehensive approach is needed for building strong
tradition of Human rights. At times, Indian state faces
criticism because many of its practices do not uphold the
system of Human Rights, some of the criticism against
Indian state by Human rights activists are:- 1. existence of
many laws which violate human rights like a) AFSPA, b)
Public Safety Act Jammu and Kashmir, c) UAPA, 2. India has
still not ratified UN Convention against torture 3. the culprit
of 1984 riots have not been brought to justice, 4. At times
Indian bureaucracy does not perform its duties and it
provides protection to the offenders, India is a country that
imposes maximum number of internet shutdowns in the
world. 5. Recent release of convicts in Bilkis Bano Case. 6.
displacement of Kashmiri Pandits, 7. attacks on Christians in
Odisha, 8. attacks on Muslims, 9. harassment of those
fighting for human rights 10. Arbitrariness and
inconsistencies in trials, 6 11. the non-inclusive nature of
economic growth in India, 12. Indian state treats social and
economic grievances as law-and-order problems and they
consider those grievances as dissent, 13. there is violation of
human rights on the part of Police, 14. child labour and
child marriages are still existing 15. India still does not
have comprehensive legal Framework for protection of
human rights, 16. Other malpractices like child labour, child
marriages, caste-based discrimination still continues in
India. The record of India towards human rights is better
than majority of UN members. In fact, India is among the
top 3 countries which have taken proactive measures for
disadvantaged section of Indian society, e.g., India has
taken affirmative actions in favour of socially and
educationally backward section of society. Suggestions for
effective human rights enforcement Amnesty International
has recommended certain changes in policies and practices
in India:- 1. routine violation of laws and regulations 2.
encounter killing 3. deaths in public custody 4. communal
violence 5. government's extreme sensitivity towards it's
criticism 6. lack of implementation of India's comprehensive
legal framework for protection of human rights Other
suggestions given by Amnesty International1. While
security concerns are genuine but sole reliance on security
measures is not correct. It should be combined with other
approaches like tackling social, economic and cultural
issues. 2. They suggest focus on social justice and inclusive
growth because it can provide wider basis of security. 7 3.
There should be repeal of AFSPA, Public Safety Act and
UAPA. 4. India must ratify convention against torture
without delay. 5. Amnesty International criticises India's
legalistic stand in UN when India tried to distinguish
between caste-based discrimination and racial
discrimination. 6. India should openly consider about
allowing the visits of UN Special Representatives on issues
like torture and issues like extra -judicial killings. India is
an open society and it has little to lose if it allows UN
Special Representatives within India, 7. Culture of human
rights should be promoted in India. Awareness is important
for empowering people. 8. Laws should be made which
should be responsible for protecting violation of human
rights. Women’s Movements Women as individuals and as a
group are among the most discriminated sections of world
population. As a marker of this discrimination, societies
across the world have shown preference for boy child. The
preference for boy child has taken societies to the extent of
killing girl child in the womb itself. All practices of
discriminations in societies have been legitimised through
either invoking socio-cultural needs or the need to maintain
a lineage or for material production. The patrilineality,
where descent is through father’s lineage and patrilocality
where the wife and children live in father’s home or village
have added to the preference for the boy child. All these
arrangements have the consequence of women being
relegated to what Simon De Beauvoir so poignantly termed
as the Second Sex. Women Movement is based on the
ideology of feminism. Feminism is an umbrella ideology. It
represents different schools of thoughts like liberalism,
socialism or radical feminism. The central and common
concern of all schools of feminism is to attain the equality
of status for women, ending social discrimination existing
against women and allowing women to become equal
citizens. 8 Nature of the Women’s Movements after
Independence According to Indian feminist scholars, it will
not be correct to analyse the nature of women movement in
India from the perspective of western women movement. If
we compare the movements in West with that of India, we
can see remarkable differences. While women’s movements
in West revolve around rights of women like lesbian rights,
right to have single family or right with respect to abortion.
Such issues are not of concern for Indian women or women
in 3rd World countries. In countries like India, these
movements are concerned with issues like sex
determination, the problem of child prostitution, and the
basic issues of life like price of commodities. But of late in
recent times, we have started seeing women movements in
India going a step further and now they also ask for the
lesbian rights, single family, etc. Thus, the nature of women
movements in India exhibits the features of both the new
social movements as well as old social movements.
Religiously diverse, multilingual and caste-divided India
has one of the most vibrant and many-stranded women’s
movements in the world. One of their priorities is
challenging patriarchal religious practices, while at the
same time respecting religious differences. Women’s
Movements in India are concerned with multiple issues. The
identity of women’s movements at times is submerged in
movements like movement for democracy or movement for
conservation of environment, etc. In India, we do not have
single women movement because of the specific nature of
society. Women Movement is at times divided on caste, class
or community lines. According to feminist scholars, such
divisions in feminist movement are purposefully created by
patriarchal society to weaken movement. Women
movement in Indian context are primarily concerned with
multiple issues. At times these issues are not specifically
related to the women itself. The identity of women 9
movement is at times submerged in movements like
movement for democracy or movement for conservation of
environment or movement against price rise. Ideologically
also we see the existence of different ideologies like
liberalism, socialism, Gandhism, eco- feminism and radical
feminism in Indian context. Evolution of the Women’s
Movements The post-independent Indian state geared itself
to the consensus that modern developed state and the
political democracy would be safeguarded by the economic
democracy. Women got franchise – the democratic right
and the development would see that she got the economic
rights to practise democracy. Thus, a full-blown theory of
equality, rights and justice was in place. The women’s
upliftment phase began in the late 19th century, first among
elite Hindus and later among Muslims. Besides emphasizing
education, they called for reform of the practices of widow
remarriage, polygamy, purdah, property rights, etc. It was
the violence against women in the form of bride burning
and rape that galvanised the women’s movement led by the
feminist groups especially since the 1970s. The campaign
against dowry and rape are called the first campaigns of
the contemporary Indian feminists’ movement. 1980s saw a
change in the approach of GOI, which was first reflected in
6th Five Year Plan which has a separate chapter on women
development. In 1980s, there was also the rise of terrorism
due to which women became the most vulnerable section in
Kashmir and Punjab. The 2nd wave began as grassroots
organisations focused not only upon gender but also upon
caste, class and culture as roots of women’s oppression.
Approach of GOI changed from development to
empowerment during 90s which got reflected in the 8th Five
Year Plan. Further 9th FYP committed itself to empower
women as an agent of social change. The 10th FYP
introduced Gender based Budgeting. 10 There is a
discrepancy between pre-independence and
post-Independence women’s movements in India. The
preindependence movements were fundamentally about
social reforms and initiated by men. Comparatively, the
post-independence movement demanded gender equality,
questioned gender-based division of labour and highlighted
the oppressive nature of the existing patriarchal structure.
Issue of the Women Reservation Issue of women
reservation has been discussed even before the
independence. Pandit Nehru opposed the women
reservation saying that it compromises merit. Sarojini
Naidu was also against reservation. She was also of the
view that women can be elected on the basis of merit.
Famous feminist scholar Shirin Rai oppose women
reservation arguing the example of Pakistan. Pakistan
national assembly has a reserved seats for women but it
does not mean that it has resulted into improvement in the
status of women. But in contemporary times almost all the
famous political leaders unanimously supported the issue of
women reservation. Be it Sonia Gandhi, Sushma Swaraj or
Brinda Karat; everyone is in favour of women reservation.
Women’s Reservation Act 2023 The 128th Amendment Bill,
popularly called as the Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam was
introduced in the Lok Sabha. The proposed legislation seeks
to reserve 33% of all seats in the Lok Sabha and state
legislative assemblies for women. The proposed legislation
seeks to augment the representation of female Members of
Parliament (MPs) to a total of 181, beyond the existing
count of 82. Additionally, it intends to elevate the number of
female members of Legislative Assembly (MLAs) to over
2,000, exceeding the current figure of 740. In the 17th Lok
Sabha, women comprise 15% of the overall membership,
although in state legislative assemblies, women represent
an average of 9% of the total members. 11 Evolution of
Women Movement in India and the Nature of response of
Indian state Before independence Concern for upliftment in
the status of women began before Independence. It was
Britishers who made certain attempts towards ending some
of the social practices prevalent at the time which can be
considered as cruel with respect to women. British were
supported by social reformers such as Raja Rammohan Roy,
Ishwar Chand Vidyasagar. However, later on Section of
Indian nationalists especially extremists did not support
the idea of such reforms. Extremists thought that colonial
state is not honest with respect to its proclaimed approach
towards reforming the status of women. In reality, such an
attempt was made to provide legitimacy to the ideological
hegemony created by the colonial state that they were on
civilising mission. During this phase, there was a heated
controversy between Tilak and colonial state with respect to
the marriageable age of women. 12 According to feminist
scholars like Madhu Kishwar, Gandhi can be treated as a
feminist leader in Indian context. He made an attempt to
link Indian women with mainstream of national movement.
Scholars like Ghanshyam Shah do not consider Gandhi as a
feminist. According to him, Gandhi was more concerned
with the solidarity of Indian National Movement rather
than the rights of women. Gandhi never gave women the
role at the forefront rather Gandhi always emphasized on
the so called feminist qualities. On the other hand,
Communists and revolutionary societies treated women
more equally. During this phase, we see emergence of many
organizations working for the cause of women. During this
phase, women organizations also gave priority to national
question over women rights. Hence, when colonial state
explored the provision for reservation of women in
Assemblies, the representatives of women flatly denied.
According to these representatives, women in Future India
will take up their place on the basis of merit. Nehru also did
not support the policy of Quota. Nehru considered it against
effectiveness and merit. Women Movement after
independence Ist Phase This phase of women movement in
Indian context is called as grey years of women movement
by Aparna Mehto. These years are called as grey years as
we do not see an active phase of women movement. There
are examples like Naxalbari movement or Telangana
movement where women did participate in large numbers.
However, these movements cannot be regarded as truly
women movement. There was participation of women but
basically these were peasant movements as such political
activities were called off in this phase. Women activists
thought that national government will work in such a
manner that it will result into upliftment of status of women.
Hence, there was no need for separate women movement. 13
Approach of Indian state According to feminist scholars, the
analysis of the attitude of Indian State towards women of
India shows that state cannot be treated as neutral. It
reflected patriarchal nature. Feminist scholars challenge the
impartiality of Indian state on following grounds:- 1.
Women were not given critical portfolios, Women were
given portfolios like Health, Information. and Broadcasting,
etc. 2. The legal reforms introduced by Indian state were
not sufficient. 3. Attitude of Indian state is not different
from that of colonial state. Both responded by enacting laws
with loopholes without concern for implementation of such
laws 4. Indian state failed to implement Uniform Civil Code.
Thus, it has created stratification among women. All women
are not equal citizens. Muslim women are at
disadvantageous position in comparison to Hindu Women.
5. The developmental policy adopted by Indian state did
not benefit females. 6. The approach of Indian government
towards women was guided by welfare perspective. At the
best, women were seen not as participant but as
beneficiaries of poorly implemented government
programmes. Result of the government policies There was
hardly any improvement in the status of women. There was
hardly any change in the society towards women. Certain
sections of women did get an opportunity and access to
education and employment. However, society did not react
positively and in supportive manner towards such women.
Women movement from 1970 till now 1970s is treated as an
important decade from the point of view of women
movement. UN declared 1975 as an International Year of
Women. Later on, 1970s was declared as Decade (1975 to
1985) for Women. 14 World Conference was held under UN
at Mexico on Women. This women conference directed
individual countries to prepare a report on the status of
women in their countries. Accordingly, Government of
India appointed a committee. This Committee brought
forward a report titled 'Towards Equality”. This report was
an eye opener with respect to the actual condition of
women in India. It brought forward explosive facts with
respect to the situation of women, discrimination and
violence faced by women in both public and private
spheres. It exposed the shocking conditions in which
majority of women were living. It brought out facts like
adverse sex ratio, declining participation of women in
politics, non-sensitive approach of development policies. It
highlighted the regional disparity with respect to women as
North was less egalitarian as compared to South. Situation
was extremely bad in states like Punjab, Rajasthan, U.P. and
Bihar. Suggestions:- Report suggested a change in
approach towards women. It suggested for giving women
more representation in decision making process. It
suggested for creation of separate women panchayats.
However, it did not support reservation for women in
Parliament and State Assemblies because of following
reasons:- Women cause has been supported by all
progressive elements including men. It does not mean that
men cannot further the interest of women. Separate
constituencies for women will narrow their outlook.
Concept of minority cannot be accepted in the context of
women. Women movement in 1990s and 21st Century
Approach of Government of India changed from
development to empowerment. This was reflected in
subsequent 5 years plans. Moreover, Women were also given
reservation in PRIs. In 21st century because of certain
programmes like PNDT (Pre Natal-Diagnostic Technique),
MGNREGA, we have witnessed increasing participation 15 of
women in rural workforce. In fact, we have witnessed
significant participation of women in agricultural activities
which has been called by scholars as feminisation of Indian
agriculture. Government of India passed PNDT Act in 2002,
and Domestic Violence Act, 2005. And judiciary has also
played an important role in forcing both legislature and
executive to take measures for protection of rights of
women. Government has launched different schemes in rural
areas where women are treated as primary beneficiaries.
In Indian context, we do see a change. There is a change
happening in both the sphere of state as well as in the
sphere of civil society. However, the pace of change is too
slow. Hence, women activists suggest the necessity of
proactive measures to be taken in the interest of women. As
far as the women movement in India is concerned, we can
say that the autonomous movement does exist in India. It
is addressing basic issues concerning women. However,
some scholars are of the view that autonomous movement
of women is a matter of debate in Indian context. One
single movement is not existing but many movements are
existing in India at the same time. Women Reservation
Necessity of Reservation Initially women activists like
Sarojini Naidu felt that reservation will actually hamper the
cause of women, According to Sarojini Naidu, it was
necessary that women should develop an attitude of
self-worth. They should feel that whatever they have only
because they deserve it and not because they were given
any special treatment. Nehru was also against reservation
on the lines of caste, class or sex. Nehru felt reservation as
undemocratic leading to inefficiency and second-rate
standards. Such approach guided the view of policymakers
towards women. The stand of Sarojini Naidu proved
idealistic in Indian context. Over the years we see that
representation of women in Indian Parliament has not been
beyond 20%, in Lok Sabha. Not only this, the negative sex
ratio and socio-cultural violence against women are still a
cause of concern. 16 Views of feminist scholars They are
divided on the issue of reservation of women in assembly.
According to Shirin Rai, there is no corelation between
enhanced visibility and sense of empowerment. Many
feminist scholars point out that the reservation of women in
Pakistan's National Assembly has not resulted into
empowerment of women in Pakistan. Women
parliamentarians in Pakistan hardly bring any legislations
which are concerning with the improvement of women in
the country. Activists like Illa Bhatt also do not support
women reservation because she believes that it will not
bring empowerment. She rather talks about economic
empowerment. However large number of women politicians
as well as feminist scholars today considers that women
reservation in Parliament if necessary. According to
feminist scholars like Laura Keenan, we certainly need
accelerator and need for reservation is clear. Indian women
are living in a system where discrimination runs deep in
subtly as well as manifest form. We are living in a system
where women find it difficult to get elected. Merit principles
do not always work in Indian circumstances. India requires
affirmative actions in this context. Women are not in a
position to get elected not because they lack merit or talent
but because they are situated in specific cultural context.
According to feminist scholars, the previous record of
women representation in Parliament show that the merit
concept does not work in Indian context. Women are unable
to get elected because of the differential treatment to
women over centuries. According to different studies, if
affirmative action is not taken in above context then we will
be required to wait for one more century to attain gender
justice. Indian constitution makes special provisions for
advancement of interest of women, children and other
weaker sections of society. The studies of Pakistan's
national assembly and that of PRI experiment in Indian
context have mixed results. 17 However, everyone agrees
that situations would have been worse for women if such
types of measures are not adopted. Maybe, we do have very
little benefit of such reservations but they do provide basis
for raging the consciousness in a patriarchal society.
Feminist scholars criticize the type of criticism have been
labelled against women reservation bill. The biggest hurdle
to Women Reservation Bill comes from political parties like
RJD, Samajwadi Party, JD(U). These parties feel that quota
within quota has to be created. They want quota for women
belonging to the OBC class as well as for Muslims. According
to feminist scholars, this is an attempt to defeat the bill or
to reach to a compromise which reduces the percentage of
seats reserved for women. Those who oppose women
reservation bill also believe that such attempts restrict the
choice of voters. Rather than reservation, we should have
an open competition. According to the Feminist scholars
who support women reservation believe that such
understanding of Indian electoral system is not based on
facts. In reality, it is political parties who decide the
candidates. Similarly, people say that women
representatives will be only proxy representatives. They
will not be in a position to articulate their views. Such
understanding of the behaviour of representatives is also
divorced from reality. We assume that representatives are in
a position to take independent decisions. However, the
reality is that representatives are under various types of
pressure. Further it is said that women candidates lack
proper exposure. Hence, they will not be in a position to
get proper representation Such situation may also apply in
case of male representatives. Just like in PRIs we have
training programmes; we can also have training
programmes for this level. Thus, the supporters of women
reservation bill believe that the arguments raised against
them do not carry strong logic. On the other hand, there are
very strong reasons to support Women Reservation Bill.
Such approach will result into the 18 structural integration
of women into politics. They will not be limited to few social
movements. It will increase the legitimacy of the system
and it will also enhance the democratic character of Indian
Republic. There are a number of feminist scholars who
believe that reservation should not be treated as an end in
itself. This policy alone would not lead towards
Empowerment. We need a comprehensive package that
should include measures like economic empowerment, legal
reforms, and cultural revolution.

Environmental Movements Historical context of the rise of

Ecological Movements ❖ In 1970s, we see the proliferation
of new social movements worldwide. The Stockholm
Conference, 1972 was the first global conference on human
environment. It established that environment is a serious
concern and cannot be left to scientists. Hence, environment
became an important issue of political decisions. India has
also witnessed the rise of social movements in 1970s.
However, the environmental movement in Indian context is
more a work of people at grassroot level rather than
scientists or researchers. The environmental movement in
3rd world countries differ from west in terms of objectives,
strategies as well as leadership, ❖ Movement in the West
mainly deals with post material issues. It is a concern for
protection of environment as a matter of issue of quality of
life. In the Indian context their issues are linked with the
issue of survival. They are linked with the livelihood issue of
people, their regular way of life and their culture. These
movements in India are primarily led by the people at
grassroot level. There is participation of a large number of
women, Scheduled tribes and marginalized sections of
Indian society. Recently, leadership to these movements is
also been provided by people belonging to middle classes
as well as elite sections. This is the result of growing
awareness about ecological issues worldwide. As far as the
strategies are concerned, environmentalists in the west have
primarily taken the course of judicial remedy. In Indian
context, we see primarily direct actions like sticking with
trees, Jal Samadhi, Gheraos, etc. ❖ There has been no
single unified and homogeneous environmental discourse in
India. There has been what Guha calls ‘varieties of
environmentalism’. ❖ The genesis of the environmental
movement in India can be traced to the Chipko Movement
of 1973 in Garhwal region of Uttarakhand. In fact, between
the 1970s and 80s there were several struggles in India
around issues of rights to forest and water which raised
larger ecological concerns like community rights on forest
resources. 3 Nature of the Environmental Movements in
India ❖ The Indian environmental movement is critical of
the colonial model of development pursued by the
post-colonial state. The post-independent state failed to
build up a developmental agenda based on the needs of
people and continued to advocate the modern capitalist
agenda which led to the destruction of environment and
marginalisation of rural communities. ❖ Formation of
national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, protected areas in
India, in fact represents the conventional environmentalism
which the Indian State advocated with the aim of
preserving wildlife and biodiversity by pushing people out
of these areas. In response to this conventional
environmentalism which considered the Indian state to be
the custodian of natural resources, the environmental
movement ❖ in India advocated the ideology of
‘environmentalism of the poor’. ❖ It strongly advocated the
revival of traditional self-sufficient village economy. It
brought communities to the centre stage of Indian
environmental discourse. ❖ A significant characteristic of
environmental movement in India is that they have mainly
involved the women, the poor and disadvantaged masses
who have been directly affected by or are victims of
environmental degradation. ❖ Environmentalism of the
North is referred to as “full stomach environmentalism” and
the environmentalism of the South is called as “empty-belly
environmentalism”. Classification of Environmental
Movements in India ❖ Gadgil and Guha identify three
broad strands within the environmental movements in India
based on the vision, ideology and strategy. ➢ Gandhian:-
These movements emphasise on the moral necessity to
restrain overuse and ensure justice to the poor and
marginalised. ➢ Marxist:- These movements stress on the
need to dismantle the unjust social order through struggle.
4 ➢ Reconstructionist:- It advocates for employing
technologies appropriate to the given context and time.
They reflect the concerns of the scientists or the
spontaneous efforts of the communities. The reasons for the
emergence of environmental movements: ❖ Control over
natural resources:- Chipko and Narmada Bachao Andolan
are good examples of this. While in Chipko the reason for
conflict was control over forest and in NBA reason was
control over water. ❖ Political reasons:- The government
policies results in a lot of displacement of people due to
large projects such as dams like Bhakra-Nangal. These
policies push the local people on the edges. ❖
Socio-economic reasons:- If we see the location where these
movements have started then we would find that most of
these areas are tribal dominated. These people have strong
beliefs regarding their forests, land and water. At the same
time they are also totally dependent upon these resources
for their survival. Other features of Indian Environmental
Movement ❖ Environmental movement in India lacks an all
India character. Environment protests are new, desperate,
localised, spontaneous, anti-systemic. They question the
developmental policy pursued by the Indian state. They
also question the legitimacy of the Indian state. It is held
that Indian state has favoured the elite section i.e.,
businessmen, landlords, and foreign capitalist class at the
cost of common people, primarily the tribals. It is accused
that the colonial legal legacy is still continuing in India.
Hence, these social hast movements are an attempt to
change the developmental model. They make an attempt to
make democracy more inclusive. ❖ Today the Indian
Government has changed its approach towards the rights of
tribals. It has made an attempt to give recognition to the
rights of Scheduled tribes and other forest dwellers. Indian
Government has adopted an approach to involve PRIs and
empower Gram Sabhas in matters of developmental
projects 5 ❖ Important Environmental Movements in India.
➢ Chipko Andolan:- ✓ Year: 1973 ✓ Place: In Chamoli
district and later at Tehri-Garhwal district of Uttarakhand.
✓ Leaders: Sundarlal Bahuguna, Gaura Devi, Sudesha Devi,
Bachni Devi. ✓ Aim: The main objective was to protect the
trees on the Himalayan slopes from the axes of contractors
of the forest. The women of Advani village of TehriGarhwal
tied the sacred thread around trunks of trees and they
hugged the trees, hence it was called the ‘Chipko Movement’
or ‘hug the tree movement’. The then state Chief Minister,
Hemwati Nandan Bahuguna set up a committee to look into
the matter, which eventually ruled in favour of the villagers.
This became a turning point in the history of
eco-development struggles in the region and around the
world. ➢ Narmada Bachao Andolan:- ✓ Year: 1985 ✓ Place:
Narmada River, which flows through the states of Gujarat,
Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. ✓ Leaders: Medha
Patker, Baba Amte, Adivasis, farmers, environmentalists and
human rights activists. ✓ Aim: A social movement against a
number of large dams being built across the Narmada
River. Movement first started as a protest for not providing
proper rehabilitation and resettlement for the people who
have been displaced by the construction of the Sardar
Sarovar Dam. Later on, the movement turned its focus on
the preservation of the environment and the eco-systems of
the valley. Activists also demanded the height of the dam to
be reduced to 88 m from the proposed height of 130m.
World Bank withdrew from the project. In October 6 2000,
the Supreme Court gave a judgment approving the
construction of the Sardar Sarovar Dam with a condition
that the height of the dam could be raised to 90 m. This
height is much higher than the 88 m which antidam
activists demanded, but it is definitely lower than the
proposed height of 130 m. ✓ Although not successful, as the
dam could not be prevented, the NBA has created an
anti-big dam opinion in India and outside. It questioned
the paradigm of development. As a democratic movement, it
followed the Gandhian way 100 percent. ➢ Movement
against Big Dams: The issue of opposition to big dams
include important issues like environmental degradation
and displacement of people, sustainability of projects, etc.
The Land Acquisition Act of 1894 allows government to take
land for public purposes. No amount of compensation or
money or relocation is sufficient to address the grievances
of people who are heavily dependent on these resources. In
Indian context, we see important movements like Narmada
Bachao Andolan, movement against Tehri Dam, movement
in Kerala against Silent River Valley projects. In all these
projects the issue of development policy and displacement
of people is involved. We see the proliferation of many
grassroot movement organisations. Movements like
Natimada Bachao Andolan have been able to attract the
attention of media greatly. The achievement of Narmada
Bachao Andolan is that it has created high level of
environmental awareness in the country. ➢ The other
environmental struggles include:- ✓ struggle for control
over marine resources, ✓ struggle against aqua culture
farming, example, Chilka Bachao Andolan. ❖ We see that
because of such types of movements environmental
awareness has been increasing day by day. Judiciary has
also played a constructive role in this context. With the
introduction of 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendment
Acts and emergence of global civil society we see that
demands of marginalized section of Indian society is also
now being heard. 7 ❖ NOTE:- Also read this topic from the
topic Contemporary Global Concerns of Paper 2 Section A
for wider understanding and grip on the topic as it has been
covered holistically there.
Examples of Environmental & Ecological Movements in
India(UPSIDE)
The Popular Environmental Movements in India

Concluding Remarks ❖ Democracy and social movements

are closely linked like two sides of the same coin. Social
movements are the expression of collective will. It is soul of
democracy – Expression of people’s grievances against the
system, their needs and aspirations; and their desire to get
involved in political processes. And without people’s politics
democracy is a form without substance. 10 ❖ People
ventilate and articulate their aspirations and opinions
through collective actions in the forms of social movements.
The movements keep political leaders on their toe and build
pressure on the government. ❖ Some of the movements
have to some extent succeeded in enhancing
democratisation in society, mobilising and politicising the
people to take part in decision making processes. They have
also to some extent influenced public policy in their favour.
However, all social movements do not necessarily lead to
greater democratisation. Nature of social movements in
terms of their goals, ideologies, organisational structures
and programmes play important role in strengthening of
democracy. Questions asked: ❖ What is New Social
Movement(NSM)? Explain the main challenges of the NSM in
the developing countries. (2011) ❖ Examine the nature of
the civil liberty movement in India. (2020) ❖ Comment: The
dilemmas of the human rights movements in India. (2014)
❖ In what ways do civil liberties and human rights
movements influence the working of Indian democracy?
Give your answer with suitable examples. (2010) ❖ Examine
the scope and limitations of women’s movements in India.
(2014) ❖ Comment: Environmentalism of the poor. (2023) ❖
Write a short note on significance of the Chipko Movement.
(2019) ❖ Comment: Compare and contrast Chipko
Movement with Narmada Bachao Andolan. (2013) ❖ Discuss
the impact of environmentalist movements on government
policies in recent years. (2012) Grassroot Movement
Definition ❖ According to D.L. Shoth, Any political
happening at the base if it acquires some political
significance and some durable features then it can be called
as grassroot movement. 11 Status of grassroot movements
in India 1. Grassroot movements are very strong and are
known as the 5 estate. 2. They are like bubbles on the
political surface. They appear, burst and again reappear
without leaving much impact. 3. They represent the seeds of
change with potential to transform the idioms of Indian
politics. Factors for emergence of Grassroot Movements ❖
They fulfill the political spaces which emerge because of the
decline of mainstream political institutions when political
parties fail to convert the social and economic demands of
people at grassroots into effective political demands. Then
people tend to take the course of social movements. Thus,
social movements are linked with deinstitutionalization of
democracy. The decline of Parliament, the failure of
bureaucracy, trade unions to address the issue concerning
people, etc., provide the basis for the rise of such
movements. Recently, we saw the rise of grassroot
movements also because of the emergence of global civil
society and its transnational networks. The popularisation
of the doctrine of human rights, people empowerment also
increase awareness. Sometimes the temporary issues
related to the lives of people like price rise or drinking
water unavailability or sanitation, etc., also leads to such
movements. ❖ Examples of grassroot movements in India
are: ➢ Self Employed Women Association (SEWA), ➢ the
movement for bidi workers ➢ Human Rights groups, ➢ the
organisations which normally emerge with particular types
of movements. Type of issues they pick up ❖ They pick
primarily issues which are given in Chapter IV of Indian
Constitution i.e., DPSPs. Ideally such works should have
been done by the political institutions, e.g., regularisation of
wages, for those working in informal sector, ecological,
protection, dowry deaths, etc. 12 ❖ Analysis of these
movements ➢ They are primarily led by Gandhian or Leftist
approach ➢ They are issue based movements ➢ They are
fragmented in nature ➢ They do not have nation wide
networks. However at times they forge coalitions among
themselves as well as with political parties, ➢ They are not
opposed to institutional democracy. ➢ They do not aim at
capturing state power. ➢ Most of them are away from
mainstream politics. ➢ Most of the movements are led by
middle and lower middle classes. ➢ Most of the movements
are for social transformation. ➢ At times we see that the
movements are against forces of globalisation and
corporatisation ➢ Most of the movements are for social
transformation. Hence their politics is also known as politics
of transformation. ❖ There is a proliferation of grassroot
movement activities. These movements have started having
impact on National politics. However, according to scholars,
these movements are still in their initial stage.

Contemporary Global Concerns – Human Rights

Background ❖ The concept of Human Rights originated
after the 2nd world war. It is based on the experiences of
the atrocities committed by Hitler on Jews. Till 2nd world
war, the principle of sovereignty of the state was considered
sacrosanct. Hence there was no scope of the intervention by
the international community in the domestic affairs of the
state. ❖ However it was realised that there is a need to
dilute the principle of state sovereignty. There is a need to
recognise the role of the international community. In case
state violates the rights of its own citizens or persons living
in the state, it becomes the responsibility of the
international community to come forward for the protection
of the rights. Introduction ❖ One of the perennial issues of
politics has been the problem of striking a right balance
between the rights of the individual and the authority of the
state. Rights and authority are not opposite to each other,
they complement each other, and they shape each other’s
nature and content. Rights can find better protection in an
orderly and stable political system. ❖ Most modern political
systems are generally labelled as democratic or
authoritarian depending on the degree of human rights
guaranteed to the citizens. ❖ There is no agreement on the
meaning, nature and content of Human Rights. The concept
of Human Rights is very much contested, not only between
East and West but also between developed and developing
countries. Each group of nations has a different perception
of Human Rights. ❖ Developed countries of the West believe
in supremacy of the individual, and they assert the primacy
of civil and political rights while the developing countries of
the East focus on community and unconditional priorities of
the class interest, they give priority to economic, social and
cultural rights. 3 ❖ In the opinion of former UN Secretary
General Boutros Boutros-Ghali, “Human Rights have
become a common language of mankind and the ultimate
norm of all politics. Adopting this language allows all
peoples to understand others and to be the authors of their
own history.” Generations of Human Rights ❖ The modern
concept of Human Rights is comprehensive in its nature and
content. It includes three types of rights which are
popularly also known as three generations of human
rights:- 1. Civil and political rights. 2. Economic, social and
cultural rights. 3. Emerging collective or group rights. ❖ In
fact, the catalogue of rights is expanding everyday. Several
analysts claim that a fourth generation of human rights is
emerging, which would include rights that cannot be
included in the third generation, future claims of first and
second generation rights and new rights, especially in
relation to technological development and information and
communication technologies and cyberspace, such as Net
Neutrality rights, right to digital self-determination, right to
access one’s own digital data, personal data protection, etc.
❖ The content of Human Rights goes hand in hand with the
state of development of civilisation at any given time.
Meaning of Human Rights ❖ Human rights are those
conditions of life that allow us to develop and use our
human qualities of intelligence and conscience and to
satisfy our spiritual needs. We cannot develop our
personality in their absence. They are fundamental to our
nature, without them we cannot live as human beings. 4 ❖
According to the theory of human rights, irrespective of
caste, class, gender, creed, nationality, there are some basic
minimum rights which should be available to all just
because they are humans. Hence whether the constitution of
the country recognizes or not, it will be assumed that
people possess human rights. The fundamental theme of
human rights is the idea of universalism. Evolution of
Human Rights ❖ With the establishment of the United
Nations in 1945 the process of evolving an “International
Bill of Rights” began. In 1948 it adopted the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights, which included both
civil-political and socio-economic rights in a single
document. UDHR is a milestone document in the history of
Human Rights. Since it’s adoption in 1948, the UDHR has
been translated into more than 501 languages and has
inspired the constitutions of many newly independent states
and many new democracies. ❖ The UDHR is based on: 1)
Locke’s theory of natural rights – that natural rights are
self-evident truths. 2) Immanuel Kant’s theory of concept of
human dignity. According to Immanuel Kant, man is
different from animal, man possess reason, hence all human
beings deserved to be treated with respect. ❖ Since the
Universal Declaration was not a legally binding instrument,
the UN subsequently adopted two covenants on civil and
political rights and socio-economic rights in 1966. These
covenants are legally binding on ratifying states. ❖ The
Universal Declaration and the two covenants constitute
what is popularly known as the International Bill of Rights.
❖ The International Covenant on socio-economic and
cultural rights entered into force in 1976 and has 171 parties
as of July 2020. This covenant seeks to promote and protect
human rights that include: 5 ➢ The right to work in just and
favourable conditions. ➢ The right to social protection, to
an adequate standard of living and to the highest
attainable standards of physical and mental well-being. ➢
The right to education and the enjoyment of benefits of
cultural freedom and scientific progress. ❖ The
International Covenant on civil and political rights entered
into force in 1976. As of June 2022, it has 173 parties. This
covenant deals with such rights as freedom of movement,
equality before the law, right to fair trial and presumption
of innocence, etc. Features of Human Rights We are all
equally entitled to our human rights without discrimination.
These rights are all interrelated, interdependent and
indivisible. There are following five essential features of
Human Rights:- (1) Equality - Since all are humans, all are
to be treated equally. It means all should be given equal
rights. (2) Universality - It means irrespective of the
nationality all are to be treated as humans. Hence all
should possess some basic minimum rights. So far there is
no agreement on what rights will qualify to be ‘basic
minimum’ there is a big difference in the approach of the
western and non-western countries. ➢ In the name of
universal values western countries promote western values.
It is seen by some of the countries as an attempt of cultural
imperialism. The political leaders for non-western countries
suggest a ‘cultural relativistic’ perspective. E.g. the
politicians of South East Asia call for Asian values. However
western scholars consider Asian values as the justification
of soft authoritarianism. For supporters of Asian values,
social and economic rights will have primacy but for
western world civil and political rights are the minimum
guarantees. 6 (3) Individuality - Human rights are to be
enjoyed by human beings as an individual. Human rights
are based on the concept of the autonomy of man. (4)
Inalienable - Human rights cannot be taken away from
individuals. Man possesses these rights just by virtue of
being a human being. (5) Permanent - These rights are not
circumstantial. Man possesses these rights on a permanent
basis. Debates on Human Rights The theory of human rights
is one of the most contested issue in International politics.
Though there is a agreement that there should be the
recognition of human rights, yet there is no agreement over
which rights are to be considered as basic rights. Some of
the theoretical debates centred on following issues are as
follows: ❖ Definition of Humans – There is no consensus
even on the definition of humans. One of the most contested
issue is whether terrorists can be regarded as humans and
should be given the basic minimum rights. ❖ When human
life begins? – There is a debate over abortion rights in
many catholic countries. It is not clear whether human life
begins after birth or in the womb of mother. ❖ Who should
be the guardian of human rights? – Since states are the
principal actors, states are supposed to be the protectors of
human rights. However, human right as a concept is
anti-state. It weakens the powers of the state. Hence a state
go for moral guarantees, but in practice is unable to deliver.
Transnational Corporation's Acceptability of Human Rights
❖ Because of their enormous economic power, TNCs are
often beyond the effective control of national governments.
TNCs normally have considerable influence in national
political systems, especially through pro-business political
parties and personalities. 7 ❖ Top 5 trillion dollar MNCs are
Apple, Microsoft, Alphabet, Amazon and Saudi Aramco. ❖
These TNCs and their foreign affiliates produce around 35%
- 40% of global output. Apple’s market cap is more than the
GDP of 186 countries. Only US, China, Japan and Germany
were ahead of it earlier. But according to the latest
statement of GoI as per June 2023, India's gross domestic
product (GDP) has touched the $3.75 trillionmark in 2023,
up from around $2 trillion in 2014. ❖ The primary objective
and concern of TNC is profit making. In order to make
profits, TNCs often move their capital and production to
those places where they attract cheap labour. ❖ In the hope
of attracting TNC investment, national bid against each
other to offer the lowest level of environmental, labour and
human rights regulations. ❖ TNCs have this potential to do
great damage by destroying the livelihoods of people
through environmental practices that lay forest bare,
deplete fishing stocks, dump hazardous materials and
pollute rivers and lakes that were once a source of water
and fish. The perfect example of this was the Plachimada
case where Kerala High Court cancelled Coca-Cola’s licence
because the company polluted and depleted groundwater
reserves, drying up wells and adversely impacting
agriculture and livelihoods. US Intervention and the Human
Rights ❖ For a long time now, the United States has sought
to champion human rights and promote democracy abroad.
But many of these humanitarian responses arguably have
resulted in some of the worst human rights abuses. The
invasions of Iraq and Afghanistan are two notable
examples. ❖ American foreign intervention has led to
civilian death, torture, prisoners of war and damage to
critical infrastructure. The solution is that the United States
must reevaluate its strategy of policing the world and
spread the torch of democracy and freedom through other
means, not by the barrel of a gun. 8 ❖ Scholars argue that
U.S. invasions or interventions have been driven by
economic interests, political ambitions or a desire for global
dominance. In the Middle East, the United States has had a
tendency to denounce the region’s problematic human
rights record, yet overlook or prioritise its economic
interests when its allies are the ones responsible for such
abuses. This can be seen in Saudi Arabia and Israel, both
important allies of the United States, who have been
criticized for violating freedom of speech and occupying
Palestine, respectively. ❖ In the case of Afghanistan, the
United States intervened in response to the September 11,
2001 terrorist attack. The cost of human life dwarfed the
limited American success in the region. Afghanistan was left
in a far worse position than it was in 2001 before the United
States set up a base in the region. Additionally, the
opportunity cost of the invasion was too high, given that
the resources could have been better spent on establishing
robust infrastructure, education and strengthening
democracy. ❖ Failings in Afghanistan and Iraq still haunt
U.S. foreign policy and reflect weaknesses in the current
approach rather than an institution with justifiable actions.
Limited understanding of the local context and an
overemphasis on security overdevelopment has limited the
success of U.S. post-conflict reconstruction. ❖ The United
States approach to human rights is unjust as it selectively
chooses which violations to address and turns a blind eye to
others. In the event of intervention, a sensible approach
would be to strike a balance between indulging in endless
wars and invading without a clear purpose to rebuild or
enforce long-term democratic values that promote human
rights. Top-10 Human Rights Issues in 2022 The following
are the top 10 human rights issues in 2022 as announced by
the IHRB (Institute for Human Rights and Business): ❖
Redesigning supply chain 9 ❖ Personal data tracking and
tracing ❖ Stranded at sea ❖ Wage abuse ❖ Office and
workplace ❖ Forced labour ❖ Climate change ❖ Racial
matters ❖ Standards fragmentation ❖ Transition finance
Humanitarian crises in news around the world (1)
Afghanistan - Afghanistan has largely disappeared from the
media, but it remains an example of one of the world’s
worst humanitarian disasters. Two-thirds of the country’s
population is food insecure, including 8,75,000 children
facing acute malnutrition. Women and girls remain most at
risk. The abrupt loss of most international aid after the
Taliban takeover in August 2021 prompted the initial crisis,
but the Taliban’s increasingly repressive policies, such as
banning women from working for the UN and
nongovernmental organizations, have made the situation
much worse. (2) Democratic Republic of Congo - DRC has
one of the world’s poorest health systems made worse by
the country’s battle with Ebola, Cholera, and COVID-19 as
well as the 2021 volcanic eruption. (3) Venezuela - After
nearly seven consecutive years of economic contraction,
political instability, and violence, Venezuela’s humanitarian
crisis continues to intensify. More than 5.6 million
Venezuelans have fled their homes, creating the world’s
second-largest exodus after the war in Syria. But, unlike
other refugee crises, this one is not a result of conventional
war or conflict. 10 The Venezuelan economy has nearly
collapsed, causing spiralling inflation, unemployment, and
shortages of affordable food, water, electricity, and health
care and forcing families to flee to neighbouring countries.
The ongoing political and economic challenges in and
outside of Venezuela have amplified the crisis, which has
been exacerbated even further by the pandemic. The
growing number of COVID-19 cases continues to put
Venezuelans at risk with strained health systems and rising
rates of poverty while the education, food security, and
health situations continue to worsen. (4) Iran - The Iranian
regime's gross human rights violations have targeted a
wide array of ethnic and social groups including women,
homosexuals, students, Bahais, Christians, Jews, journalists,
and political dissenters. The Islamic Republic of Iran has a
lengthy history of committing human rights abuses that
spans three decades prior to the atrocities seen in the
aftermath of the June 2009 elections. (5) Myanmar –
Militarism in Myanmar has neither created peace and
stability nor protected human rights and physical security.
Militarism coupled with ethnic grievances has ensured the
continuation of civil war in Myanmar. Conflict continues to
intensify in Rakhine and Chin States with increasing clashes
between the Myanmar army and the ethnic armed group
known as the Arakan Army. (6) North Korea - Extrajudicial
killings, systematic torture, arbitrary detention, forced
labour, rape, starvation, restriction of freedoms, the list
goes on. These human rights issues in North Korea
undoubtedly remain among the worst in the world.
Humanitarian Intervention ❖ Humanitarian intervention is
the use or threat of military force by a state across borders
with the intent of ending severe and widespread human
rights violations in a state which has not given permission
for the use of force. Humanitarian interventions are aimed
at ending human rights violations of individuals other than
the citizens of the intervening state. Humanitarian
interventions are only intended to prevent human rights
violations in extreme circumstances. 11 ❖ Attempts to
establish institutions and political systems to achieve
positive outcomes in the medium to long-run, such as
peacekeeping, peace-building and development aid do not
fall under this definition of a humanitarian intervention.
Concluding Remarks ❖ Nelson Mandela said, “To deny
people their Human Rights is to challenge their very
humanity.” ❖ SDG 17 states that it requires partnerships at
all levels from local to global, and the creativity, sensitivity,
sensitization, know-how, and financial resources from all of
society to bring peace and harmony to all in the world.
Questions asked ❖ Discuss the importance of personal data
protection in the context of human rights. (2019) ❖
Critically examine the notion of “Asian Values” in the
context of the ongoing debates on human rights. (2018) ❖
Human Rights constitute the third generation of rights.
Analyse the range and complex dimensions of human rights
in the globalised era. (2012) ❖ Critically examine the
protection and enforcement of human rights under the UN
system. (2003) ❖ Comment: Human Rights and
Humanitarian Intervention (2002) ❖ “Moral claims of today
become the human rights of tomorrow.” Trace the efforts in
the international protection of human rights in the 20th
century. (2001) ❖ Comment: Sovereign nation-state and
International concern for human rights. (1994) ❖ Comment:
Human Rights in the US foreign policy. (1992)

Gender Justice and Democracy Introduction ❖ Bangles,

which are synonymous with women, have been quite often
used as a metaphor for shackles. Not only in feminist
literature, but also otherwise. ❖ Every day, in every country
in the world, women are confronted by discrimination and
inequality. They face violence, abuse and unequal treatment
at home, at work and in their wider communities – and are
denied opportunities to learn, to earn and to lead. ❖ The
reason for the growing sensitivity to gender owes a lot to
the work of feminist scholars, economists in particular, who
established that the nature and significance of the work
done by women in societies all over the world, had
remained invisible to mainstream. ❖ Oxfam recognizes that
there is no economic, social, and environmental justice
without gender justice. Difference between ‘the gender’ and
‘the sex' 3 In the mid – 20th century, the French social
philosopher Simon de Beauvoir wrote her magnum opus
The Second Sex wherein, she elaborated the secondary
position of women, more or less all over the world because
of socio-cultural factors. She said, “one is not born woman,
but rather becomes a woman.” Thus, due to societal
customs, norms, institutional behaviour laws, restrictions,
etc, the ‘sex’ in the course of time becomes 'gender’ due to
primary (family peer groups, community) and secondary
(schools, colleges, clubs, offices) socialisation. Statistics
about women 4 Gender Justice : A brief overview ❖ Male
chauvinism as a state of mind is so well dissipated that
gender stereotypes and sexism exists even in urban
subcultures just as it does, more so, overtly in rural,
rudimentary cultures. ❖ In India, it is believed that women
enjoyed an equal status as men in the Vedic Period. The
education of women held considerable significance,
especially from works of Katayana and Patanjali. The
Upanishadas and the Vedas have cited women sages and
seers. But the condition declined considerably afterwards.
Historical practices such as Sati, Jauhar, Purdah and
Devdasis, child marriage, are a few traditions reflective of
the gender imbalance in Indian Society. Though these
practices are largely defunct now, due to legal reform, the
essence of the dysfunctional gender equity still is rampant
and manifested today through domestic violence,
trafficking, dowry deaths, female infanticide, female
foeticide, sexual objectification and violence and sexual
harassment at work place. ❖ In ancient Greek and Roman
societies women were treated as inferior to men.
Procreation of children has been held to be the only role for
women. Conception was her only purpose. Hence women
were greatly discriminated against. The perception of
women among Christian theologians was highly
unfavourable. Gender inequity continued into medieval
societies as subversive perspective on gender deepened.
Under 5 common law of England, a married woman hardly
had any rights; she had no rights to her property after
marriage. In the early history of the United States, women
and children were considered as a man's possession. Women
began working in industries, the conditions of work and
timings were atrocious but it was until 1910 that the states
passed legislations alleviating the conditions of work.
Feminist scholars perspectives on Gender Justice ❖ Often
women are seen as ‘those who need protection’ and men as
‘those who can offer protection’. This has been the
perspective in all civilization historically. But it should be
questioned in present times. ❖ 90% of total casualties in
today’s wars are civilian and women and children form
majority of these. Sometimes individual (women) security is
even sacrificed for the protection of state. Prostitution
camps surrounding military bases are an example of this. ❖
Feminist also suggest changing the perspective on security.
Instead of a top-bottom approach starting with the state,
we should start with the security of individual. ❖
Conciliatory gestures are seen as feminine and weak, while
war is seen as masculine and strong. This also indicates
gendering of certain practices. ❖ According to Feminist
Scholars like Cynthia Enloe, Rose Susan, Gender justice has
become urgent global concern because the participation of
women in International Politics leads to peace and security
and also including women in political decision making leads
to more effective governance, since women’s presence in
government brings greater diversity and different
experience to the process. ❖ For example, as per Anne
Tickner, as international relations theory and practice has
been a ‘womanless world’, it has hindered peace-talks and
climate negotiations. ❖ According to Anuradha Chenoy,
gender justice will make the world more egalitarian,
democratic and responsive. 6 ❖ As per UN Women’s ‘women
war peace’ research, women are more deeply committed to
peace building, post-conflict reconstruction and have
unique and powerful perspectives to bring to the
negotiating table. Impact of Globalization on Gender
Justice ❖ Structural Adjustment Policies (SAP) has been
introduced under pressure from the World Bank in different
parts of the third world. On the whole, such policies may
have improved the BoP situation and brought about a rise
in exports but, they have failed to gender justice in areas of
incomes and employment. ❖ UNICEF studies have shown
that women and children are hardest hit, in terms of
nutrition, workload. SAPs tend to shrink women’s
employment opportunities in the organised sector, while
generating low-paying jobs in the unorganised sector. ❖
Gender gap in economic opportunities is still prevalent in
both developed and developing countries. The rates of
labour-force participation across the G20 countries are
between 25–30 per cent. In India, three out of four women
are unemployed. The gender pay gap is close to 34 per cent,
much of which has been attributed to factors such as
educational attainment, occupational segregation and work
experience. One of the most prevalent reasons for this gap
is being the penalty of being a mother and performing
mothering role, popularly known as the “motherhood
penalty.” ❖ While globalisation has led to equal access to
opportunities between men and women, its long-term goal
of transforming gender inequalities remains unmet.
Concluding Remarks ❖ Gender justice entails ending the
inequalities between women and men that are produced
and reproduced in the family, the community, the market
and the state. It also requires that mainstream institutions
from justice to economic policymaking are accountable for
tackling the injustice and discrimination that keep too
many women poor and excluded. 7 ❖ Gender justice is
genuine equality among human beings where neither man
is superior nor woman inferior. Gender justice envisages the
equality of sexes in each and every sphere. However, it does
not claim any preferential treatment for women over men.
Gender justice is not based on biological differences. Its
object is to eradicate manmade differences in areas
concerning economic, social, cultural, political and civil. ❖
Complete gender justice is complex to achieve. The diversity
of cultures, subcultures, is vast and there is a lot of rigidity
in traditions and beliefs. Lack of education, lack of
development, poverty, improper enforcement of the laws,
lack of awareness among women, deep rooted patriarchy,
economic dependence of women, all lead to the subversive
condition of women in our society. Questions asked ❖ Give
an assessment of the feminist critique of contemporary
global issues. (2017) ❖ Do you endorse that the
conventional discourse on human rights has failed to
include women’s rights? Explain in the context of feminist
theories. (2015) ❖ “The feminist approach to international
politics is biased.” Comment. (2014) ❖ State the place of
gender justice in global political agenda. (2013) ❖ Identify
the role and place of gender in the global economy. (2013)
❖ Comment: In what sense has gender justice become an
urgent global concern today? (2007) Democracy
Introduction Democracy is not merely a form of
government it is also a form of state, a form of society and
above all a way of life. Throughout the 19th century,
theorists of democracy found it quite natural to discuss
whether one country or another was yet “fit for democracy.”
That changed only in the 20th century with the recognition
that the question itself was wrong: 8 ❖ A country does not
have to be judged to be fit for democracy, rather it has to
become fit through democracy. Demands of Democracy ❖
Democracy is a demanding system, and not just a
mechanical condition seen in isolation. ❖ Every democratic
society stands on seven well-built rock-like pillars such as
Liberty, Equality, Justice, Fraternity, Freedom of Press,
Self-esteem & dignity, National unity & Integrity.
Democracy and Economic Growth ❖ While most countries
claim themselves to be democratic, the degree to which they
are varies. ❖ It is often claimed that non-democratic
systems are better in bringing economic development. This
belief sometimes goes by the name of “the Lee hypothesis”
after the presentation of this view point by Lee Kuan Yew,
the former President of Singapore. ❖ The Lee hypothesis
states that authoritarianism eradicates poverty because of
a focus on economic development rather than freedom. For
example, Singapore, South Korea, and China achieved
higher growth while under authoritarian governments than
did democracies like India, Costa Rica, and Jamaica. ❖ Lee
Kuan Yew calls India as a nation with unrealized potential,
and he blames democracy for it and argues that democracy
results into populist policies and extraordinary delay in
policy making. ❖ However, Amartya Sen refutes this notion
of Lee Kuan Yew and said that there is no relationship
between authoritarianism and economic growth. By
contrast, democratically oriented policies are proven
growth drivers. 9 ❖ Amartya Sen argues that democracy is
preferable to authoritarianism in context of crisis
management. India has not suffered from any famines since
independence and there are 39 million people who died in
China in three years of famines and the recent Covid
Outbreak management of India was best among the world.

Democracy, Terrorism Democracy and International Politics

According to a research survey conducted by Pew Research
Centre across 27 countries (India, Russia, Italy, France,
Japan, Canada, Australia, USA, Israel, UK, etc), many
across the globe are dissatisfied with how democracy is
working. 51% of the people said that they are not satisfied
with the way democracy is working in their country, just
45% are satisfied. Most believe elections bring little
change, politicians are corrupt and courts do not treat
people fairly. On the other hand, people are more positive
about how well their countries protect free expression,
provide economic opportunity and ensure public safety.
Other arenas related to democracy in International Politics
are: Expansion in the number of democracies – Samuel P.
Huntington identifies the contemporary spread of
democracy as the "3rd wave," encompassing former Eastern
European and Middle Eastern nations. Scholars express
skepticism about the future of democracy in these societies.
Former Malaysian PM Mahathir Mohammad suggests an
Asian model of democracy for Asian countries. In the
context of globalization, David Held proposes the
Cosmopolitan Model of Democracy. Despite critiques of the
Western model, scholars like Amartya Sen support the
diffusion of democracy. Francis Fukuyama sees the
post-USSR era as a triumph of democracy. Paradoxes of
Democracy Abuse of Democratic Process: Hitler and his
party were initially elected, but he later dismantled
democracy, leading to severe human rights violations and
genocidal campaigns as a dictator. Minority Discrimination
in Democracies: In democracies, minorities may face
discrimination in favor of the majority. 3 Propaganda in
Democracies: Democracies may require more propaganda
than some totalitarian regimes to garner support for
aggressive actions for maintaining public backing for
certain policies. Short Government Lifespan and Populism:
Regular elections in democracies result in short government
lifetimes, leading to a focus on short-term goals and
populist issues. Anti-Democratic Forces Exploiting
Democracy: Anti-democratic forces can undermine
democracy using democratic means. Legitimate
governments facing opposition, often with foreign support,
may be criticized for acting against democracy when taking
necessary actions. Immediate Context of treating
democracy as a global concern Democracy as a concern in
International Politics began with the US unilateralism or
USA's export of democracy at gunpoint after 1945.
Theorists of Political Science are treating democracy as a
concern due to the rise of following immediate issues and
factors:- Global financial crisis and necessity to
democratise international financial institutions like IMF and
WB. Marginalisation of the UN and rise of US hegemony.
Increasing/Rising resentment towards USA for imposing
western style of democracy in Islamic countries. Russia has
accused USA's attempt to introduce democracy in its
neighbourhood. In the name of democracy, US is instituting
its puppet regimes and that too in disregard of the general
will of these states. Immanuel Kant initiated the link
between democracy and international relations (IR), and
after World War I, democracy became a guiding value in
IR. Woodrow Wilson considered democracy essential for
institutional peace in his 14-point speech. The connection
between peace and democracy is debated, with realists like
Mearsheimer favoring deterrence over democracy. Michael
Doyle is a prominent proponent of the Democratic Peace
Theory today. 4 Sundeep Waslekar, the President of
Strategic Foresight Group, a think tank from India, says
that weak democracies can pave way for hostile opposition.
Waslekar argues that the forces of extremism can be more
dangerous than the forces of terrorism. Waslekar notes that
extremism often takes a religious face and it is not just in
parts of the Middle East and other Islamic countries
(Islamic extremism), but growing in countries and regions
such as the United States (Christian extremism), Europe
(racism and xenophobia of a small minority of White
Europeans, and Islamic extremism by a small minority of
Muslim immigrants), India (Hindu extremism), Israel
(Jewish extremism), Sri Lanka (Buddhist extremism), Nepal
(Maoists), Uganda (Christian extremism) and elsewhere.
Lack of inclusiveness undermines democracy and
strengthens extremism. Democracy by itself is no panacea
but is a crucial part of the overall process. USA has
forgotten this aspect of democracy while it was trying to
establish democratic regimes in the middle East Asia, and
this is one of the reason US has failed miserably in middle
East, particularly Afghanistan. A functioning mainstream
media has a democratic duty to inform citizens, but around
the world the media repeatedly fails to do so. If concerns
and grievances are not addressed, or if they addressed
through violence, Waslekar warns of “an age of competitive
fundamentalism.” Democratic governments and the military
“Democracy cannot be enforced from the outside; it has to
be home-grown.” In a well-functioning democracy, the
military is subservient to the people, as seen in examples
like the US. The military's role is to protect democracy,
pledging allegiance to this purpose. However, instances of
military coups, such as in Myanmar, sometimes claim to
address corruption or restore democratic systems. In
Pakistan, General Musharraf cited massive corruption in the
government for his coup, promising a swift return to
democracy. 5 Modernization Thesis and the Democracy
Modernization theory was a dominant paradigm in the
social sciences in the 1950s and 1960s. It made a comeback
after 1991, when Francis Fukuyama wrote about the end of
the Cold War as confirmation on modernization theory.
Modernization refers to a model of a progressive transition
from a "premodern/traditional" to a "modern" society.
Modernization theory suggests that traditional societies will
develop as they adopt more modern practices. Proponents
of modernization theory claim that modern states are
wealthier and more powerful and that their citizens are
freer to enjoy a higher standard of living. Broadly,
modernity consists of three elements: traditional,
institutional and cultural. Traditional modernity means
that there is a historical consciousness, a sense of breaking
with the past and a post traditional consciousness of what
is going on in the world. Institutional modernity is
concerned with capitalism, industrialism, urbanism and the
democratic nation state. Cultural modernity entails new
beliefs about science, economics and education. It involves
a criticism of religion and separation of religion from
politics and education. There are many studies that show
that modernization has contributed to democracy, for
example S.M. Lipset has argued that modernization can turn
into healthy and stable democracy. Larry Diamond and
Juan Linz, who worked with Lipset in the book, Democracy
in Developing Countries, argue that economic performance
affects the development of democracy in at least three
ways:- 6 First, they argue that economic growth is more
important for democracy than given levels of
socioeconomic development. Second, socioeconomic
development generates social changes that can potentially
facilitate democratization. Third, socioeconomic
development promotes other changes, like organization of
the middle class, which is conducive to democracy. A
contemporary challenge to modernization theory is the
debate on whether economic modernization leads to
increased human rights. Using China as an example, the
theory suggests that rapid economic growth should
correspond to democratic development, particularly among
the middle and lower classes. However, the Chinese
government's active human rights abuses and oppression
contradict this expectation. Paradoxically, increasing
restrictions on Chinese citizens can be seen as a
consequence of modernization theory. Concluding Remarks
The celebration of victory of democracy is premature.
Elections in Iran and Afghanistan show that democracy has
begun like a circus phenomenon; democracy is neither
thriving nor disappearing. International Relations are still
not democratic. However, the positive indication is that
consensus is emerging in favour of democracy. Democracy
as a global concern has generated sufficient academic
thinking with respect to the role democracy can play in
establishing rule of law in anarchical sphere of
international politics. Questions asked The modernization
thesis asserts that affluence breeds stable democracy. How
do you explain the success of India being the world’s
largest democracy as an exceptional case? (2021) Is
democracy promotion in developing countries a feasible
idea? (2019) The struggle for democracy has been marked
by bitter strife and tribulations. Examine the statement,
illustrating the cases of Pakistan, Nepal and Myanmar.
(2015) 7 Terrorism Introduction Since the end of World War
II, the role of sovereign nation-states has diminished, as
emphasized by scholars Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye.
They highlighted the increasing significance of non-state
actors in international relations. The focus has shifted from
nation-states to entities such as terrorist organizations,
religious movements, ethnic groups, and multinational
corporations. Among these, terrorist organisations stand
out as they have assumed a violent role, posing a serious
threat to peace and the nation-state system. Meaning of
Terrorism Walter Laqueur defines terrorism as the use or
threat of violence to achieve goals, inducing fear, lacking
humanitarian norms, and relying on publicity. This
definition underscores the ruthless and inhumane nature of
terrorism, where the means are not noble, allowing the
killing of people and destruction for the sole purpose of
spreading fear. Additionally, terrorists actively seek
publicity, aiming to make themselves widely known through
their acts of terror. Causes of Terrorism The following could
be seen as some of the causes of terrorism: 1. Roots in
Persistent Disputes: Terrorism often originates from
conflicts with varying causes, such as territorial, ethnic,
religious, or cultural differences, aspirations for freedom,
governmental impositions, economic deprivation, and
perceived injustices. 2. Lack of Redressal Procedures: The
existence of accessible, affordable, and reliable redressal
systems can mitigate conflicts, preventing individuals or
groups from resorting to terrorism as a solution. 3.
Misguidance and Indoctrination: Irresponsible upbringing,
coupled with the influence of vested interest groups, can
lead children and youth to join violent or militant
organizations. Ideologies of hatred, often based on religion,
ethnic loyalty, or nationalism, are injected into their minds,
training them for destruction and promoting a distorted
sense of glory in violence. 4. Impact of Globalization:
Technological advancements, like the internet and satellite
phones, facilitate the formation of extensive networks for
extremist groups, allowing them to exchange information
and pool resources. 8 5. Psychological Factors: Terrorism
can be driven by deep emotional needs, high motivation
based on nationalism or religious sentiments, and a desire
to overcome loneliness. Individuals may be drawn to
terrorism when rejected by society, seeking acceptance in a
group that provides a sense of mission, along with
monetary gains. School of Thoughts on Terrorism There are
three main streams of thinking on the causes and remedies
for terrorism– 1. Liberal Approach: Liberals attribute
terrorism to economic, social, and political deprivation, as
well as bad governance. They believe that people resort to
violence to highlight their grievances or change
unfavourable conditions. Liberals advocate improving living
conditions, addressing social injustices, and providing
better governance as solutions to counter terrorism. 2.
Conservative Approach: Conservatives argue that the
enforcement of new laws and institutions by a government
can lead to resistance from various groups. Conservatives
believe that a responsible government should use force
promptly and firmly to end terrorist violence. They
advocate pre-emptive violence to halt terrorism and protect
innocent lives. 3. Realist Approach: Terrorism, according to
realists, is a consequence of the struggle among states to
increase their power. Realists align closely with
conservative views, asserting that economic development
and good governance alone cannot prevent violence. They
argue that only the threat or use of counter-violence can
effectively defeat terrorism in the context of international
power struggles.

Terrorism and Nuclear Proliferation Strategies to tackle

terrorism Former Secretary General Kofi Annan suggested
the strategy of 5Ds: ❖ Dissuade the terrorist groups to
resort to terrorism. ❖ Deny means to carry attacks. ❖ Deter
states from supporting such groups. ❖ Develop capacity of
the states to prevent terrorism. ❖ Defend human rights.
States in the recent times have adopted the path of
following coalitions to tackle the problem of terrorism more
effectively. Some of these efforts are as the follows:- ❖ SCO-
Regional Anti-terrorist structure- SCO-RATS is a permanent
body of the SCO and is intended to facilitate coordination
and interaction between the SCO member states in the fight
against terrorism, extremism and separatism. ❖ Grey List-
Grey listing means FATF has placed a country under
increased monitoring to check its progress on measures
against money laundering and terrorism financing. ❖
Security Council Counter-Terrorism Committee- the Security
Council adopted the Resolution to enforce counter-terrorist
measures in United Nations Member States. The committee
monitors implementation of resolution 1373 by means of
direct dialogue with each Member State. The uncertain
future of human civilization is marked by the alarming rise
of terrorism and the potential for non-state actors to obtain
weapons of mass destruction. While some scholars argue
that the threat is exaggerated, Kofi Annan proposes a 5D
strategy. The key to overcoming this challenge lies in our
collective determination to safeguard humanity and combat
terrorism unequivocally. Still civilization can win over the
most violent and animal instincts of human race, subject to
the condition we are determined to save the humanity and
fight against terrorism. We 3 have to reject terrorism in any
form, anywhere. Humanity has no option but to prevail over
terrorism. Rejecting terrorism in all its forms is imperative,
and our only choice is to triumph over this menace. It’s
crucial to reconsider the Comprehensive Convention
proposed by India in this context. Terrorism in 21st century
❖ Terrorism has existed for centuries, but it took on a new
form in the 19th century with the rise of anarchist and
communist groups. The development of new technologies,
such as dynamite and mass communication, made it easier
for terrorists to spread their message and carry out their
attacks. ❖ The 21st century has been marked by a number
of high-profile terrorist attacks, including the 9/11 attacks
in New York City. These attacks have led to a global war on
terror, but the threat of terrorism remains. Concluding
Remarks ❖ Terrorism has become a serious threat to
humanity in recent times. It is often used to destabilize or
overthrow governments and can involve a variety of tactics,
including violence, kidnapping, and hijacking. Terrorism is
not limited to individuals or groups; states can also sponsor
terrorist activities. India has been a particular target of
crossborder terrorism. Terrorism is a global problem that
requires a concerted international effort to eradicate it.
Questions asked ❖ Discuss the efficacy of global
conventions to combat international terrorism. (2022) ❖ Do
you agree that UN has failed to contain transnational
terrorism? Elaborate your answer with examples. (2014) ❖
Is terrorism essentially an contested concept? What are the
different manifestations of terrorism as a concept and
practice? (2012) 4 ❖ Either terrorism triumphs or
civilization triumphs. (2011) ❖ Analyse the basic causes of
terrorism. To what extent state policies are effective in
countering the menace of terrorism. (2010) Nuclear
Proliferation Introduction ❖ The spread of nuclear weapons
has been considered a grave threat to the security of the
world at large. The debate is not so much about the use of
nuclear technology, for the uses of nuclear technology in
the development process of any nation has been well
accepted. The debate is on the peaceful Vs. the military uses
of this technology. The debate on the proliferation of
nuclear weapons has dominated the writings on
international security. The central concerns have been the
horizontal and not vertical proliferation of nuclear
weapons. Meaning of Nuclear Proliferation ❖ Nuclear
proliferation is the spread of ➢ nuclear weapons ➢
fissionable material ➢ Weapons-applicable nuclear
technology and information to nations not recognized as
“Nuclear Weapon States” by the Treaty on the
Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, commonly known as
the Non-Proliferation Treaty or NPT. Policies of nuclear
proliferation present interplay of two sets of issues: (a) One
is the technical and political set of issues and (b) The other
relates to the capability and intent of the countries
concerned. ❖ The technical element in non-proliferation
seeks to either deny the critical technical assets to a
country that seeks to embark on a nuclear programme or to
make these assets available under a safeguard system. ❖
The political component of the system operates at two
levels: One that seeks to create an international pressure on
the countries to desist from going nuclear and two, provide
various incentives and disincentives to countries in the form
of economic and other ways to dissuade them from going
nuclear. 5 ❖ The capability of a state to go nuclear is
dependent on the technical component. The development of
nuclear technology and infrastructure that is capable of
producing a nuclear weapon is a technical dimension of the
problem of proliferation. Deterrence as a concept in Nuclear
Strategy ❖ Deterrence is the core of nuclear strategy.
Deterrence is often conceptualised as a function of
capability and will. Its key function is to keep peace and
prevent war. In fact, it has been argued that the key
function of the military establishment in the nuclear age is
not to win wars but to avert them. Credible deterrence is
possible only when the contending parties have a
retaliatory (second strike) capability. India has not signed
the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) for several
reasons: ❖ Discriminatory Nature of the NPT: India views
the NPT as discriminatory, as it divides the world into
"nuclear haves" and "nuclear have-nots." The treaty allows
the five existing nuclear-weapon states (the United States,
Russia, the United Kingdom, France, and China) to retain
their nuclear arsenals while indefinitely prohibiting other
countries from acquiring nuclear weapons. India considers
this an unfair and unequal arrangement. ❖ Focus on
Complete Nuclear Disarmament: India advocates for
complete nuclear disarmament, believing that the NPT's
focus on non-proliferation is insufficient to eliminate the
threat posed by nuclear weapons. India believes that all
nuclear-weapon states should commit to disarmament, not
just non-nuclear states. ❖ Nuclear Deterrence for Security:
India perceives a security threat from neighboring
nuclear-armed states, particularly Pakistan. India believes
that possessing nuclear weapons provides a deterrent
against aggression and helps maintain a balance of power
in the region. ❖ Nuclear Technology for Peaceful Purposes:
India views nuclear technology as essential for its economic
and technological development, including power generation
and medical applications. India believes that the NPT's
restrictions on nuclear technology transfers hinder its
progress in these areas. 6 ❖ Procedural Concerns: India has
raised concerns about the NPT's decision-making process
and the lack of representation of non-nuclear-weapon
states in the treaty's review conferences. India believes that
the NPT's structure does not adequately reflect the interests
of all countries. Evolution of Non-proliferation Policy
Nuclear non-proliferation policy has emerged through four
main stages:- ❖ The post-war phase that was characterised
by secrecy and efforts to retain monopolistic control on
part of the USA as the sole nuclear weapons power in the
world. ❖ The ‘liberal’ policy ushered in by president
Eisenhower through the ‘Atoms for Peace’ programme
announced in the United Nations in 1953. Under this
proposal the US, USSR and other countries were to
contribute fissile material to an IAEA which would be
responsible for storage and security of this material. The
IAEA would then be responsible for providing electrical
energy to the world at large. The IAEA came to be
established in 1957. ❖ The policy of controls through
safeguards to contain the spread of nuclear weapons across
the world. The IAEA’s role in inspection and verification is
the key to the idea of safeguards system. The IAEA’s
safeguards system is based on four main elements – ➢
Review of the design of nuclear facilities. ➢ Specification of
a system of records and accounts. ➢ Specification of a
system of reports. ➢ Inspection of safeguard facilities to
verify compliance with the agreements. ❖ The reactive
phase on part of the nuclear weapons powers in the post
Indian nuclear test of 1974 and subsequent testing by
Pakistan in 1998. This phase saw the creation of the Nuclear
Suppliers Club. 7 ❖ Following the Indian test, several
countries informed the IAEA of their intention to enforce the
IAEA safeguards on their nuclear exports. Two major issues
were discussed: Under what conditions, technology and
equipment for enrichment and reprocessing be transferred
to non-weapon states and whether transfers are made to
stress unwilling to submit to the full of scope IAEA
safeguards. Incentives of having Nuclear Weapons ❖
Increased international status. ❖ Domestic political
requirements or political pressures. ❖ Increased strategic
autonomy. ❖ A strategic hedge against military and
political uncertainty. ❖ Possession of a weapon of last
resort. ❖ Bargain or leverage over the developed nations
Disincentives that discourage nations to go nuclear ❖
Resource diversion to nuclear programmes may lead to loss
of opportunity to pursue other pressing economic and
social priorities. ❖ Adverse national and international
public opinion. ❖ Disruption of established or conventional
security guarantees provided by some of the great powers.
❖ Fear of an adverse international reaction that would
have an impact on the trade and other relations of the
country. Efforts to stop the proliferation of Nuclear
Weapons ❖ Partial Test Ban Treaty of 1963 – It prohibits
any nuclear explosion (including for non-military purposes)
in the atmosphere, outer space or under water or in any
environment if the explosion would cause radioactive debris
in any country. ❖ Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty of 1968
– It is popularly known as NPT. NPT became the first step
to the construction of an effective international regime
designed to halt the proliferation of nuclear weapons. There
had been a consensus on the part of the Americans and the
Soviets that unfettered proliferation of nuclear weapons
would 8 destabilize the international order. This view had
not been shared by France and China, who were suspicious
of the US-Soviet control over the nuclear weapons. Both the
countries did not sign the NPT at the time of its creation. ❖
The non-nuclear weapon states were also critical of the
treaty. They perceived this to be a discriminatory treaty.
Their main points of criticism were: ❖ The asymmetric
nature of the treaty provisions that imposed safeguards
only on the non-weapons states. ❖ The preservation of
commercial interests of the weapon states by providing
them the right to explore peaceful uses programme. ❖ The
vagueness of the commitments on part of the weapon
states. ❖ The failure to address legitimate security concerns
of the non-weapon states. ❖ Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty
of 1996 – CTBT is the most important means to tackle both
horizontal and vertical proliferation. ❖ Nuclear Suppliers
Group – It came into existence in 1975. Initially it only had
7 members but today it has 45 members. It controls the
expansion of nuclear materials. ❖ Missile Technology
Control Regime of 1987. ❖ Proliferation Security Initiative
of 2003 – An initiative of USA for tracking illicit trafficking
in WMDs, delivery system as well as related materials. ❖
Container Security Initiative – It is to inspect the container
which is suspected of carrying such materials and it
emerged in the context of increasing threat of the use of
containers by the terrorists.

Nuclear Proliferation Theories of Nuclear Proliferation ❖

Realism:- For realists, security is the prime goal and nations
relinquish nuclear weapons only when they get extended
deterrence. E.g. India did not acquire nuclear weapons till it
had the security umbrella of USSR. It shows that to avoid
nuclear proliferation, nuclear weapon states should be
providing security umbrella. Thus realists rely on
deterrence. Kenneth Waltz gives the concept of more will be
better. ❖ Liberalism:- Scott De Sagan calls Kenneth Waltz
and Mearsheimer as proliferation optimist. He questions the
doctrine of deterrence. Deterrence is based on high
optimism of human rationality. In many new states,
military control politics which can be tempted to use the
nuclear weapons to win the war. Liberals highlight the role
of international institutions, treaties and regimes in
preventing nuclear proliferation. They are of the view that
peace is not because of nuclear weapons as perceived by
realists but because of economic integration. ❖ Social
Constructivism:- Nina Tannenwald has also analysed the
role of norms and taboos, towards the nuclear
non-proliferation. Taboos can be understood as cultural
prohibitions. According to her, since the USA once used
nuclear weapons on Japan, the world public opinion has
gone against the use of nuclear weapons off large. And it is
the world public opinion, the new cultural norms which have
prevented USA to use nuclear weapon again after that. USA
was forced indirectly to continue 20-year war even at the
cost of its own hegemony. This shows that norms and values
do have a role in international politics. According to her,
even when any treaty does not eliminate a single nuclear
weapon yet it will play an important role in
delegitimization of nuclear weapons. 3 Classic case of India
and Pakistan’s Nuclear Testing ❖ India and Pakistan
conducted nuclear tests in 1998 and declared themselves as
nuclear weapon powers thus raising the debate on nuclear
proliferation to a very different level. The nuclear tests
conducted by India and Pakistan had generated a great
deal of debate on the rationale and implications of these
actions taken by both the governments. ❖ Much of the
debate focused on the security considerations of this action,
the regional threat dimensions, internal political
compulsions and the problem of proliferation. ❖ At one
level these tests constitute a symbolism of the Third World
defiance that seeks to challenge the post-Cold War order in
international relations; and at another they present a
challenge to the policies of international nuclear
nonproliferation. ❖ The Indian nuclear tests of May 1998
thus came to represent a demonstration of capabilities-
Technological and Political. Technological capabilities were
in the context of the denial of access to advanced
technologies that India experienced over the years. The
political capability represents the demonstration of political
will of the elite to take on the G-7 regime. It is this
reassertion of the ability to take independent decisions in
face of anticipated sanctions that makes the nuclear test a
symbol of a resurgent Third World. It is at that level that
both, the Indian and Pakistani tests, demonstrate a
commonality of approaches. The problem of nuclear
proliferation did not start with the Indian test of 1974. It
arose with the first atomic bomb dropped over Japan in
1945. The problem became complicated when the US
monopoly of nuclear technology ended in the years that
followed. The shifts in US policies and that of the other
weapon states since then have been aimed at keeping the
number of nuclear weapon states within limits. In the 1960s
the acuteness of this problem was recognised when an
underdeveloped Third World country, China, entered the
exclusive club of nuclear powers. The year 1968 marks the
first institutional step in 4 the fight for exclusivity. The NPT
regime created in 1968 has continued to retain its hold
through the new century. It has refused to acknowledge the
two new states India and Pakistan as nuclear weapon
states under the ambit of the NPT definition. Epistemic
communities Meaning of Epistemic communities ❖
Epistemic community is a group of experts helping political
leadership to identify the challenges faced by countries
along with solutions to a particular problem as well as the
policy outcomes. ❖ In the context of nuclear proliferation
these experts helped political leadership either to formulate
certain policies related to Nuclear weapon, make
arrangement for Nuclear proliferation or make
arrangement for deterrence through extended deterrence.
These experts also helped the countries to make
arrangements with respect to Nuclear proliferation or with
respect to convincing international communities about need
to have nuclear weapons for a country e.g. India conducted
Nuclear Test in 1998 and faced a lot of challenges with
respect to convincing international community about the
necessity of Nuclear Test for India. ❖ India convinced the
USA about India’s need to have nuclear weapons on the
ground that India is surrounded by two hostile neighbours
with whom India has gone for full-fledged wars. Moreover,
India also convinced USA about India’s spotless conduct in
nuclear non-proliferation. Concluding Remarks ❖ The entry
of China into the nuclear club transformed the debate on
nuclear issues from an East – West Cold war issue to be
mainly considered by the developed countries into a global
concern. 5 ❖ The debate on nuclear proliferation is not
about the use of nuclear technology, but about the peaceful
versus military uses of this technology. The debate on the
development of nuclear technology is complicated as it is
not certain that for what ends the technology is going to be
used for. Thus the intent of a country is important.
Questions asked ❖ Discuss the theory of nuclear deterrence.
Did nuclear deterrence prevent a superpower war? (2015) ❖
What role do norms, taboos and epistemic communities
play in the context of nuclear proliferation?

Environment Introduction We study the environment

because human progress has endangered other life forms,
putting our own survival at risk. The global competition for
power reflects a struggle for natural resources,
underscoring the delicate balance between human life and
nature. The current focus on environmental studies revolves
around critical choices nations must make to preserve the
biosphere, resources, democracy, and the nation-state
system. Place of environment in International Political
thinking New Wealth: Brian Milani proposes a shift from
quantitative wealth (money and weapons) to qualitative
wealth focused on inner development, social progress, and
ecosystem restoration. This necessitates a "politics of
designing green economics." Environmental Politics:
Environment became an international issue in the 1960s due
to significant global changes. The "Tragedy of Global
Commons" describes the tendency for resources everyone
shares to be exploited and neglected. Environment in
International Politics: Initially, environmental issues were
peripheral in international politics. Today, they are central
to diplomacy and academic discourse. Energy Climate Era:
Thomas Friedman argues that we have entered an "energy
climate era" where environmental issues dominate
international agendas, evident in G8, UN, and WTO
discussions. Global Impact of Environmental Issues:
Environmental problems seriously impact lives.
Environmental degradation, even as far back as the Indus
Valley Civilization, has led to societal collapses. Previously
local, these issues are now global due to industrialization
and population growth. Nature of environmental problems
Most of the problems are related to the exploitation of
global commons. Global Commons results into free
ridership, i.e., everyone use it but no one takes the 3
responsibility of maintenance. This is what came to be
known as Tragedy of Commons. This is one of the reasons
that countries are unable to solve problems related to
environmental degradation. Politics is also responsible for
limiting efforts for looking out of the box solution. Out of
all environmental problems, the most important issue is
climate change. According to the survey conducted by the
UNEP experts, following is the hierarchy of environmental
concerns:- Climate Change Water Shortage Water
Pollution Desertification Biodiversity loss Types of
Approaches towards Environment We can divide ecologists
into two types – Shallow and Deep. Shallow Ecology is
utilitarian in its approach. They want to protect
environment for the sake of human being. They have an
instrumental approach towards environment. Deep Ecology
is an idealist approach to the environment. Their strategies
and programme of actions are meant for the sake of the
environment. 4 Key Issues in the Environment Debate The
study of environment today is about those momentous
choices which nations will have to make to save the
biosphere, their resources, democracy and the nation state
system. Scarcity of Resources and Underdevelopment–
Underdeveloped and developing countries striving to
emulate the West's economic success face challenges such
as poverty, indebtedness, and a dwindling supply of
essential goods. Their efforts to catch up often result in
environmental overuse, leading to a debt trap that hampers
development. The debt services alone account for a
substantial 6% to 7% of their Gross National Product (GNP).
Greater Interdependence of Nations– Nature disregards
political boundaries, as evident in shared resources like
rivers, forests, minerals, and wildlife. Ecological connections
often transcend geopolitical lines, such as the Indus region
between India and Pakistan, hosting rare species and
serving as a natural barrier. Global environmental issues,
like coral bleaching and the ozone hole, highlight the
interconnected impact of industrial actions. Environmental
crises have led to civil unrest, forcing millions to become
ecological refugees, a growing concern for organizations
like the UN High Commissioner for Refugees and the
International Red Cross Society. Sustainability of Growth-
It reminds that the environment once lost is difficult and
sometimes impossible to recover thus it should be used
justifiably. Irresponsible development may turn out to be
retrogressive rather than progressive in the long run.
Therefore, policies that nations pursue should observe the
following basic principles which constitute the core idea of
sustainability:- Issues of carrying capacity. Issues of
intra-generational and inter-generational equity and
justice. Habitat rights of communities and wildlife. 5 Aldo
Leopold eloquently highlights the delicate balance in our
relationship with nature, emphasizing the interdependence
between humans and other animals. He suggests that
civilization is a cooperative state that can be disrupted by
the failure of any element. Governments neglecting habitat
rights disrupt the cycle of sustainable living, as even the
smallest creatures, like the coronavirus, play crucial roles in
community life cycles. Three Myths of Development Policy
The Green (Environmental) approach to international
politics countered and challenged the three prevailing
myths of development policies. The myths are:- Economic
growth indicates a nation's progress – The 1st HDR of the
UNDP in 1990 attacks this myth. It gave a more
comprehensive yardstick to assess progress of nations
rather than just judging through economic progress or GNP.
The military might or the deterrent capability is not an
indicator of a nation’s might, as most such nations which
have been on the top on the basis of their military prowess
have sunk in their ratings when the other indicators of
progress such as overall human development manifested in
the provisions of environmental protection. Free markets
prevent the spread of poverty – The notion that free
markets prevent the spread of poverty is based on a
misunderstanding of its root causes. The dismantling of
market barriers leads to increased Foreign Direct
Investment (FDI), replacing Official Development
Assistance (ODA) from developed countries. However, FDI
comes with conditions set by transnational companies,
making it less benign than ODA. To attract FDI, countries
often compromise regulatory conditions, deregulate, or
open traditionally conserved areas for business, such as
mining, dam building, oil refineries, or industrial land.
Wealth could be created through debt – This myth is
countered by an analysis of the most highly indebted
countries. Presently, 80% of poor in Latin America, 50% of
poor in Asia and Africa live on marginal lands characterised
by low productivity and high susceptibility to
environmental degradation. We don’t have to look so far
very recently 6 both of our neighbours Sri Lanka and
Pakistan were crippled due to the high debt trap and they
were on the verge of defaulting the loans. Historical Survey
of Environment We see some international agreements
emerging in 19th century, for example, 1st international
treaty on flora was signed in 1889. Similarly, there were
efforts in the first half of the 20th century, for example,
International Maritime Organization was formed in 1948.
Initially, its task was facilitation of shipping and navigation
but from 1954 onwards it was given responsibility in the
context of marine pollution. 1960s was the decade when
wider movements towards preservation of natural
environment began. The Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT) of
1963 was the recognition of the health risk emerging out of
radioactive fallouts. It has banned testing of nuclear
warheads in atmosphere, outer space and underwater.
During 1970s and 80s environmental politics became more
mature. It was taken up by the Green Movement, NGOs and
international organizations. They have established
themselves as the key actors in the sphere of environmental
politics. Increased concern for environment resulted into
convening of the 1st UN Conference on Human Environment
at Stockholm. Significance of Stockholm Conference It
proved to be a turning point in the development of
international environmental politics for next 30 years.
Purpose is to provide an international framework so that a
coordinated approach can be developed in the context of
environmental problems Stockholm Conference gave
fundamental principles:- Environment is a collective
responsibility. However there will be a differentiated
responsibility. The responsibility of North and the South will
be different. It was agreed that the North will support the
South so that they develop the capacity, meaning the
transfer of fund and technology. Above provisions was the
result of the efforts of South-South cooperation. Any effort
to protect environment should be linked with efforts related
to promotion of their social and economic development. 7
India has been at the forefront of the formulation of
environmental laws. India had proposed the concept of
equity (equality with fairness). This conference also
resulted into the emergence of UNEP. The North – South
Divide The world has now become a Global Village as the
Canadian scholar McLuhan said. Yet the northern side of the
globe is a voracious consumer but the southern side is
constantly in want and misery because they lose out their
resources to the rich nations of the North. The 23% of the
world population living in industrial countries is earning
85% of world income and consuming most of its resources.
The energy consumption measured per capita is 7,032 in
USA followed by 5,113 in Russia, 3,868 in France, 3,610 in
Japan and 1,371 in Brazil but it dips to in between 200 to
600 in South Asian and African countries.(Latest estimates
according to 2021 report). During the Rio Summit, the
divisions between the North and the South were quite
pronounced in case of the Biodiversity Convention. The
richest 70% biodiversity is concentrated in the 12
mega-diverse countries. The developed countries wanted
the developing countries to take action for the preservation
and conservation of their biodiversity resources. However,
the cost of the most basic biodiversity protection
programmes were in the range of $10 to $14 billion per
annum whereas the technological benefits derived from the
genetic resources would go into the pockets of Western
TNCs. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) The
UNEP was initiated in 1972 to manage and coordinate
environmental processes inside the UN system. The UNEP
promotes global alliance and cooperation on environmental
concerns, directs the United Nations bodies, and encourages
the worldwide scientific society to formulate policies for
several of the United Nations’ environmental programmes
by way of its scientific consultative commissions. The UNEP
headquarters are situated in Nairobi, Kenya. The major
campaigns under the UNEP include UN75, World
Environment Day, Beat Pollution, and Wild for Life, etc. 8
Major initiatives taken by UNEP are Emissions Gap Report,
Global Environment Outlook, and Annual Frontiers Report.
The UNEP has acknowledged India’s schemes and programs
in the environment sector for the International Solar
Alliance and other initiatives. The current PM, Narendra
Modi, was bestowed by UNEP with the honour of being the
Champions of Earth. Environmental Politics – From
Stockholm to Rio de Janeiro After Stockholm Conference,
large number of environmental agreements and
programmes came into existence. The UNEP played
leadership role. Most significant achievement was Montreal
Protocol for Protection of Ozone Layer, 1987. This protocol is
one of the best examples of cooperation of international
community in the field of environment. Kyoto Protocol is
treated as one of the most complicated arena. Another
major development of 1980s was the World Commission on
Environment and Development, popularly called Brundtland
Commission of 1987. Background of Brundtland Commission
According to Gandhi, the western approach to development
has placed mind over hands, man over nature and
technology over experience. It is the root cause of our
moral decline and also unsustainable development. The
agenda agreed at Stockholm Conference was never taken
seriously. Most of the international agreements focused on
environmental protection but they have not integrated
development concern. UNEP lacked institutional weightage,
it failed to integrate environment and development in UN
system. Outcome The origin of the concept of Sustainable
Development is credited to Brundtland Commission Report.
Sustainable Development, according to the report means: 9
“Development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
own needs, improved living standard for all, better
protected and managed ecosystem and a safer, more
prosperous future”. Sustainable Development as a concept
was welcomed by the developing countries as well as
environmentalists which were arguing for the change in
pattern of growth. Brundtland Commission provided the
background for 1st UN Conference on Environment and
Development at Rio de Janeiro in June 1992. The mandate
of Rio Summit was how to materialize the ideal of
sustainable development in practice. Rio Earth Summit and
its outcomes It is popularly known as UN Conference on
Environment and Development. This was the biggest summit
ever held. The main documents of this summit are as
following:- 1. Rio Principles – Precautionary Principle– even
when there is lack of enough scientific evidence, countries
will take up actions for protection of the environment. The
USA has an objection. Polluters Pay Principle– historical
responsibility. The USA does not support it. 2. CBD
Responsibilities of developed and developing countries. 3.
Agenda – 21 – It provides detailed programme of action. It
is a bulky document; it covers various issues like combating
deforestation or managing hazardous waste or fragile
ecosystem. It has resulted into the emergence :- The Global
Environment Facility (GEF) is a multilateral financial
mechanism that provides grants to developing countries for
projects that benefit the global environment and promote
sustainable livelihoods in local communities. GEF addresses
six designated focal areas:- Biodiversity, Climate Change,
International Waters, Ozone Depletion, Land Degradation,
POPs. Commission for Sustainable Development – its
purpose is to review the programme of implementation of
Agenda – 21. It organises ministerial meetings. It is a forum
to set agenda and to persuade others to adopt it. It is a
forum to make governments accountable for the gap
between practice and commitments. In Rio, four
conventions emerged. 10 1. UNFCCC 2. CBD 3. CCD 4. Forest
Principles The most politicized issue is climate change.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
It was realized that climate change is happening beyond
the natural reasons. Hence, it cannot be left on natural
adaptation; there is a need for action. They are called
framework convention because they provide basic aims,
principles, norms and institutions, procedures for
coordinated actions. All subsequent multilateral
negotiations are held under this framework. A. Objectives of
UNFCCC – to ensure that global warming remains well
below 2℃ and if possible 1.5℃ than preindustrial level. To
achieve stabilisation of GHG concentration in atmosphere.
Sufficient time shall be allowed to adapt naturally to
climate change. To ensure that food production is not
threatened and to enable sustainable development. B.
Nature of Treaty – It is not legally binding, that is why USA
accepted it. C. Obligations of state under UNFCCC – to
provide regular reports on their GHG emissions, on emission
projections and on steps they are going to take. D.
Principles of UNFCCC– Common But Differentiated
Responsibility and Historical Responsibility. E. How it was
implemented– It divides the countries into two groupings:-
Annexed Countries and Non – annexed countries
(developing countries). Developing countries have no
responsibility; they can increase their emissions to achieve
development. Annexed countries are further divided into
two groups Annex – I: - All industrialized countries; they
have to reduce their emissions. Annex – II: - OECD
countries means well – off countries and they will be
providing funds and technology. 11 Analysis: Since it was
not legally binding so developed countries agreed to its
principles. It became rallying point for the countries of
South and it has been a major approach of India in its
diplomacy at environmental talks. It later on became the
most waxed issue on North – South relations. It was
diplomatic victory of South that West has acknowledged the
argument that a greater share of historical and current
emissions of GHGs have originated in West. Kyoto Protocol
Since UNFCCC is not binding, it was decided to create a
binding agreement. Kyoto Protocol imposes the target of
emission reduction on developed countries by 5.2% below
1990 level. Kyoto Protocol became effective in 2005 and was
valid up to 2012. Since it was binding, USA did not join.
Since then the purpose of the climate change negotiations is
to find the successor agreement for Kyoto Protocol and to
bring USA under commitments. How it will be possible to
bring USA? There have been two ways:- Either force BRICS
countries to take binding commitments. USA has put this
condition. Why? Because there cannot be any effective
action until and unless major polluters like China and India
take the binding commitments. No country takes binding
commitments i.e. similar principles for developed and
developing countries. USA does not believe in historical
responsibility. Up till the Kyoto Protocol, the countries of
South have been winning the climate change negotiations.
However, after Kyoto Protocol, they have been losing and
the USA has been winning. How do Americans feel about
climate change, and what steps do they think the United
States should take to address it? Based on recent Pew
Research Centre surveys 12 A majority of Americans
support the US becoming carbon neutral by 2050, a goal
outlined by President Joe Biden. Nine-in-ten Democrats and
Democratic-leaning independents support the U.S. taking
steps to become carbon neutral by 2050. Among
Republicans and Republican leaners, 44% support this goal
and 53% oppose it. Americans are reluctant to phase out
fossil fuels altogether, but younger adults are more open to
it. The public supports the federal government
incentivizing wind and solar energy production. Two-thirds
of Americans think the federal government should
encourage domestic production of wind and solar power.
Just 7% say the government should discourage this, while
26% think it should neither encourage nor discourage it.
Americans see room for multiple actors – including
corporations and the federal government – to do more to
address the impacts of climate change. Two-thirds of
Americans say large businesses and corporations are doing
too little to reduce the effects of climate change. Far fewer
say they are doing about the right amount (21%) or too
much (10%). Majorities also say their state elected officials
(58%) and the energy industry (55%) are doing too little to
address climate change. Nearly eight-in-ten Democrats
(78%) now describe climate change as a major threat to the
country’s well-being, up from about six-in-ten (58%) a
decade ago. By contrast, about one-in-four Republicans
(23%) consider climate change a major threat, a share
that’s almost identical to 10 years ago. Overall, 37% of
Americans say addressing climate change should be a top
priority for the President and Congress in 2023, and another
34% say it’s an important but lower priority. This ranks
climate change 17th out of 21 national issues. Americans
offer broad support for international engagement on
climate change: 75% say they support U.S. participation in
international efforts to reduce the effects of climate change.
13 Critical analysis of India’s approach According to
Saubhik Chakraborty India is not a regular poor country. It
should not take defensive strategies like low per capita
income. World is not going by India’s low per capita status.
World recognises India’s economic and ideological
potential. Hence, India should not behave like an ordinary
country. India should assume burden of great power status.
It has to show that whether its preference is to hide behind
her poor status or prefer to negotiate with its strength.
India has to make change in the domestic sphere as Indian
industries do not follow pollution norms. Hence, India
should improve its internal capacity to enforce environment
compliant norms. It is easier for India to adopt eco-friendly
growth model because India has to still develop its full
industrial base. Its people do not need to bring major
changes in their habits and lifestyle as compared to the
West. Thus, above suggestion shows that India could
negotiate at UAE during COP28 with greater morale and
diplomatic strength as a similar approach was taken at the
Paris Summit. India should take necessary steps which
provides strength to its arguments like the announcement of
the target of net zero GHG emissions by 2070, reducing its
emission intensity by 45% below 2005 levels by 2030 and to
increase the share of non – fossil power capacity to 50% by
2030. Such steps provide strength to India’s arguments
and this approach requires a legally binding commitment
on the part of developed countries to aid the developing
world towards smooth transformation in their practice.
Recently, industrialised nations have tried to ignore the
concerns of developing countries. For example, USA came
out of the Paris agreement and is not willing to contribute
to the climate fund. It seems that North is again sticking to
its traditional approach. 14 Concluding Remarks It is fairly
understandable that the path of sustainable development is
ridden with the immense gap that exists between the North
and the South states. Global negotiations and international
agreements have remained unfulfilled and disappointing.
The increased conflicts between trade and environment are
only making the task more complicated. It is important
that nations apply logic and understanding with a longterm
perspective and initiate concrete action towards sustainable
development and environment. Questions asked Discuss the
Sustainable Development Goals as set by the United
Nations. (2021) Examine the role of United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change and other major
efforts by the UN to address the global environmental crisis.
(2020) The recent move of USA to withdraw from the Paris
Climate Agreement is a setback in the consensus achieved
on protecting the world environment. In this context, assess
the future perspectives on climate control. (2017) Examine
the main problems and challenges involved in looking after
environmental concerns in world politics. (2016) Global
Commons belong to global society and requires global
attention. Comment. (2013) Comment: The need for, and the
hindrances to the development of a common global
approach to ecological concerns. (2004) People are
concerned about the degradation of the environment and
the problems that go with it. Discuss the international
response. (1998)

India’s Foreign Policy Definition of Foreign Policy Foreign

policy of each nation reflects the goals that a nation is
trying to achieve as well as the means that are being
adopted for securing these goals. It can be defined as a set
of principles, decisions, actions and means adopted and
followed by a nation for securing the goals of its national
interest during the course of its relations with other nations.
Foreign policy determines the behaviour of a nation in
international environment. Foreign policy is a set of
principles and means adopted by a nation for defining,
justifying and securing the objectives of its national
interest. Foreign policy is a course of action for achieving
objectives in foreign relations in accordance with the
ideology of national interest. Foreign policy and National
Interest There is very deep relationship between Foreign
Policy and National Interest. Foreign policy is a set of
principles and a well thought out actions for achieving the
objectives of national interest of a country. National interest
is the objective that Foreign policy seeks to achieve.
National interest is the basis as well as the objective of a
foreign policy. There exists a very close relationship
between Foreign policy and national interest. Foreign policy
acts for achieving the goals of national interest and at the
same time foreign policy also defines the goals of national
interest and then attempts to secure these goals. National
interest is the determining element of Foreign policy and
foreign policy is the director of national interest. Both
Foreign policy and national interest are intimately related.
National interest is the basis of Foreign policy. Foreign
policies are the result of practical ideas of national interest.
Foreign policy of a country is being formulated by Foreign
policy makers on the basis of demands of national interest.
National interest of a country also depends upon the
Foreign policy of the country. 3 It is not always that
national interest is the basis of Foreign policy. Sometimes
national interest constructed in such a way so as to make
ruling of the state easier. Political leaders in Pakistan have
always tried to strengthen their position in domestic politics
by using Pakistani interest in Kashmir. Foreign policy and
Diplomacy Diplomacy and Foreign policy are closely
related with each other. They are so closely related with
each other that often they are being used interchangeably.
Diplomacy is a tool to secure national interest of a country
as defined by Foreign policy. Diplomacy and Foreign policy
are deeply related but they are different in many ways.
Differences between Foreign policy and Diplomacy: Foreign
policy is the plan and programme formulated for securing
goals of national interest of a country whereas diplomacy is
a means and the tactics employed for implementing the
foreign policy. Diplomacy is the process by which foreign
policy is implemented. Foreign policy and diplomacy have
been described by scholars as the two wheels of
international relations. Diplomacy and Foreign policy are
extremely important instruments of nation's behaviour in
international relations. Diplomacy is not Foreign policy but
diplomacy is the tools for implementing Foreign policy.
Foreign policy and diplomacy are supplementary to each
other because without one other cannot coexist

Determinants of Foreign Policy Determinants of the Foreign

policy of India: The following are the major determinants of
India's Foreign policy:- 1. Geography 2. Economic
development 3. Historical and Cultural Factors 4. Domestic
Factors 5. Ideology 6. Personality 7. International Factors 1.
Geographical Factors According to Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru,
India is in a strategic part of Asia. It is set in the Centre of
the Indian Ocean and India is having connection with West
Asia, South East Asia, and the Far East (i) Himalayas ✓ The
Himalayas along with the Indian Ocean are the determining
factor of India's foreign policy. Earlier Himalayas used to
be considered as a natural security guarantee for India.
Today it is an important factor in India's relationship with
China, Nepal, and Bhutan. (ii) Indian Ocean ✓ India is the
largest Littoral state of the Indian Ocean having a huge
coastline which warrants strong attention from the Indian
establishment for a Blue Water Navy (a modern navy that
can exert its influence in high seas). ✓ Today India's
location in the Indian Ocean region makes it an important
country from the USA's viewpoint. The USA wants India to
play a larger role at the global level especially in the
Indian Ocean region. India's huge coastline 3 and two
island territories in Eastern and Western Seaboards have
been an important factor in determining India's policy with
respect to the Indian Ocean region. (iii) Size of India ✓
India's size is an important geographical factor in Shaping
India's foreign policy. The large size of a country affects
the population of a country as well and in addition to the
population large size can also help India to earn
recognition as a potential power in international affairs. (iv)
Huge coastline of India ✓ The Huge coastline of India and
two island territories namely the Andaman and Nicobar
group of islands and Lakshadweep group of islands has also
greatly started shaping Indian foreign policy in recent
times. ✓ Proximity of Andaman and Nicobar to the Strait of
Malacca greatly enhances India's credentials in the eyes -
of Western powers because a stronger Indian presence in
Andaman and Nicobar would increase China's Malacca
dilemma (- it is considered as a diplomatic choke point for
China. According to Chinese experts during times of
geopolitical Struggles this diplomatic chokepoint can be
used by India supported by the US and Japan to choke
China diplomatically by stopping its energy supplies). ✓ In
recent years, the strategic location of these two island
territories have become an important area of discussion for
Indian foreign policy. 2. Economic factors ➢ The economic
condition of a nation is considered as a major determinant
of its national power. The USA and USSR earned the status
of superpower because of their economic credentials only.
The disintegration of the Soviet Union is also due to its
failure at economic front. 4 ➢ Presently India is being
considered as one of the fastest-growing economy of the
world and India's growth story has become one of the
important factors in shaping and attracting global capital
towards India. ➢ After India's independence Indian
economy was barely growing at the rate of 1% and its
population was growing at the rate of 2%. It was
considered as virtually a non-existent economy. India
needed to secure capital for her economic development. ➢
Today India's economic credentials have reached a
different level and every country is trying to engage itself
with India. ➢ In fact, it has been given the designation of
fastest growing economies of the world. It is being seen as
a driver of the international economy. India's decision to go
for liberalisation, privatisation and globalisation paved the
way for India's rapid economic development. ➢ India's
demographic dividend is another factor which is considered
important for India's economic development. India has one
of the largest working age of populations of the world that
has the potential to transform India greatly. 3. Cultural
determinants ➢ Cultural values and traditions are always
influential in shaping the policies of a nation because these
cultural values shape the thinking of policymakers as well.
Indian foreign policy is also greatly influenced by its
culture. ➢ Indian foreign policy gives importance to world
peace, peaceful means for the settlement of disputes,
mutual respect for each other’s rights, peaceful coexistence
and non-interference, etc. All these are considered as the
influence of Indian culture. ➢ Panchsheel has been policy
and a major principle of India's foreign and the principles
of Panchsheel has been deeply influenced by India’s culture.
India's desire to have peaceful co-existence and
cooperation with all the nations derives its strength from
the Secular character of Indian culture. 5 Historical legacy
of India’s foreign policy ➢ A long, rich, and complicated
historical experience of the people of India has been an
important factor of India's foreign policy. India's long
association with Britain has greatly shaped India's foreign
policy in the maintenance and development of relations
with commonwealth countries. The impact of British culture
and tradition is clearly visible in the operation of India's
foreign policy. 4. Domestic factors ➢ The linkages between
the foreign policy of a nation and domestic factors are very
deep. The nature of the goals of national interest which a
nation tries to secure through its foreign policy are
determined by domestic factors. ➢ In fact, domestic factors
condition the foreign policy of a nation. Domestic factor has
been an important determinant of India’s foreign policy.
The cultural, historical and political factors can also be
included in the domestic determinants of India's foreign
policy, e.g., domestic needs and the problems of people of
India and Indian people's strong faith in the democratic
system have also been important factors of India's foreign
policy. ➢ Various domestic factors have shaped India's
foreign policy for a very long time, e.g., a. India's
relationship with Sri Lanka used to be greatly influenced by
India's domestic politics- Tamilian issue, b. The Indo-Israel
relationship for a very long time was influenced by India's
domestic factors. 5. Ideology ➢ The ideology of Gandhism
with its emphasis upon peace, non-violence, and
noninterference has been a source of great influence on
India's foreign policy. India's faith in democratic Socialism
has also helped India to develop and maintain friendly
relations with both Western countries and the Soviet Union.
6 ➢ India's tilt in favor of the Soviet Union during initial
Years was quite visible. Indian foreign policy so far has
been greatly influenced by the ideologies of I.
anti-colonialism, II. national self III. determination IV.
ideology of the UN Charter, V. ideology of human rights, VI.
globalization, etc. ➢ Throughout the Cold War period
India's adoption of non-alignment shaped India's foreign
policy greatly. But in recent years we have witnessed
shifting the course of India's foreign policy from
non-alignment to multi-alignment. ➢ In recent years,
India's foreign policy has adopted a realist posture and
become pragmatic in dealing with other countries. We have
also witnessed a shift in India's foreign policy from
idealism to realism. No more India is waiting for an ideal
world order to emerge rather pragmatism guides India's
foreign policy in recent years, e.g., India's stand with
respect to the Ukrainian crisis is not guided by idealism
rather it is guided by the pragmatism of India's foreign
policy. 6. Personality factor ➢ Personality factor is one of
the great determinants of foreign policy, e.g., Nehru's
adoption of non-alignment was pursued by other leaders
later on. Indira Gandhi formed India - Soviet Union
friendship within the Framework of India's nonalignment. ➢
During the times of P.V. Narasimha Rao (after the
disintegration of the Soviet Union), in the post-Cold War
era, we have witnessed shifting course of India's foreign
policy from non-alignment to multi-alignment. ➢ It started
during the Prime Minister-ship of P.V. Narasimha Rao and it
is continuing even today. A wonderful aspect of India's
foreign policy since 1991-till now has been that- successive
governments despite having ideological differences have
been able to maintain continuity in India's foreign policy 7
7. International (External) Environment ➢ International
factors also shape the foreign policy of a country. During
the Cold War era, there were limitations on the strategic
choices of almost all the countries and India was no
exception. But in the post-Cold War era, those limitations on
the strategic choices of countries like India were gone. ➢
That is why India was able to adopt the strategy of
multi-alignment as there was a structural shift not only in
India's foreign policy but there was structural Shift in
international politics itself because the Soviet Union
disintegrated. So change in the international scenario also
influences the foreign policy of a country. All the above
factors are considered as the determinants of foreign policy
of a country and India is no exception. The above factors
have been instrumental in shaping the working and
evolution of India's Foreign policy. India's foreign policy
like the foreign policy of every other country works under
the influence of the above internal as well as external
determinants. Nevertheless, India's foreign policy can be
considered as a dynamic foreign policy geared towards
securing India's national interest as well as for
strengthening the process of international cooperation for
securing global peace and development. Indian foreign
policy has been helping India in its rise as a global power
and it is helping India to play an all important role at the
global level so that India would be able to achieve its
rightful place at the global level.
Major Bases of India's Foreign Policy || Principles of India's
Foreign policy || India's Foreign Policy in Post-Cold War Era
Major Bases of India's Foreign Policy The study of
fundamental principles on which Indian foreign policy is
based provides the groundwork for India's foreign policy.
Indian foreign policy can be broadly categorised into 3
parts:- (a) Historical basis, (b) Philosophical basis, (c)
Ideological basis. (a) Historical basis of India's foreign
policy:- Pre-independence view of world politics ❖ Indian
nationalist leaders showed great interest in India's foreign
policy even before India's independence. In fact, in the
formation year of Indian National Congress (INC) i.e., 1885,
criticised illegal and immoral annexation of Burma by the
British. ❖ The Indian National Congress also criticised
military expedition of Tibet, Afghanistan by British
government. In fact, India also criticised the dream of
establishing a pan Asiatic empire by British. In the Madras
session of Congress, a resolution was passed by the INC
against the use of troops in various parts of Asia. Indian
National Congress government resigned from various
provinces because of unilateral involvement of Indian
troops into 2nd World War. ❖ In 1946, INC raised its voice
against colonialism, racialism and INC spoke in favour of
National self-determination. Even after India’s
independence India continued with the ideals of Indian
National Congress and it's reflection can be seen in the
following:- ➢ India raised its voice against colonialism, ➢
against racialism, ➢ India's demand for national
self-determination 3 (b) Philosophical basis of India's
foreign policy ❖ Moral and cultural values of Indian society
also gets reflected in India's foreign policy. Following
Indian traditions and philosophical values can be seen in
India's foreign policy:- ➢ tradition of peaceful coexistence,
➢ non-violence, ➢ non-interference, ➢ non-military
solution ➢ the tradition of Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam, etc
Indian political thought also gets reflected through India's
foreign policy. Those aspects of Indian political thought are
ensuring: ❖ universal good ❖ Global peace, ❖ harmony
with nature ❖ Five principles of Panchsheel ❖ Maintaining
strategic autonomy of India at any cost-it means power to
take one’s own decisions. ❖ India's stand with respect to
non-alignment - India was one of the pioneers of
nonaligned movement. ❖ Gandhian principles like
non-violence, peace also resonate in India's foreign policy.
(c) Ideological basis India's foreign policy derives its
inspiration from Following ideologies:- 1. Gandhism 2.
Liberalism 3. Democratic Socialism 4. Internationalism, etc
4 Philosophy of Gandhism is being reflected under the
Indian Constitution. Gandhian ideals of non-violence,
Satyagraha, Universal Brotherhood can be seen under
India's foreign policy. Gandhian ideals like world peace,
total opposition to racial discrimination, resolution of
conflict through peaceful means, etc, can be seen in India's
foreign policy. Ideology of Democratic Socialism ❖ It is
also an important feature of India's foreign policy. India
wanted to achieve the goals of Socialism but only through
democratic means. Democratic Socialism has been an
important part of India's foreign policy. ❖ India has been
following liberalisation, privatization, globalization and
marketization since 1991 but the goals of India continue to
be socialistic and means of India continues to be
democratic. ❖ These historical, ideological and
philosophical bases of India’s foreign policy can be seen in
the conduct of India’s Foreign Policy. In fact, these values
are guiding principles for foreign policy makers of India
i.e., Foreign policy makers of India while formulating
foreign policies keep in mind these principles. Principles of
India's Foreign Policy 1. India's stand against colonialism,
racialism, neo-colonialism, etc, 2. Strategic autonomy -
Power to take one’s own decision, 3. Purity of means- India
wants to achieve the goals of its national interest but
without compromising Fundamental principles or core
values. It means goals are important but the means
through which those goals are being achieved is equally
important for India, 4. India believes in South-South
cooperation- India believes that cooperation with
developing countries should increase, 5. India's
neighbourhood first policy - India believes in giving
unilateral concession to her smaller Neighbours and in
return of India's concessions India does not want reciprocal
concession from her smaller neighbours, 5 6. India believes
in independent foreign policy, 7. India supports
disarmament particularly nuclear disarmament, 8. India's
stand against terrorism, 9. Resolution of conflict through
dialogue. Multi alignment - India has shifted the course of
its foreign policy from non-alignment to multi- alignment in
21st century because of following reasons- (a) Need for
capital, technology and expertise for India's industries, (b)
To ensure India's energy security, (c) To ensure India's food
security, (d) To get support at United Nations Security
Council on vital issues like Kashmir dispute, (e) during cold
War period, India adopted the policy of non-alignment
which went on to become fundamental features of India's
foreign policy due to following reasons:- ❖ the need to
maintain strategic autonomy of India, ❖ India wanted to
get technological and economic assistance from both the
superpowers namely USA and USSR, ❖ 3rd world countries
like India used to be very emotional about their freedom
and they did not want to compromise on their Freedom by
joining either of the power blocs led by USA and USSR. That
is why India and new independent countries of Asia, Africa
and Latin America joined non-aligned movement (NAM), ❖
In the 21st century India realised that remaining
non-aligned would not be helpful to India's strategic goals.
That is why India pursued the policy of multi-alignment in
recent years. Support for disarmament – India supports
disarmament rather than arms control treaty because arms
control treaty like NPT gives privileged position to erstwhile
colonial powers. India wants complete disarmament with
respect to nuclear weapons for which five permanent
members of UNSC are not ready. That is why India did not
sign the NPT. 6 Panchsheel - Panchsheel is one of the
fundamental principles of India's foreign policy. It is a
principle of peaceful coexistence with other nations.
Panchsheel involves 5 principles: - ❖ mutual respect for
each other’s' territorial integrity and sovereignty, ❖
non-aggression, ❖ non-interference in each other’s
domestic affairs ❖ mutual benefits and equality, ❖ Peaceful
coexistence. South-South Cooperation - It is one of the
Fundamental principles of India's foreign policy. It is still
important because of Following reasons:- (1) Climate
change negotiations, (2) WTO negotiations, (3) Reforms at
multilateral institutions like- UNSC, World Bank, IMF, etc.
India's Foreign Policy in Post-Cold War Era (1991-till now)
Continuity and Change in India’s Foreign Policy: ❖ India’s
Foreign Policy is largely characterised by continuity
marking a brief phase of significant change. ➢ Cold war
Era (1947-1991): Throughout the cold war period, India’s
Foreign Policy is largely continuous. ➢ 1991- 1993: Change
was the dominant feature of India’s Foreign Policy. There
was a marked shift in the post-cold war era. Hence,
continuity is the basic feature of India’s Foreign Policy
marked by changes from time to time due to the structural
conditions of International politics. Changes include: ✓ End
of Super power rivalry. ✓ Bipolarity ended. ✓ World-wide
acceptance to the idea of Liberalisation, Privatisation and
Globalisation. 7 ➢ 1993- Till Now: Every successive
government maintained the continuity in India’s Foreign
Policy despite the ideological differences.

1991-1998
India's foreign policy underwent massive changes after the
disintegration of the Soviet Union in 1991. Since there was a
shift in the structural conditions of international politics
due to the disintegration of the Soviet Union. That is why
India also went for significant change on its foreign policy
front. Need For these significant changes began due to
Following reasons:- 1. End of Cold War 2. Disintegration of
Soviet Union 3. Liberalization of Indian economy 4.
Emergence of USA as the Hegemonic power of the world 5.
Adoption of liberalization, privatization and globalization
by Indian economy Indian foreign policy during tenure of
P. V. Narasimha Rao 1. India continued with its support for
non-alignment 2. India demanded disarmament 8 3. India
put forward the demand of New International Economic
Order 4. India went for qualitative improvement in its ties
with USA and other Western countries 5. India also went for
qualitative improvement in its ties with China and Japan. 6.
India's Look East Policy was also declared in 1991. 7. India
established diplomatic relationship with Israel in 1992. 8.
India went for greater South-South cooperation. 9. The
issue of North-South divide was also put forward by India.
10. India declared its support for United Nations and its
organisations. 11. India joined World Trade Organisation.
12. Defence relationship with USA also increased
significantly. 13. India also remained committed to
non-acceptance of discriminatory nuclear regimes like
CTBT and NPT. All along India maintained this position that
these treaties are discriminatory treaties not meant for
giving equal position rather meant for giving privileged
position to some countries like P5 countries. 14. India
increased the scope and intensity of its economic diplomacy
in Asia, Europe, etc. 15. India continued with its demand for
democratisation of UNSC. (CTBT- Comprehensive
Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty and NPT- Treaty on the
NonProliferation of nuclear weapons) 16. In 1996, I.K.
Gujral gave his Gujral doctrine (when he was External
Affairs Minister In H.D. Devegowda 's government). Gujral
doctrine was as India's attempt of its image makeover. Key
elements of Gujral doctrine:- 1. With its neighbours like Sri
Lanka, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives and Nepal, India does
not ask for reciprocity but gives all that it can in good faith
and trust. 9 2. No South Asian country will allow its territory
to be used against the interest of another country of the
region. 3. None will interfere in the internal affairs of
another country. 4. All South Asian country must respect
one another's territorial integrity and sovereignty 5. All
countries will settle all their disputes through peaceful and
bilateral negotiation.

India's Foreign Policy in Post-Cold War Era || Foreign Policy

Making Institutions Atal Bihari Vajpayee's Era (1998-2004)
Foreign policy of India From 1998 till 2004 reflected the
following features: ❖ India continued with its participation
in the Non-Aligned Movement and India also accepted its
relevance in the emerging world order ❖ India went for
qualitative improvement in its bilateral ties with USA ❖
India also qualitatively improved its relationship with
Russia, China, France, UK, etc. ❖ India continued with its
efforts for democratisation of UNSC. ❖ India's foreign
policy also played an active role with other developing
countries at WTO and related negotiations. ❖ India took
active steps against international terrorism with the help of
other nations. ❖ To work for securing a multipolar world. ❖
To develop and maintain India's military preparedness in
time with India's security and developing status. ❖ To work
for the creation of global convention against terrorism. ❖
To effectively participate in the UN Peacekeeping
operations. ❖ To act as a responsible nuclear nation. ❖ To
work for making India a developed nation through rapid
economic development. Dr. Manmohan Singh's regime
(2004-2014): ❖ India continued with its support for Non-
Aligned Movement but reduced role of NAM in international
politics was accepted as a natural development. ❖ India
increased its cooperation with SAARC countries. ❖ India
entered into a number of free trade agreements with other
nations. ❖ To cooperate with all other developing countries
for securing the rights of 3rd World Countries. ❖ India took
active steps to strengthen its bilateral ties with Russia and
China. ❖ Indo-US relationship witnessed significant
improvement. Indo-US nuclear deal was also signed and
Indo-Us strategic ties during this period also increased
significantly. 3 ❖ India continued with its policy of not
signing discriminatory treaties like NPT and CTBT ❖ India
took a number of steps to improve its ties with European
Union, ASEAN and other regional organisations. ❖ India
continued to work for securing the rights of developing
countries at WTO. ❖ India continued to work for securing
the multipolar international system of the 21st century. ❖
India strongly advocated for reforms of UN and more
particularly reforms at UNSC. ❖ During this phase 4 major
priorities of Indian foreign policy can be seen in the
following: ➢ Securing of a peaceful periphery and relations
with neighbours. ➢ Continuing the process of
transformation of India's relations with major powers. ➢
Working with International community to see a rapid
recovery in the world economy. ➢ Pursuing economic
growth needed for meeting the problems of mass poverty. ❖
During Dr. Manmohan Singh's regime, increasing strategic
depth in bilateral relationships can be seen. We also
witnessed qualitative improvements in India's bilateral
relationship with the USA. Indo-US nuclear deal was also
signed which ended India's Nuclear apartheid (India's
nuclear apartheid began in 1974 after Pokhran I). ❖ The
Indo-US Nuclear deal can be considered as a symbol of new
age bilateral ties between India and the USA. India's
economic relationship with Western countries also
significantly improved. During Dr. Manmohan Singh's tenure
we also witnessed qualitative improvement in India's ties
with ASEAN, African Union, Latin America, etc. ❖ Even
though there was differences between India and USA over
USA's Af-Pak policy when USA talked about re-hyphenation
and offered diplomatic activism with respect to Kashmir
dispute. But this did not significantly affect Indo-US
bilateral ties. ❖ India's relationship with China also -
improved greatly and from a mere $1.2 billion bilateral
trade India's trade with China reached to $66 billion in
2012. India's foreign policy during times of Dr. Manmohan
Singh witnessed tremendous changes in its bilateral ties
with countries like Russia, France, etc. India also attempted
to improve its ties with Pakistan through increasing people
to people contact. ❖ India's relationship with Gulf countries
also witnessed significant boost during times of Dr.
Manmohan Singh. In fact, Dr. Manmohan Singh mooted the
idea of Look West Policy to strengthen India's ties with
countries of West Asia. 4 India's Foreign Policy Since 2014
(during tenure of PM Narendra Modi - till now): ❖ Special
emphasis was given to strengthen India's ties with her
neighbourhood. In 2014, during swearing in ceremony of
the Indian PM all heads of States of SAARC countries were
invited. This ceremony was attended by all heads of states
including Pakistan's PM. ➢ The purpose was to make
India's neighbourhood a focus area for India's foreign
policy. A message was given that India will place special
emphasis on its neighbourhood stretching from West Asia to
East Asia and India will play an important role to fulfil its
international responsibilities to build a peaceful and
prosperous world. ➢ India started following Gujral doctrine
in letter and spirit. India started extending Financial help
to its smaller neighbours. India also sent humanitarian aid
to its smaller neighbours like Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh,
etc. Indian diplomacy became more proactive in dealing
with India's neighbourhood. Foreign policy of India involve
the decision to act as a very active and substantial actor in
international relations of 21st century, ❖ India's Act East
Policy- The idea of Act East Policy was given by PM
Narendra Modi in 2014. India became more proactive in
dealing with countries of South East Asia by completing
connectivity projects and increasing cultural cooperation
with countries of South East Asia. ❖ Through Act East Policy
of India further geographical expansion can be seen in
India's Act East Policy. Earlier India's Act East Policy
remained limited to South East Asia but now it included
North East Asia, Australia, New Zealand, Pacific island
countries along with South East Asian countries. To
establish extensive ties with South East Asia, India started
working on Connectivity projects. India's Act East policy
will help India in following manner: ➢ It will help in
addressing special developmental needs of India's North
Eastern states, ➢ It will also help in the economic
integration of India's North Eastern States with South East
Asia, ➢ It will also help in achieving Indo-Pacific strategy
of India and Japan, ➢ It will help in increasing India's
footprint beyond its immediate neighbourhood, 5 ❖ India's
Look West Policy - India's Look West Policy has become an
important focus area for Indian foreign policy in recent
years because of following reasons: ➢ To ensure India's
energy security. ➢ Seven million strong Indian diaspora is
living in West Asia. ➢ Several West Asian nations are sitting
on huge cash reserves and they want to invest their money
in a country like India from where they can get assured
return on their Capital. ❖ India's Central Asia policy: India
has started giving special emphasis on central Asian region
because of following reasons: ➢ 10% global crude oil
reserves can be found in Central Asian Republics. ➢
Through Iran by developing land corridor India can reach
to Central Asian region and from there India can connect
itself with International North South Trade Corridor which
will give India access to entire Europe and Russia through
land corridor ❖ India's foreign policy with respect to the
USA and other Western Countries: - India's foreign policy
witnessed significant thrust and intensity in dealing with
Western countries. Indo - Us ties further got strengthened
specially defence ties between the two countries witnessed a
massive boost. ❖ India signed important foundational
agreements with the USA like LEMOA, COMCASA, BECA. The
USA declared India as its major defence partner which will
have access to 99% of US defence technology. USA renamed
Asia-Pacific as Indo-Pacific in 2016 and thereby accepted
the centrality of India in the entire region. USA also
declared India as a net security provider in Indian Ocean
region. India's relationship with other Western countries
also witnessed significant improvement. ❖ India's
relationship with France improved greatly - During this
phase, India's relationship with France strengthened greatly
because of following reasons: ➢ India needed unconditional
support of France at UNSC on vital issues like Jammu and
Kashmir. ➢ India also needed support of France in critical
technology areas like Artificial Intelligence,
nanotechnology, biotechnology, Nuclear technology, etc. ❖
Indo - Japan relationship - India's relationship with Japan
acquired significant Strategic depth since 2014. Indo -
Japan Nuclear deal was also signed. Indo-Japan defence
cooperation increased. 6 Note: Reason for Indo- Japan
Strategic ties: ❖ Rise of China and its aggressive behaviour
has disturbed both India and Japan. It has the potential to
destabilise the entire region. That is why defence
cooperation between India and Japan has increased
considerably in recent years. ❖ India and Japan have also
witnessed increasing economic cooperation since 2014
because of India turning into one of the most lucrative
spaces in the world. ❖ India's foreign policy has adopted a
realistic posture in recent times. It has come out of idealism
and it has adopted more pragmatism with a proactive
approach in international politics. ❖ India is no more
waiting for an ideal world order to emerge from where
India would start operating rather it has become more
proactive in dealing with the world. India no more talks
about disarmament and denuclearization of the world
rather India talks about practical arms control. ❖ A
wonderful aspect of India's foreign policy has been that it
has been able to balance its bilateral ties with both USA
and Russia as well as with Israel and Iran. ❖ Presently all
the major powers of the world are trying to engage
themselves with India because big powers believe that
India can become one of the most influential countries in
the world in coming decades.Western countries also believe
that only India can counterbalance China in Asia and India
also has got potential to become a swing state in the future
which can help in maintaining balance of power in Asia.
India has been successfully improving its global image to
become a contender for permanent berth at UNSC. India
has been able to develop a consensus in favour of its
candidature for a Permanent berth at UNSC. Institutions of
policy-making: Introduction: ❖ Making of India’s foreign
policy is a complex and long drawn process. A host of
individuals, institutions and experts with domain knowledge
and technical support staff is involved in it. Persuasions for
adoption of a particular policy alternative may come from
any quarter but the final product in terms of concrete policy
decision of the Ministry of External Affairs is taken only
after wide ranging discussions and weighing probable pros
and cons of opting for a particular course of action. 7 ❖
India's foreign policy is shaped by a collective effort
involving multiple actors rather than being solely controlled
by a single institution or personality. Both formal and
informal sectors contribute to the formulation of foreign
policy, with different actors assuming dominant roles at
various times. Complexities in making of India’s Foreign
Policy: ❖ For a layman, foreign policy of India is made by
the officials belonging to the Indian Foreign Service (IFS)
sitting in the majestic ambience of South Block on the
Raisina Hills in New Delhi. ❖ Crafting foreign policy, both
for India and other nations, typically involves incremental
adjustments rather than radical transformations. While
occasional situations demand creative policy options, most
changes are made to align with the evolving global
landscape. ❖ Foreign policy formulation in India occurs at
two distinct levels: macro and micro. At the macro level,
higher bodies and individuals provide overall direction and
control, assessing policies based on broader national
interests. The Parliament, a key institution at this level,
reviews and approves government policy measures. The
focus here is more formalistic than analytical. ❖ The micro
level, where the real action unfolds, involves the Ministry of
External Affairs (MEA), supported by scientific and technical
institutions and individuals in strategic and foreign affairs.
Inputs for creating, altering, or discarding foreign policy
alternatives may come from various sources, but they all
converge at the relevant MEA division. The Prime Minister's
Office (PMO) plays a crucial role, closely collaborating with
the MEA and serving as the custodian of India's external
relations. Formal Institutions of Foreign Policy-making: ❖
In the intricate process of crafting foreign policy, various
institutions play a direct or indirect role. Statutorily
designated entities like the Ministry of External Affairs
(MEA) serve as the focal point for foreign policy
formulation. However, recognizing that the MEA cannot
encompass all knowledge and insights on the diverse
challenges at India's external boundaries, additional actors
are entrusted with specific responsibilities in shaping the
nation's foreign policy. 8 1. Ministry of External Affairs: ➢
According to former retired ambassador Debnath Shaw,
MEA is the pivotal player in India’s external or foreign
relations. A look at the ‘Allocation of Business Rules’ of GOI
shows that MEA has been empowered with the task of
planning, formulating and managing India’s external
relations with other nations to protect and promote
national interests in the global stage. ➢ MEA acts like the
foreign policy secretariat in India, which receives numerous
policy inputs from various sources, and analyses and
channelizes the different options to the political leadership.
➢ In line with issues that have become important in recent
times, MEA has established specialized divisions catering to
Counter Terrorism, Cyber Diplomacy, E-Governance, etc. ➢
Since the late 1980s, MEA has been strengthening its
economic diplomacy capabilities with divisions dealing with
investment and technology promotion, now subsumed into
its Economic Diplomacy Division, a division looking after
Multilateral Economic Relations (MER) and specialized
centres for our ties with ASEAN and BIMSTEC, which are
primarily focused on strengthening economic ties. ➢ There
is also a division to deal with nuclear proliferation,
disarmament and related issues, including India’s bid for
membership of the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) and
related bodies. 2. Prime Minister’s Office: ➢ Retired
ambassador Debnath Shaw argues that the PMO consisting
of senior level bureaucrats provides secretarial assistance
and advice to the PM and functions as the centre of policy
making in India. It coordinates various central agencies
like the Cabinet, Cabinet Committees, Council of Ministers
and other stakeholders to sort out interdepartmental
hurdles in domestic and foreign policy execution. ➢ During
PM Nehru’s time, since he was both PM and EAM, the Prime
Minister’s Secretariat (as PMO was known then), became the
centre of foreign policy decision making. This trend has
continued with each PMO assuming the central role in all
policy, including foreign policy decision making, often
bypassing the Cabinet, Cabinet Committees and Council of
Ministers. 9 ➢ The Prime Minister, almost without exception,
has been the central figure in foreign policy decision
making since independence. All important matters on
foreign policy and security need the PM's approval before
implementation. The NSA is an important and influencing
factor in the advice reaching the PM. ➢ The successful
foreign policy formulation and execution depends on the
degree of coordination between the PMO and MEA. PM’s
approval is crucial in the appointment of Indian
Ambassadors and High Commissioners abroad, though the
formal letter of appointment is issued by the President in
his capacity as Head of State. In other words, on all major
foreign policy issues, the buck stops at the door of the
Prime Minister. 3. Cabinet Committee on Security: ➢
Committee entrusted with the task of taking collective
decisions relating to the issues of national security and
foreign policy is known as the Cabinet Committee on
Security (CCS). ➢ It is headed by the Prime Minister and
consists of all the important ministers heading the
ministries critical to national security of the country. ➢ In
India, as a customary practice, the decisions relating to
India’s foreign policy are finalized at the level of MEA, PMO,
etc. and are placed before the CCS for its consideration and
final approval. Though CCS has never been heard of
reversing any of the foreign policy decisions initiated by
MEA and finalized by PMO, it surely retains the right of
discussing the issues at hand and members could indeed
offer valuable suggestions if they feel strongly on that. ➢
But, on the whole, role of the CCS in making of the foreign
policy decisions in India are more formal and customary
than substantive one having major bearing on the decisions
already taken 4. National Security Council: ➢ National
Security Council (NSC) was created during the reign of Atal
Bihari Vajpayee in 1998 and it is headed by the National
Security Advisor (NSA). Though demand for the creation of
NSC has been made quite often even since the period of
Nehru, it could not be created for obvious reasons. ➢ The
NSC is a three-tier organisation consisting of the Strategic
Planning Group (SPG), the National Security Advisory Board
and the Joint Intelligence Committee. 10 ➢ The SPG is
responsible for formulating and implementing India’s
strategic policies. Headed by the Cabinet Secretary, the SPG
is also assigned to make long term strategies for India’s
military doctrine. Its members include secretaries of all
important ministries and departments like Home, Defence,
External Affairs, Defence Production, Revenue, Atomic
Energy, Space, the heads of R&AW and IB, the Chiefs of the
Army, Navy and Air Force, Chairman CBDT, RBI Governor,
etc. ➢ Joint Intelligence Committee (JIC) receives
intelligence inputs from the IB, R&AW, and the Directorates
of Military, Naval and Air Intelligence, respectively. It is the
highest intelligence assessment organisation, tasked with
inter-agency coordination, collection and analysis of
intelligence data. 5. Parliament: ➢ Indian Parliament has
the power to legislate on foreign affairs, one of the subjects
in the Union List. This authority includes legislation or
amendment of any law for the successful implementation of
international treaties, agreements and conventions. ➢ The
role of parliament also becomes important under coalition
or minority governments. This almost happened in 2008
when four Left Front parties threatened to withdraw their
support from the coalition government on issue of civil
nuclear agreement with the USA. 6. States: ➢
Paradiplomacy refers to the diplomacy that non-central
governments undertake. In simple words, when subnational
governments such as states, provinces, or even cities
conduct international affairs to further their interests, it is
known as Para diplomacy. ➢ The increasing usage of terms
like ‘town twinning’ or ‘sister cities’, etc. displays its
growing trend. In India, the process has accelerated,
especially since 2014 when PM Modi assumed power. ➢ The
States adjoining our neighbouring countries have a major
say in cross border issues. For example, the Ganges Water
Sharing Treaty with Bangladesh would not have been
possible without the support of the West Bengal
Government. ➢ Water and land boundary issues with
Pakistan have to take into account the views of the
adjoining states of J&K, Punjab and Gujarat. 11 ➢ In our
dealings with Nepal, UP and Bihar are key dialogue
partners. Tamil Nadu has had a disproportionate influence
on India's policies towards Sri Lanka due to the Tamil
factor. Informal actors in Foreign Policy-making: 1.
Pressure Group, Media and NGOs: ➢ Voices of non-political
groups, associations and organizations are important
sources of influence in shaping government policies,
including foreign policy and security issues. Some of these
groups, like friendship associations, are formally
established and registered with the concerned authorities
and have greater access to the policymakers, while others
are informal but wield influence primarily through making
their views known through various media, including
through writings in influential journals and magazines, and
lately through social media. ➢ The established media in
India particularly, newspapers, journals and television are
taking increasingly greater interest in foreign affairs issues
than in the past. This is a healthy development as
Government is forced to factor in the views from the ground
before deciding on issues which may affect the lives of its
citizens directly or indirectly. The role of social media
particularly in highlighting Indians in distress abroad and
provoking government into action is only too well known. ➢
NGOs are growing in stature not only for their work among
the masses in India, but also in significantly influencing
policy decisions, some of which have a bearing on India's
external relations. NGOs dealing with environment, human
rights and migration issues are very active in India. 2.
Business Organisations: ➢ Big businesses, particularly the
house of the Tatas and Birlas played a benevolent hand in
the shaping of the newly independent nation and its
national and global outlook. In the post reform period,
business organizations, like FICCI, CII, ASSOCHAM,
NASSCOM, etc., could be regarded as akin to US lobbyists
groups, which engage with the government to create a
favourable business environment to suit the interests of
their members. ➢ It is now customary for senior leaders,
including Presidents, Vice Presidents, PMs and relevant
ministers to have business delegations accompany them on
their official visits abroad. Similarly, during visits of foreign
leaders to India, who are also seeking to advance their ties
with Indian businesses, the concerned country embassy and
12 MEA seek the participation of such business groups to
organize and conduct the business related events. ➢ Such
activities not only enhance Indian businesses to influence
policy at home but also with governments abroad. A case in
point is the favourable environment created for Indian IT
companies in the US through sustained lobbying by
NASSCOM. 3. Diaspora: ➢ Former ambassador Debnath
Shaw says that once taunted as the 'Not Required Indians',
the Non Resident Indians (NRIs) and the Persons of India
Origin (PIOs), most of whom today hold the OCI card are
an established factor in Indian politics since 1990s. ➢
According to the UN International Migration Report 2019,
India was the leading country of origin of international
migrants, with 17.5 million persons living abroad. ➢ The
diaspora has sent regular remittances ($89 bn in 2021-22),
made investments, lobbied for India on crucial issues,
promoted Indian culture and, in general, created a positive
image of India and Indians through their intelligence, hard
work and entrepreneurial attributes, adding to India’s
brand value. 4. Policy Think Tanks: ➢ The significant think
tanks include: • School of International Studies at JNU •
MEA supported Indian Council of World Affairs (ICWA) •
Defence Ministry supported Institute of Defence Studies and
Analysis (IDSA). • Institute of Chinese Studies (ICS), • RIS
(Research and Information System for Developing
Countries) • ICRIER (Indian Council for Research on
International Economic Relations) • Centre for Policy
Research (CPR) • Observer Research Foundation (ORF) •
Vivekananda Foundation ➢ All based in Delhi. There are
also international relations studies departments in
universities and colleges, and a few private higher
educational institutes that contribute inputs towards India’s
foreign policy calculus. 13 Concluding Remarks: ❖ The
effectiveness of India's foreign policy institutions and
mechanisms is evident over the years, showcasing their
utility and credibility. While foreign policy in most countries
is typically a matter of consensus, India's vast diversity
sometimes leads to parochial perspectives, challenging the
sanctity of national interest. In such cases, the government
must assertively pursue policies it deems appropriate, even
in the face of spirited opposition. ❖ Despite the overall
success, there is a need to reassess the structural vibrancy
and functional dynamism of India's foreign policy-making
bodies. The contemporary international landscape
witnesses rapid changes. The support from cutting-edge
innovations in science and technology empowers countries
to pursue seemingly unachievable foreign policy objectives.
❖ In this dynamic scenario, India's foreign policy
institutions cannot remain confined to their traditional
settings. They must embrace creativity to respond
effectively to unfolding situations and envision hypothetical
future scenarios. This proactive approach ensures that the
foreign policy establishment is prepared to serve the
country's national interests adeptly. Questions asked: ❖
How do the constituent states influence the foreign policy
making process in India? (2021) ❖ Describe the structure
and functions of the National Security Council of India.
What role does it play in the formulation of Indian foreign
policy? (2020) ❖ How does the Parliament determine and
influence the making of India’s foreign policy? (2015) ❖
The Ministry of External Affairs is losing its importance in
the making of India’s foreign policy with the parallel rise of
the P.M.O. Explain. (2014)

Ethnic Conflicts in South Asia Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka

Tamilian issue Origin of conflict- After Sri Lanka gained
independence; the government enacted the Citizenship Act
of 1948, leaving a significant number of Tamilians stateless.
Concurrently, a land colonization scheme settled poor
Sinhalese in traditionally Tamilinhabited areas, aiming to
establish a Sinhalese majority. These policies led to
Tamilians feeling deprived, heightened their ethnic identity,
and sparked tensions. The declaration of Sinhala as the
official language marginalized Tamil speakers, and
Tamilian students faced higher admission standards for
professional colleges, limiting their employment
opportunities. Additionally, special status granted to
Sinhalese Buddhism hurt the religious sentiments of the
Tamil population, contributing to the overall conflict.
Response of Tamilians Initially, the Tamil response to the
conflict focused on political resolutions, demanding
federalism and greater autonomy. Despite entering into
pacts with the Sri Lankan government, these agreements
were inadequately implemented, leading to dissatisfaction.
In the absence of a viable political solution, the Tamil
movement turned to violence, culminating in the formation
of the LTTE (Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam) under
Thabhakaran's leadership. The shift in Tamil demands
evolved from autonomy to the establishment of a separate
homeland, Tamil Eelam, in the northern and eastern parts
of Sri Lanka. However, the Sri Lankan government rejected
this demand, further intensifying the conflict. 3 Peace
efforts in Sri Lanka In the 1980s, ethnic violence in Sri
Lanka escalated dramatically, leading to widespread
killings and mass migrations. This period marked the onset
of a protracted and unresolved conflict between the Sri
Lankan forces and the LTTE (Liberation Tigers of Tamil
Eelam). Thimphu Peace Talks, 1985 It was the first ever
peace talk between the government and rivals. Peace talks
could maintain peace for 14 months. Then it failed because
LTTE was adamant because of the issue of Tamil Eelam and
the government was not ready to compromise. Rajiv
Gandhi Jayawardene Accord, 1987 Peacekeeping forces
were sent to Sri Lanka. Their aim was to create conditions
so that LTTE would surrender arms and accept political
solution. However, because of Sri Lankan President
Jayawardene, Indian Peacekeepers got involved in the
violent conflict. Ultimately the entire peacekeeping effort
collapsed. Oslo Peace Process It was the first initiative of
Norway. More than 20 countries and international
organisations met in Oslo on 25th November, 2002. They
committed to provide immediate humanitarian assistance
to support the Peace process. Norway, USA, Japan and EU
were to act as co-chair of the peace process. This was the
first time when the international community showed interest
in the peace process of Sri Lanka. Subsequent Development
The Oslo peace process could not result in a lasting
resolution. LTTE suspended its participation from Tokyo
conference. According to LTTE, Sri Lankan government has
not adhered to the commitments of the ceasefire agreement.
It has failed to withdraw its forces from Tamilian
dominated Jaffna province. Since then no peace talks
happened between Sri Lankan government and LTTE. The
conflict continued as none of the sides was ready to
compromise. Both 4 sides were ready to use force. Peace
became elusive because of the existence of hardliners on
both sides. Ultimately Mahinda Rajapaksa came to power
on the promise that he would crush LTTE. Peace agreement
suffered a silent death. The two sides were ready for a
conclusive war. Sri Lankan military carried prolonged 30
months military campaign against LTTE. The campaign
came to an end with the death of Prabhakaran. The Indian
government provided support to the Sri Lankan government
in the form of intelligence sharing. The actions of Indian
government invited criticism from Tamilians. According to
Tamilians, India has overlooked its responsibility of
protecting the rights of civilians in Sri Lanka. Indian
government now focussed on forcing Sri Lankan
government to take necessary steps for rehabilitation of
those who were displaced in the war. Indian government
wants Sri Lankan government to get involved in broader
dialogue with various stakeholders for full implementation
of 13th amendment to Sri Lankan Constitution to achieve
meaningful devolution of power. Indian government
suggests dialogue and devolution of power. Legitimate
demands of minority should be met within the democratic
framework of united Sri Lanka. The Indian government has
offered its help for rehabilitation and resettlement. The
Indian government has helped in constructing more than
50,000 houses in Jaffna province. Ethnic conflict in
Bangladesh Bangladesh presents 3 types of ethnic
conflicts:- 1. Where religion is common but language and
culture become grounds of division- the creation of
Bangladesh itself is an example that how ethnic conflicts
can result into breaking up of a country. Bangladesh crisis
is one of the examples of worst genocide committed by
people of similar religion but having different cultural
background. It is an example of ethnic conflict with
enormous human and material cost. 5 2. The second conflict
is where people belonging to similar languages and cultures
can be divided on communal lines. This type is reflected in
the sectarian violence that exist in Bangladesh. It is
reflected in Hindu-Muslim communal riots in Bangladesh. It
is also a prominent cause of outflow of minority from
Bangladesh 3. It is ironical for a country which was created
on the ground of linguistic and cultural affinity was given
communal identity. It is a conflict between tribal identity
and majoritarian identity. It is related to the Chakma crisis.
Details of Chakma crisis Chittagong hill tract region lies in
the areas bordering India and Myanmar. It is a
geographically isolated region of Bangladesh. People living
in this area are racially and culturally different from the
majority community in Bangladesh i.e., Bengali Muslims of
Bangladesh. There are 13 tribal groups living in this area.
Most of these tribal groups practise Buddhism, Christianity,
Hinduism or Animism. Historically the British administered
this area as an excluded area. Tribal chiefs used to control
this area and Britishers only collected revenue from tribal
chief. The British did not interfere in their customs and
traditions. At the time of India's partition Two Nation
Theory could not be applied in this area. In this case
geographical contiguity and economic viability principle
was applied. This area was better connected with Eastern
Pakistan. Inhabitants of this area resist inclusion with
Pakistan. They wanted to live in a secular country. That is
why they suggested either they should be left independent
or they should be allowed to join India. Their demand was
supported by Congress but it could not materialise. Since
the beginning, Pakistani administration looked at them with
suspicion and policy of persecution were started by the
Pakistani administration against these tribal groups. The
area was declared by the administration of Eastern
Pakistan as a General Area. Its excluded status ended. Non-
tribals were given the right to buy property in this area
which alienated tribals. Government also started the
colonisation process. 6 It started industrialisation and
majority community was allowed to settle down in this area.
Government constructed Kaptai Dam in Rangamati district.
Construction of this dam resulted in the submergence of
40% of agricultural land. Food production of the area
decreased drastically and self-sufficiency of tribal economy
was destroyed. Businessmen from outside paid unfair
prices for tribal products and government had no
compensation or rehabilitation policy. Tribals of this area
started moving towards Tripura and Mizoram. Government
of India asked the government of Pakistan to look into this
matter. However, Government of Pakistan remained
indifferent to the problems of tribals and migration into
India continued unabated. After the creation of Bangladesh,
it was expected that new government would treat tribals
sympathetically. However the new government continued
with their policy of oppression. New Constitution of
Bangladesh was unitary in nature. Demand for autonomy of
tribals was not accepted. Gradually the secular nature of
the state was done away with. It further increased the fear
of discrimination. Influx of Chakma refugees into India
increased significantly. Involvement of other states like
China, Pakistan, and India also increased in Chakma issue.
Important Chakma leader Raja Trideb Roy became a
Pakistani supporter. Another leader Manvendra Verma
developed Communist leanings and he found the Rangamati
Communist Party. Priti Kumar Chakma got aligned to India.
He was given political asylum by Government of India.
Gradually, the influence of Pakistan increased because of
ISI's activities in the area. Chakma refugees developed
contacts with Mizo rebels. Agitation against Chakmas grew
in Indian States like Tripura. Ultimately, the government of
India withdrew itself from the conflict. Government of
India facilitated negotiations between tribals and
government of Bangladesh and peace agreement was
signed in 1997. The agreement postponed ethnic violence in
the area. 7 Terms of agreement Establishment of
Chittagong Hill Tract Council- the regional council will
comprise local government of these hill districts. Two third
of ministers are to be elected from amongst the tribal
population. Tribal council will take up developmental
function. Those who will surrender arms will be granted
amnesty and also lump sum money for rehabilitation. No
land will be purchased, sold or transferred without Council's
permission. Government will make provision in government
jobs and higher education by allocating quota for tribals.
Response in Bangladesh This accord found many
difficulties in implementation. Opposition parties like
Bangladeshi Nationalist Party (BNP) protested against the
accord. They called it as a loss of Bangladesh's sovereignty.
Chakmas felt that the accord does not meet their full
aspirations. They insisted on demilitarisation of the area,
withdrawal of outsiders, granting autonomy and some even
demanded independence. Insurgency is still continuing in
the area and long term prospects of this area are still
uncertain for the people of this area.

Ethnic Conflict in South Asia || River Water Disputes (Part-2)

Ethnic Conflict in Pakistan Introduction One of the most
serious challenges that the state of Pakistan has been
facing since its creation is the self-assertion of various
ethnic groups. These ethnic groups challenge the legitimacy
of the state of Pakistan. Those ethnic groups are Muhajirs,
Baloch, Pashtun, etc. With the creation of Bangladesh,
Bengalis were successful in the creation of their own state.
Pashtuns and Baloch were opposing the accession of their
regions even before partition of India, the demand for
independent state. The only ethnic group which seems
satisfied with Pakistani state is Punjabis. The reason is that
from the very beginning Panjabis have been over
represented in the state apparatus as well as industry,
business and commerce, etc. Following peculiar features of
ethnic conflict in Pakistan emerges:- 1. Religion is not the
basis of national integration, 2. Major conflicts in Pakistan
are linguistic and cultural, 3. Linguistic and cultural aspects
of conflict have symbolic importance and the real objective
has been political or economic, 4. The use of violence is
very common because of easy availability of weapons in
Pakistan, 5. There is also involvement of neighbouring
states Like Afghanistan, Iran, etc, 6. Pakistan also makes
allegations that India has some role in various ethnic
conflicts of Pakistan. Recently, Pakistan said that Baloch
rebels of Pakistan are being supported by India. 7. Even the
politics of Cold War has some role in Pakistan's ethnic
conflict. 8. The militant elements in Pakistan are relatively
autonomous and more powerful in comparison to other
South Asian States. Pakistani establishment itself has used
militants to create conflict and division within ethnic
movements as well as in context of bilateral relationship
with countries like India, Iran, Afghanistan 9. Ethnic
conflict emerges because of the failure of Pakistani state at
developmental fronts. 3 Muhajirs ethnic Nationalism They
are Urdu speaking Indian Muslim migrants. They were at
the forefront for the creation of Pakistan. Muhajirs were
completely sidelined in the Pakistani state. They formed
their own separate group Muhajir Qaumi movement (MQM)
in 1984 to assert their identity. MQM took both types of
actions i.e., political as well as violent actions. They became
increasingly organized and violent Political group.
Movement of MQM is based in Urban areas and it consists of
middle class groups. They entered into conflict with the
Pakistani State because of the domination of Punjabis and
Sindhis in Pakistan's establishment. They were completely
marginalised during the times of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto. They
were further marginalised under Jia-ulHaq who openly
gave all top positions to Punjabis. The Mohajir movement
further witnessed division into MQM Haqiqi which became a
supporter of Pakistan's State. Gradually Mohajirs also
joined the Pakistan Oppressed Nations Movement and they
started demanding greater autonomy to Karachi city of
Pakistan. Later on MQM dropped its title Mohajir and
adopted another name Muttahida Qaumi Movement. The
Pakistan establishment feels that there is an Indian
involvement in Mohajir's movement. Movement in
Balochistan (Baloch insurgency) It is located in one of the
most rugged and remote areas of Pakistan. It is the least
industrialized region of Pakistan. This area has lowest level
of literacy in Pakistan. It is also the largest province of
Pakistan with the smallest population. It is the most
impoverished province of Pakistan. Ethnically and
linguistically there are many groups living in this area. This
region is rich in mineral reserves. Baloch is the largest
group inhabiting this area followed by Pashtuns. There are
very little irrigational facilities in this area. Social
organization is primarily tribal. Tribal groups of the region
are fragmented. They do not have an idea about the
authority of state. This region also shares boundary with
Iran and Afghanistan. 4 History of Baloch insurgency - Like
Jammu and Kashmir we can trace the origin back to
independence of India, 1947. The Khan of Kalat established
unified Baloch Army and he sought independence of Baloch
state. The Khan of Kalat established independence of Baloch
state. Now Pakistani army moved in the region and they
took over control of Balochistan forcibly. Later on Prince of
Kalat launched the People's Party which developed new
Baloch nationalism that cut across tribal and linguistic line.
People's Party won election in 1972 in Balochistan. Now it
demanded greater representation of ethnic Baloch in
government. Government of Pakistan adopted a colonial
resettlement policy. The share of the wealth of Baloch was
going to outsiders. Hence, Balochistan demanded greater
autonomy, more share in their resources. The Pakistani
establishment did not pay attention to these Baloch
demands. So far there have been 5 insurgencies in the
region. - 1948, 1958, 1962, 1973, 2003. Context of
Insurgency in 2003 Pakistan government encouraged the
settlement of Afghan refugees in Baloch land. This tilted
ethnic composition in favour of Pakistan or Pashtuns
(Pashtuns are Sunni Muslim group). Baloch area is under
the influence of Iran. Pakistani army turned Balochistan's
capital Quetta into a Taliban's town. Pakistani army
displaced Baloch people for constructing army cantonment.
Pakistan's construction work has left the people of
Balochistan without land, homes and jobs. Pakistan
government has used coercive measures to resist
insurgency. Insurgents targeted troops and gas pipelines.
Pakistani armed forces also used Airforce strikes in the
area. Prominent voice of Baloch nationalism Nawab Akbar
Khan Bukti was killed by Pakistani army. 5 According to
UN estimates, large number of People have been displaced
and suffered due to ongoing conflict. In recent years,
Baloch rebels have also started targeting Chinese projects
in Balochistan because the China Pak Economic Corridor
passes through Balochistan. Pakistan's government blames
- India for current phase of insurgency in Balochistan
Pashtun insurgency: They live in Southern part of
Afghanistan and the southern Part of Pakistan. They are
divided by British imposed Durand line. At the time of
partition, they were not supportive of the state of Pakistan.
Ethnic movement used to be a secular movement. In fact, it
opposed partition of India, It also opposed creation of
Pakistan. Pashtuns ethnic movement was a nonviolent
movement. Pashtuns demanded an independent state
because they could see that they would be dominated by
Punjabis. Pashtuns are tribal people. They have their own
way of life.Their value system is different from Pakistan's
society. In the state of Pakistan, Pashto language
(Pashtun's language) was not a part of educational
curriculum. Pashtuns opposed the Pakistan government's
policy of settling outsiders in the region. The problem
became acute when Pakistan in its efforts of Talibanization
of Afghanistan made the Pashtun area shelter for Talibans
and Al-Qaidą. Gradually, Pakistan's army also started dirty
activities in the areas traditionally inhabited by Pashtuns.
They started selling arms and drugs. Gradually, this area
became a problematic area. Talibans established their
dominance in the area which was resisted by Pashtuns.
Pashtun started their own vision of Pashtunistan (or A
Paktunistan). They wanted to introduce traditional Islamic
laws in the region. They also challenged legitimacy of the
state of Pakistan. 6 Ethnic conflict in Nepal In recent years,
Madhesi issue has emerged in Nepal as an important ethnic
concern which does have an impact on Indo-Nepal
relations. Madhesis are the people of Tarai region. Madhesi
term is used for caste categories living in Nepal, who have
migrated from Eastern India. Madhesi itself is not a
homogenous category. They are stratified in terms of
language and caste. The Madhesi movement is a reflection
of dissatisfaction of this community with Nepali
establishment. They have been excluded for long time from
Nepali establishment. They have now been accepted as
Nepalese. They suffer from an identity crisis. They have
been kept out of state administration. Madhesis language
like Awadhi, Bhojpuri and Maithili has no official
recognition. Initially, Maoists supported Madhesis cause to
get support for their Jan Andolan in 1990s. Later on they
dropped their support to Madhesis, and Madhesis started
their own political and militant organization. There are also
armed groups among Madhesis like the Madhesi Tiger. Their
overall objective is the creation of a separate autonomous
province. They want ethnic federation to be introduced in
Nepal. They also want proportional representation in Nepali
Parliament as per their population. Madhesis have been a
cause of concern for Nepali establishment and it has also
affected India's relationship with Nepal. Nepal wants India
to intervene in this issue and ask Madhesis to go for
political settlement with India. Problems of illegal
migration in South Asia Meaning of illegal migration
Migration is not unusual. Migration has been taking place
since time immemorial. It is illegal cross border migration
which is a cause of concern. Illegal migration differs from
legal migration. Legal migration is allowed by the country
For e.g., India and Nepal have an understanding under
which a Nepali citizen can enter into India without
possession of travel documents, passport and visa. 7 India
also allows the migration of nationals of other countries but
they require valid legal document. Illegal immigration
means migrants are entering into the country without
possessing valid documents. Illegal immigrants are
different from refugees. Refugees are granted right to
asylum. An illegal immigrant is a person present in the
country who would have been otherwise disallowed by
states from entering. History of illegal migration in South
Asia- Illegal migration in India is primarily from the
region now known as Bangladesh. It began in 1930s when
Nawab Sadullah of Assam invited peasants’ cultivators from
Mymensingh district under the Grow More Food campaign
which was criticised by British. According to Lord Wavell,
under the Grow More food campaign people of only a
particular religion are being promoted. After the creation of
Pakistan minorities from Eastern Pakistan started coming
in large numbers as they were subject to violence led by
state as well as society. What became a matter of concern
today is the rate at which migration from Bangladesh is
taking place leading to demographic inversion in bordering
districts. The problem gained serious proportions in states
like Assam which witnessed complete demographic
inversion leading to communal violence and increasing
insurgency. States like West Bengal along with Assam also
witnessed phenomenal rise in communal violence. The issue
of illegal migration is a cause of concern for India because
loyalty of such people cannot be trusted towards India.
Moreover Indian cultivators and labourers are also
becoming jobless because of increasing migrants coming
from Bangladesh. In case of Assam and Tripura, the matter
is really serious. It is said that if illegal Immigration is not
checked, it will result into revival of the demand for
partition from the Indian state. Illegal migration from
Bangladesh was one of the reasons behind Assam student
movement and outbreak of insurgency in Assam from 1978
till 1985 leading to Assam Accord. 8 Consequences of illegal
migration 1. Demographic inversion: This term often carries
negative connotations, implying a threat to a dominant
cultural identity. However, it’s important to remember that
demographic shifts are natural and have occurred
throughout history. Instead of viewing them with fear, we
can focus on promoting inclusivity and integration,
ensuring that all communities feel valued and have
opportunities to thrive. 2. Migrated people's loyalty:
Attributing national loyalty solely based on migration
status is unfair and inaccurate. People can have complex
identities and attachments to multiple places and cultures.
Focusing on building trust and fostering a sense of
belonging for all residents, regardless of origin, can be
more productive than making assumptions about loyalty. 3.
Criminal activities: While it’s true that any population group
can have individuals who engage in criminal activity, it’s
important to avoid generalizations and stereotypes.
Attributing criminal behavior to entire communities based
on their migration status is not only inaccurate but also
harmful, as it can lead to discrimination and social
exclusion. 4. Pressure on resources: Concerns about resource
availability are understandable, but it’s important to
remember that migration can also bring benefits. Migrants
can contribute to the workforce, filling critical labor gaps
and boosting economic growth. Additionally, they can bring
new skills, knowledge, and cultural perspectives, enriching
the communities they join. River Water Dispute in South
Asia According to Karl Wittfogel, a German historian, who
wrote a book titled Oriental Despotism in 1957, argued that
control over water resources implies control over lives of
people. Hence, water is an important political issue. Use of
water in politics is neither new nor unique to South Asia.
Water has been a military tool, bargaining tool and also a
political tool used by states. 9 In case of South Asia, the
water issue is very complicated. Different issues are a
interlinked along with water issue. Water issue is linked
with hydrological issues. Hence, South Asia does not
represent cases of successful management of water conflict.
Significance of Water Water is absolutely essential for
human survival. Most of the drinking water is available in
the form of glaciers, ice or deep underground water. Global
water demand is increasing at a faster rate than population
growth. Environmental degradation and poor water
management increases the problem. The situation is
serious in South Asia. There are interstate and intrastate
conflicts. South Asian economies are agricultural economies
heavily dependent on water. In case of Bangladesh there
are serious water problems like lowering of water table,
arsenic contamination. Water is a very serious concern for
Bangladesh. Nepal has vast potential but lacks investment
in technology. The political climate in South Asia further
creates limitations on Nepal's capacity to harness water for
electricity and irrigation. In case of India and Pakistan,
water supply is an area of concern. It is estimated that by
2025 there will be a shortage of 28 million food grains in
Pakistan because of water shortage. Above picture of South
Asia requires an urgent resolution of water dispute.
Evolution of regional water policy for optimum utilisation of
water is necessary not only for ensuring Food security but
also for stopping environmental- degradation and for
securing regional peace. Major water disputes in South Asia
India has major water dispute with Pakistan, Nepal and
Bangladesh Indo-Pak Water Dispute Problem between
India and Pakistan originated due to unnatural partition.
Pakistan's side of Punjab had a well-developed network of
canals whereas the Indian side of Punjab lacked necessary
infrastructure and was to build Canal networks. 10
However the source of water lies in India. In 1948, serious
conflicts arose when government of India stopped water
supply for canals in Pakistan. The reason was that at the
time of Partition an ad-hoc arrangement was made by
which the Indian side will supply water to Pakistan and the
type of that ad-hoc arrangement was over in 1948. Hence,
there was no obligation on the part of India. The farmers of
Pakistan pressurised Pakistan's government. It brought
tension between India and Pakistan. The World Bank
mediated between India and Pakistan in 1951. It took 9
years to resolve the conflict. Thus, the Indus water treaty
came into existence. The reason of the problem is that the
Indus River passes through J&K and J&K itself is a
disputed territory between India and Pakistan. Pakistan
always interprets the water issue as a lifeline issue and as a
strategic issue. Indian government views the water issue as
a political issue which can be resolved through
negotiations. Indus Water Treaty The 3 Western rivers i.e.,
Indus, Chenab, Jhelum were given to Pakistan. The 3
Eastern rivers namely Rabi, Satluj, Beas were given to
India. Pakistan had to undertake replacement work for
water which it was getting for Eastern Rivers. India can
take up various projects on Western rivers - Conservation
of water Flood control Irrigation Hydro electricity
generation However India needs to inform Pakistan and if
Pakistan objects then it can be resolved only bilaterally or
by arbitration or by mediation. Both parties will ensure
regular exchange of data with respect to the flow of rivers.
Safeguards are to be incorporated to ensure unrestricted
flow to Western rivers. Permanent Indus Water Commission
was constituted to resolve the dispute and decide 11 for
settlement. World Bank has provided funds to both
countries for construction of dams and building of canals.
The burden of success of the treaty lies on India as India is
an upper riparian state. So far 27 projects have been
undertaken by India and most of these projects have been
objected by Pakistan either to stop the project or delay the
implementation. Some of the major conflicts are Salal Dam,
Tulbul navigation project, Kishanganga Dam, Uri
hydroelectric project, etc. Salal Dam Pakistan objected to
the Hydropower project of India on Chenab river. Views of
Pakistan:- It can be used for strategic purposes for
flooding Pakistan. Such an objection is irrational because
Flooding is possible only when a dam is broken. In such a
situation, the Indian side will also be flooded. Utmost care
has been taken to prevent such eventuality. Such an act is
against the Geneva Convention of War. If India does so it
will invite International condemnation. Another objection
of Pakistan is that it can be used for drying up of canals in
Pakistan so that the Indian army can easily enter Pakistan.
Views of government of India:- It is a flood retardation
scheme and it will be beneficial for both India and
Pakistan. Under Pakistan's objection changes were made in
the design of the dam which has led to the problem of
siltation. Tulbul Navigation Project (Wullar Barrage) The
Indian government proposed to improve navigation in
Jhelum during winter to connect Srinagar with Baramulla
district. 12 Pakistan's objections:- 1. Area is important from
a strategic point of view. 2. It will ruin various canal
projects of Pakistan. 3. It violates the terms of the Indus
Water Treaty which prohibits any man-made obstruction to
the daily flow of water. 4. India can start such project only
with the approval of Pakistan, 5. Storage capacity of the
project should not be more than 1,000 cusecs of water
whereas storage capacity is almost 30 lakh cusecs in this
case. India's View 1. It will be beneficial for Pakistan as it
will reduce the flow of water during the flood season. 2. It
will regulate the supply of water for the Mongla dam in
Pakistan. Efforts of negotiation Pakistan referred this issue
to the Indus Water Commission in 1986-1987. India
suspended the construction so the issue did not go for
arbitration. Pakistan offered India that it can let India
construct the barrage subject to Pakistani inspection. India
rejected Pakistan's offer, despite many rounds of talks so
far no breakthrough in this regard has been achieved
between the two countries. The two countries have agreed
to set up a technical level mechanism to carry forward the
process for resolution of this issue.

River Water Disputes (Part-3) || India-USA relations Water

Dispute between India and Nepal Nepal has tremendous
potential to generate 83,000 MW of electricity through
hydroelectricity power generation. Nepal lacks capacity and
technology to harness its potential. Northern region of
India sometimes faces power deficit whereas Nepal cannot
use its entire electricity as it has huge surplus which can be
exported. The 2 countries actually complement each other.
Both India and Nepal have entered into various agreements
in the past - Sharda agreement, 1920 Kosi agreement, 1954
Gandak agreement, 1954 In contemporary times, China
has also started increasing its influence in Nepal which has
further complicated the situation for India. Mahakali Treaty
has been a major issue of dispute between India and Nepal.
This treaty has been ratified by Nepali Parliament in 1996
but despite ratification it has not come into existence.
Context of Mahakali Treaty Mahakali river is also known as
Kali or Sharda in India. It flows in Nepal and India. It is
treated as a natural boundary between India and Nepal
since 1960s. In 1991 the 2 governments signed an
agreement. This agreement allowed India to use small- part
of Nepal's territory for construction of smaller water
projects for Tanakpur barrage. The issue became
controversial because it was felt by Nepal that government
of India has overlooked Nepal's interest and it
compromised Nepal's sovereignty. The matter was raised in
Nepali Supreme Court which suggested ratification of the
treaty by Nepal's Parliament. In 1995, the treaty was
renegotiated and now the treaty is known as Integrated
Development of Mahakali River including Sharda barrage,
Tanakpur barrage and Pancheshwar projer. This treaty was
finally ratified by Nepali Parliament in 1996 but it was
opposed in Nepal for compromising Nepal's vital interest. 3
It was argued in Nepal that large infrastructure projects
are not eco-friendly and this treaty has failed to take into
account various concerns: Ordinary people of Nepal are
not involved in the management of its water resources. The
construction of Pancheshwar dam by India would submerge
fertile area of Nepal. This issue is still unresolved between
India and Nepal. India - US Relations Indo-US relationship
is characterized by the phenomena of complex
interdependence. There are several points of convergences
and divergences in Indo-US relationship. Points of
convergence are I. promotion of democracy, II. USA's
global war against terrorism, III. containment of China, IV.
free and open Indo-Pacific, V. conception of Indo-Pacific,
VI. maritime freedom and freedom of navigation in South
China Sea Points of divergences are following:- I. WTO
negotiations - against trade distorting subsidies by USA II.
Climate change negotiations - India believes in common
but differentiated responsibilities but USA believes in
common but uniform responsibilities III. Indo-Russian
defence cooperation IV. India's refusal to condemn Russia
for its Ukrainian invasion V. Reforms at World Bank and
INF. Earlier India and US were called as estranged
democracies or distanced democracies but today they are
known as engaged democracies. Evolution of relationship
Indo-US relations can be broadly divided into 2 phases:- 1)
During the cold war period - First phase (1947-till 1950s)
Second Phase (1960s-till 1991) 2) Post-Cold War Period
During the cold war period - First phase (1947-till 1950s)
Second Phase (1960s-till 1991) 4 First phase (1947 - till
1950s) This was a phase of indifference because USA
considered entire South Asia as a zone of indifference
because of following reasons:- 1. South Asia was not
considered as an attractive investment destination by USA,
2. No country of South Asia was in a position to pose a
threat to American security, 3. No country of South Asia had
witnessed Communist revolution. But things started
changing after communist revolution in China in 1949: 1.
USA started searching for allies in South Asia, and Pakistan
was given primacy over India because of Pakistan's
geostrategic location. Pakistan became a close partner of
USA. 2. During 1962 Sino - Indian war, USA supported India
with armaments on following conditions- India will try to
resolve Kashmir dispute as soon as possible, India will not
use these armaments against any other country except
China 3. During 1971 War USA went for its famous gun boat
diplomacy to pressurize India and India was branded as an
aggressor by the USA. 4. Relationship between India and
USA deteriorated greatly. 5. USA imposed sanctions against
India after Pokhran-I. 6. Throughout Cold War period,
normalcy in bilateral ties were not seen.

India - US Relations India and the USA: ❖ Both India and

the USA are called 'engaged democracies’ in the 21st
century. ❖ Earlier, they used to be known as 'distanced
democracies' or 'estranged democracies. Indo- US
relationship has been defined by Barack Obama as ‘one of
the defining features of the 21st century'. ❖ Bilateral
relationships between two countries have several areas of
convergence and divergence. ❖ The Trump era of relations
has witnessed continuity in bilateral ties by building
momentum in the 21st century for greater convergence of
Indo-American interests on the issues of security
cooperation and defence interoperability between the two
countries. ❖ The US believes that both India and the US can
cooperate to ensure rule-based international order and
maritime freedom in the Indo-Pacific region. ❖ USA's
renaming of Asia-Pacific as Indo-Pacific is a recognition of
India's growing importance in the USA's strategic thinking
in recent years. ❖ The US also declared India a net security
provider in IOR, which is another example of the growing
importance of India in US strategic calculations. ❖ Both
countries' ever-increasing trade relationships and the USA's
declaration of India as a major US defence partner are
mute testimonials of India's importance in the USA's
scheme of things. ❖ The Biden administration is paying
huge attention to India. Recently, the Prime Minister of
India was called by the Joe Biden government to address
the US Congress. This turned out to be a historic moment
for India and its recognition around the world. 3 Evolution
of India- US Relations COLD WAR: $450mn-defence
equipment bought by India in the Cold War period. ❖
1947-50s: phase of indifference. ❖ 1960s-91: At the end of
the 1960s. ➢ Sino-US rapprochement has improved
relations through the easing of travel and trade restrictions.
➢ Sino-Soviet rift, 1969, due to an ideological clash between
the two countries. ➢ March 1971- India concluded the
‘Peace, Friendship, and Cooperation treaty with USSR. ➢
The phase of bitterness was due to a series of events like
the signing of the Soviet-Indo treaty, India's refusal to sign
NPT and CTBT after post-India’s peaceful nuclear explosion
at Pokhran in 1974, etc. POST-COLD WAR: 1991 - 1999: ❖
Greater engagement in defence cooperation after the US
defence secretary visited India in 1986 and 1987. ❖ The
phase of trust-building after Prime Minister Rao paid an
official week-long visit to the US in May 1994, which helped
to strengthen ties and was followed by the signing of
several Memoranda of Understanding (MOUs). Analysis of
India-US relations 1999-2011: ❖ Deepening of engagement
due to various common grounds against terrorism, defence
partnerships, etc. ❖ The relationship between both
countries reached a strategic partnership, 4 ❖ The US has
to acknowledge the Line of Control (LoC) in order to resolve
the main issue in Kashmir—the Kargil War. ❖ During US
President Bill Clinton's visit to India, both countries signed
a joint statement on energy and environment (Vision
Document), which was seen as a turning point in Indo-US
ties that were earlier termed ‘estranged democracies’. ❖
President George W. Bush's “dehyphenation” policy
transformed the character and quality of US-India
relations. 2011- Till now: ❖ Strategic partnerships assumed
a global dimension, covering different aspects of
cooperation like energy, security, environment, etc. ❖
Convergence of strategic interests due to the containment of
China in the IndoPacific region, shaping future bilateral
defence cooperation. ❖ Major defence security deals made
India stronger. 1999-2011 President George W. Bush's era ❖
The dehyphenation policy established long-lasting strategic
and military ties between the two countries. ❖ Increase in
defence engagement between both countries. ❖ Major
strategic alignment between both countries on the issue of
‘containment of China’. ❖ The 123 Agreement signed
between the United States of America and the Republic of
India is known as the U.S.–India Civil Nuclear Agreement or
Indo-US Nuclear Deal. Barack Obama, First Term: ❖ India
was ignored in the trilateral discussion involving the USA
and powerful Asian countries, like (USA-Japan-China), (US-
South Korea- China), (Chimerica- talks). ❖ Deepening of
strategic partnership ties between the two countries. 5
Barack Obama, Second Term: ❖ Advocated 'Pivot to Asia
(Mutual intent became more clear on the issue of
containment of China). ❖ The centre of the geostrategic
power gravity of the US shifted from the EuroAtlantic zone
to the Asia Pacific region / Indo-Pacific region mainly to
contain China and establish a rule-based ‘Free and Open
Indo-Pacific’ (FOIP) region. ❖ The US Naval Chief of
Operations said that 60% of US naval forces are present in
the Asia Pacific region. Reasons for Qualitative
improvement in bilateral ties: ❖ Bilateral relations have
witnessed qualitative improvement in the 21st century,
especially in recent years. This qualitative improvement can
be seen in areas like defence, trade, USA's support for India
on issues like Kashmir, etc. Reasons for Qualitative
improvement can be seen in the following: ❖ The growing
economic credentials of India, which include - increasing
consumerism, an ever-expanding middle class, aspirational
youth, huge discretionary spending, and a huge market of
130+ crore people, have turned India into an attractive
destination for American companies. ❖ The presence of the
Indian diaspora in the US has further shaped US foreign
policy in favour of India. ❖ The forces of globalisation and
the role played by social media and technology have
further helped in increasing understanding of each other. ❖
The rise of China is another important reason, as the US
considers India important for the USA's containment of
China strategy. ❖ China's aggressive behaviour in the South
China Sea, East China Sea, South East Asia, South Asia, and
Indian Ocean region (IOR) has further prompted both India
and US to come closer. 6 INDO-US DEFENCE
RELATIONSHIP: 1) Defence relationship ❖ US- India
defence relations began after the disintegration of the
Soviet Union in 1991. It began with the visit of Claude M.
Kicklighter who made a proposal to India about increasing
defence cooperation. It resulted in US Army and Airforce
Paratroopers going for First - ever joint exercise Teak
Iroquois. ❖ In 1993, Malabar series of exercises also
started between USA and India which has been joined -
later joined by the Japanese Navy. Defence cooperation
between the two countries is referred to as defence
diplomacy which reflects linkage between defence
cooperation and the achievement of foreign and security
policy goals. ❖ Both countries signed the Defence Policy
Framework Agreement in 1995, which got renewed in 2005
and 2015. ❖ Many institutional mechanisms to promote
defence cooperation between the two countries also exist.
For example, the Defence Policy Group, the Defense
Working Group, and the Defense Procurement and
Production Group. Note: Ship to Mouth strategy- Crop
failure in India in 1960s when India bought food from USA
and USA used this strategy to negotiate with India and give
15 days ration periodically. ❖ Defence diplomacy can be
defined as the use of armed forces in operations other than
war and building on their trained expertise, goals and
discipline to achieve foreign and rational security
objectives. Important defence agreements/status / Acts: ❖
Defense Policy Framework, 1995: It was signed to facilitate
defence policy between the two (Renewal in 2005 and 2015).
7 ❖ 2005- Next Step in Strategic Partnership (NSSP): Under
this framework, a new framework for defence relations
came into existence, resulting in defence, trade, joint
exercises, counter piracy, and personnel exchanges. ❖
2010- Both countries signed a Defence Trade Technology
Initiative (DTTI), which transformed relations from buyer
and seller to co-producer and seller. ❖ 2015- Logistics
Exchange Memorandum of Agreement (LEMOA): This
agreement will help facilitate collaboration between the two
countries in vital areas of logistics, exchange- refuelling,
repair, etc. Mutual basing facilities would be provided. This
would be on a case-by-case basis, which would also help in
humanitarian relief operations. ❖ Both countries' aircraft
carriers, warships, and fighter jets can have access to each
other's bases for repair and refuelling purposes. ❖ The US
also declared India as a major defence partner, which will
have access to 99% of US defence technology ❖ COMCASA
(Communication, Compatibility, and Security Agreement):
This agreement would facilitate access to advanced US
defence systems and enable India to utilise US-origin
reforms optimally. This is a landmark agreement that puts
India on par with US allies. Advanced communication
devices would be fitted with US-origin defence platforms.
This will enable India's defence equipment of US origin to
send and receive encrypted messages. ❖ STA-1 status
(Strategic Trade Authorisation-1): India became the third
country to get this status in Asia after Japan and South
Korea. This agreement has paved the way for high-tech
product sales to India, particularly in the civilian space and
defence sectors. The Trump administration has made an
exception for India, which has yet to become a member of
NSG. 8 ❖ National Defence Authorization Act: This Act puts
India on par with NATO allies of the USA. This Act will help
increase defence partnerships, including - advanced
technology transfer. This Act is in line with USA's 2016
declaration that India is a major defence partner. It is a
designation that allows India to buy more advanced and
sensitive technology from the USA. ❖ Basic Exchange of
Cooperation Agreement (BECA): This agreement was signed
in October 2020. This is the last foundational agreement
between India and the US for military cooperation. ➢ It
will help India get real-time access to geospatial
intelligence, increasing the accuracy of automated systems
and weapons like missiles, arms, and drones. Through
sharing of information, maps, and satellite images. It will
help India get access to aeronautical data and advanced
products that will help in navigation and targeting. It will
provide the Indian military system with high-quality GPS to
navigate missiles with real-time intelligence to precisely
target India's adversaries. Military exercises between the
two countries. ❖ India is also having a maximum number
of military exercises with the US. Those military exercises
are: 1. Malabar Exercises: Involving India-US-Japan Navy
2. Yuddha-Abhyas: Bilateral army exercise. 3. Cope India:
Bilateral Air Force Exercise 4. RIMPAC (Rim of the Pacific) is
an exercise organised by the USA -is a multilateral naval.
NOTE: ❖ Growing Indo-US defence ties can be seen from
the angle of India's acceptance by the USA as a regional
power, which can be used for the containment of China. 9 ❖
By agreeing to sign all the above agreements, India has
given a clear signal that it is willing to enter into a strategic
engagement with the US. ❖ All these agreements have
qualitatively transformed the Indo-US relationship. ❖ USA's
tilt towards India is a clear signal that it wants to tackle
China with the help of like-minded countries. ❖ The US
believes that these defence agreements with India will help
India build its defence capabilities to play an important
role in the Indo-Pacific region and also contain China. ❖
Both countries are also negotiating an industrial security
annex, which will facilitate cooperation between the Indian
defence industry and the US defence industry, both in the
public and private sectors. ❖ The industrial security annex
will add to the existing agreement on the protection of
classified military information, and it is identical to any
transfer of technology by the US to its Indian partners. It
will enable the transfer of high-end technologies that are
regulated under US laws. Another side of defence
agreements: ❖ US defence agreements are extremely
expensive, for example, the F-22 costs almost $360mm-
$400mm whereas the Russian SU-30 costs $50-70mm. ❖
Spare parts and maintenance costs for US defence
equipment are very high. ❖ The reluctance of the US to
share technology with India. ❖ A lot of strings are attached
to any US supplies. For example, the US fixes its weapons
with tamper-proof equipment or black-box to prevent
reverse engineering. 10 PM Narendra Modi’s visit-2023:
Defense Cooperation between India and the USA during PM
Modi’s Visit: ❖ During PM Modi’s visit, Indo-US strategic
cooperation reached an unprecedented level, though these
two countries are still not calling each other treaty allies.
This visit has been unprecedented due to the deepening of
defence ties, keeping in view the following factors: ➢
Convergence of interests between India and the USA,
especially in the IndoPacific region. ➢ Both India and the
United States of America want peace and stability in the
Indo pacific region, which has been disturbed due to
China’s aggressive behaviour. ➢ China’s aggressive
behaviour in the Himalayas has disturbed India to a great
extent, which is why India is looking for cooperation with
like-minded countries like the USA and Japan. ➢ The
containment of China remains an overriding concern for
these two democracies. Manifestation of defence
cooperation during this visit: ❖ The potential joint
manufacture of general electric aerospace F414 engines in
India by GE and Hindustan Aeronautics is limited to
powering India’s indigenous light combat aircraft MK 2 and
the twin-engine advanced medium combat aircraft. ➢
High-altitude predator MQ-9B killer drones. ➢ The US Navy
has also concluded a master ship repair agreement with
Larsen and Toubro shipyards. ➢ Placing Indian liaison
officers at three US commands. ➢ Launch of India-US
defence acceleration ecosystem Indus-X between private
defence industries in India and USA. This cooperation has
been in addition to a number of agreements in recent times.
Which includes: 11 ✓ C-130 and C-17 Globemaster transport
aircraft. ✓ CH-47 Chinook helicopters; ✓ MH-60R multi-role
helicopters. ✓ Boeing P8I Poseidon: It is a maritime patrol
or reconnaissance aircraft. ✓ The US also wants India to
purchase F-16 and F-18 fighter jets. Note: ❖ The USA has
offered the latest technology and weapons to India to wean
India from its defence partnership with Russia in the long
run. ❖ Their shared concern is China’s aggressive
behaviour in the Indo-Pacific. China factor in indo-us
relationship: ❖ The containment of China has remained a
dominant theme of Indo-US relations. ❖ USA's strategy of
containment began during the Bush administration, which
proposed (informally) the formation of trilateral and
quadrilateral arrangements involving - India-US-Japan
and India-US- JapanAustralia respectively. But this idea of
QUAD was not followed properly by the Obama
administration during its 1st tenure. ❖ During his second
term, the Obama administration pursued a more serious
China containment strategy. While addressing the
Australian parliament, Barack Obama talked about the US's
'Pivot to Asia strategy’, under which the centre of gravity of
US foreign policy will shift from Europe to the Asia-Pacific
region. The US also declared that 60% of its naval forces
will have a presence in the Asia-Pacific region. ❖ During the
Trump administration, this containment strategy has been
pursued with more clarity. The US believes that regional
players like India can help contain China. That is the
reason why the US is actively supporting India in
modernisation of the armed forces. 12 ❖ In 2016, the Asia
Pacific region was renamed as the 'Indo- Pacific region’,
which is a recognition of India's prominent position in this
region and also India's importance in the Indo-Pacific
USA's scheme. ❖ The US has also declared India a
net-security provider in the Indian Ocean Region. The US is
also helping India develop a blue water navy, which will
help India exert its influence on the high seas, i.e., beyond
200 nautical miles. ❖ All the above steps taken by the US
are directly linked to the USA's containment of China
strategy. Why does India want the containment of China? 1.
India does not want unipolarity in Asia, i.e., an Asia
dominated by China alone. India wants multipolarity in
Asia. 2. India doesn't want the Sinoceutric narrative to
dominate Asia. 3. India does not want the hegemonic
inspiration of China in Asia to be fulfilled. Why does the US
want containment of China? 1. China intends to challenge
American hegemony in the future. 2. Rise of China will also
be an ideological challenge to the US. The Washington
consensus will be challenged. 3. Containment of China has
remained the dominant theme of Indo-US relations. The US
strategy of containment of China began during the Bush
Administration which informally proposed Quadrilateral
and trilateral formation including India, US, Japan, and
Australia respectively. 4. But this idea of trilateral and
quadrilateral arrangement was not allowed/followed
properly during the 1st tenure of the Obama Administration.
5. The Obama administration adopted the containment of
China strategy only during IInd tenure. Obama, while
addressing the Australian Parliament in Nov. 2011, talked
about the Pivot to Asia Strategy, Under which the centre of
gravity of US Foreign 13 Policy will be shifting from the
Euro-Atlantic Zone to the Asia Pacific region. The US also
declared that 60% of US Naval forces will have a presence
in the Asia Pacific Region. 6. During the Trump
Administration, this containment policy of the US was
pursued with more clarity. The USA started helping regional
players like India in her Defence Modernization. So that
containment of China Policy can be pursued with the help of
regional partners i.e why US has been actively supporting
India in its defence modernization and also on multiple
fronts. 7. In 2016, Asia Pacific was renamed Indo-Pacific,
which is a recognition of India's prominent position in the
region. 8. India's centrality in the entire region was
accepted by the US. 9. The US also declared India as a net
security provider in the Indian Ocean region during the
Trump administration. Biden Administration, Strategy for
China: ❖ US President Biden calls China as USA's
competitor and not a challenger to US hegemony. ❖ The
Biden Administration has also Indicated of lowering the
heat in bilateral ties with China. ❖ It appears that the US
will not change Trump's administration's Indo-Pacific
strategy because successive governments in the US have
maintained continuity on foreign policy fronts despite
having ideological differences. ❖ In Nov. 2021, Taiwan was
invited by the US to attempt a summit for Democracy in Dec
2021 (Taiwan is a democratic state and a self-governing
country). But Beijing claims that Taiwan is a renegade
province of China. 14 ❖ The USA since the 1970s has
accepted the One China policy which includes Taiwan. This
invitation to Taiwan to submit for democracy appears in
contravention of the traditional American position with
respect to Taiwan. ❖ This particular stand on Taiwan shows
that in the future, the US will continue with its containment
of China strategy in a different manner than the Trump
Administration. ❖ The US is trying to challenge China
diplomatically in collaboration with like-minded countries
rather than going all alone.

India-US relations History of Indo-U.S. Relations India's

historical ties with the United States predate its
independence. Notably, Henry David Thoreau's essay "Civil
Disobedience" influenced Gandhi's strategies in South Africa
and India. Gandhi's non-violence philosophy later inspired
Martin Luther King Jr.'s Civil Rights Movement. Before
Gandhi, Vivekananda's 1893 visit to America showcased
India's spiritualism. Additionally, the USA played a role in
the formation of the Ghadar party in San Francisco in 1913.
Contemporary Status of Indo-U.S. Relations Today the US
Department of State views the Indo-U.S. Relations to be
based on the strategic partnership and this partnership is
founded on shared values including a commitment to
democracy and upholding the rules-based international
system. The United States and India have shared interests
in promoting global security, stability, and economic
prosperity through trade, investment, and connectivity. The
United States supports India’s emergence as a leading
global power and a vital partner in efforts to safeguard the
Indo-Pacific as a region of peace, stability, and growing
prosperity. The strong people-to-people ties between our
countries, reflected in the four million-strong Indian
American diaspora and vibrant educational exchange
between the two countries, are a tremendous source of
strength for the strategic partnership. Indian Diaspora in
the USA: The presence of the Indian Diaspora in the USA
has helped qualitatively transform Indo-US bilateral ties.
Today, India and the US are known as ‘engaged
democracies,’ and multiple convergence points can be seen
in bilateral relations. 3 Experts contribute greatly to the
role of the Indian Diaspora in transforming Indo-US
relations and shaping American perceptions in favour of
India. 4.4 million strong India Diaspora is living in the
USA, which is also known as the modal community in it for
the following reasons: Highly educated: Most of the
members of the Indian Diaspora went to the US for their
higher education, especially in science, mathematics,
engineering, management, etc. High per capita income:
Their per capita income is close to 1 lakh US dollars,
whereas the per capita income of an average American is
only 64.000 dollars. Law Abiding citizens: Their attitude of
non-interference. The Indian Diaspora has started playing
an essential role in the politics and economics of the US.
The list of successful Indians in the US is endless and
includes: Vinod Khosla: Co-founder of sun microsystems.
Indira Nooyi: Former head of Pepsico. Shantanu Narayan:
CEO of Adobe Systems Satya Nadella: CEO of Microsoft
Sundar Pichai: CEO of Google. Bobby Jindal: Governor
Louisiana Kamala Harris: vice president of the USA
People-to-people contact between US and India appears
more robust than even government-to-government relations
because of the following reasons: Language: There is no
language barrier between the two countries. Globalisation:
The forces of Globalization have increased
interconnectedness and understanding of each other.
Democracy is another cementing factor. Educational
Partnership: It is considered by the Ministry of External
Affairs as one of the most important aspects of a strategic
partnership between two countries. 4 Cooperation in
Education Sector Cooperation in the education sector has
been an integral part of strategic partnership between the 2
countries. About 2 lakh Indian students are pursuing their
advanced degrees in USA. The higher education dialogue
has laid down a roadmap for promoting strategic institution
of partnership, deepening collaboration in R&D, fostering
partnership in vocational training for Indian Students and
focussing on Junior Faculty development. India is also
learning from the US experience in community colleges in
order to meet demands for skill development. Indian
institutions are collaborating with American institutions in
areas of technology enabled learning and online courses for
Indian students. Trade relations between India and the USA
Both India and USA have thriving bilateral trade with each
other, which currently stands at around 120 billion dollars,
but the USA is one of the countries with which India has a
trade surplus, so that remains an issue in bilateral trade
between the two countries. India mainly exports to the
USA: Frozen shrimps Diamonds Pharmaceutical products
Jewelry etc US exports to India include: Crude oil
Liquified Natural gas Coal etc Trade relations between the
two countries have been on an increasing trajectory in the
last few decades. 5 Issues in trade relations: India wants
the US to restore the Generalised System of Preference,
which was withdrawn in 2018, under which India used to
export 6.5 billion dollars worth of goods to the US. GSP
gave duty-free trade facilities to India on certain items.
Aggressive promotion of domestic digital products by the
government of India is the issue of another dispute between
the two countries. India’s Patents Act: Section 3D of the act
prevents evergreening. This act denies patents on those
items that are not significantly different from their earlier
versions. According to India, the older patent laws are not
incentivising innovations; rather, they slowdown
innovations, and thus the purpose of patents is defeated to
a great extent. India’s e-commerce rules prohibit
e-commerce companies from making exclusive deals with
sellers to sell on their own platforms. Latest Updates on
Indo-U.S. Relations Economic Relations:- According to the
Office of United States Trade Representative, U.S. goods and
services trade with India totalled an estimated $191.8
billion in 2022. Exports were $73.0 billion; imports were
$118.8 billion. The U.S. goods and services trade deficit with
India was $45.7 billion in 2022. U.S. exports to India
account for 2.3 percent of overall U.S. exports in 2022. The
U.S. goods trade deficit with India was $38.4 billion in 2022,
a 15.2 percent increase ($5.1 billion) over 2021. India's FDI
in the United States was $3.7 billion in 2022, up by 7% from
2021. India's direct investment in the U.S. is led by
professional, scientific, and technical services,
manufacturing, and depository institutions. Many U.S.
companies view India as a critical market and have
expanded their operations there. Likewise, Indian
companies seek to increase their presence in U.S. markets
and at the end of 2020, Indian investment in the United
States totalled $12.7 billion, supporting over 70,000
American jobs. The nearly 200,000 Indian students in the
United States contribute $7.7 billion annually to the U.S.
economy. 6 Modi Era in Indo-U.S. Relations 2014 :- Modi
makes his first visit as prime minister to the United States,
aiming to attract investment and firm up the U.S.-India
strategic partnership. Modi’s events include a sold out
speech in New York’s Madison Square Garden and meetings
with U.S. business executives. In Washington, Modi and
President Obama reach agreement on a memorandum of
understanding between the Export-Import Bank and an
Indian Energy Agency, which provides up to $1 billion to
help India develop low-carbon energy alternatives and aid
U.S. renewable energy exports to India. 2015:- President
Obama makes his second visit to India as head of state for
India’s Republic Day celebrations. The president heralds the
relationship between the world’s two largest democracies,
saying, “America can be India’s best partner.” Obama and
Prime Minister Modi announce a breakthrough on
nuclear-related issues that could help implement the
U.S.-India civil nuclear deal. It led to the signing of
documents relating to renewal of the ten-year U.S.-India
Defence Framework Agreement. 2016:- The United States
elevates India to a major defence partner, a status no other
country holds. This year also marks the signing an
agreement on deeper military cooperation after nearly a
decade of negotiations. 2017:- India sends nearly one-fifth
of the foreign students studying in the United States and
more than three-quarters of the highly skilled workers
approved for H-1B visas, but the racist attack sparks
concern among Indians that the United States is not safe
for them. Increasing anti-immigrant rhetoric causes some
prospective applicants to rethink their plans. 2018:- During
a “two-plus-two” dialogue in New Delhi, U.S. Secretary of
State Mike Pompeo and Secretary of Defence Jim Mattis
sign an agreement with Indian Minister of External Affairs
Sushma Swaraj and Defence Minister Nirmala Sitharaman.
The Communications Compatibility and Security Agreement
(COMCASA) gives India access to advanced communication
technology used in U.S. defence equipment and allows
real-time information sharing between the two countries’
militaries. 7 2019:- The Trump administration terminates
India’s preferential trade status, part of a program dating
back to the 1970s that allows products from developing
countries to enter the U.S. market duty free. Trump says
India has not provided “equitable and reasonable access”
to its own market. Weeks later, India slaps tariffs on
twenty-eight U.S. products in response to U.S. duties on
steel and aluminium imposed in 2018. 2020:- President
Trump praises the U.S.-India relationship and Prime
Minister Modi’s leadership. The two leaders announce plans
to work together on counternarcotic and mental health.
India agrees to purchase $3 billion in U.S. military
equipment, and U.S.- based oil company ExxonMobil
announces a deal with state-owned Indian Oil Corporation.
This year also witnessed the signing of The Basic Exchange
and Cooperation Agreement (BECA), which is the last of four
foundational military agreements signed by both countries
over the past two decades. It allows for the sharing of
sensitive geospatial data to boost the accuracy of Indian
drones and cruise missiles. 2021:- President Joe Biden hosts
Prime Minister Modi at the White House alongside the prime
ministers of Australia and Japan for the first in-person
leaders’ summit of the informal security dialogue known as
the Quad. The leaders agreed to coordinate their strategic
goals, including by donating more than one billion
COVID-19 vaccines globally and forming a lowcarbon
shipping network. 2022–23:- U.S. and Indian officials
announce the Initiative on Critical and Emerging
Technologies (iCET), an agreement that aims to expand
bilateral technology and defence cooperation. The initiative
includes provisions on weapons, artificial intelligence, and
semiconductors. Contentious Issues in Indo-U.S. Relations
While India-U.S. relations have certainly overcome the
‘hesitations of history’, there remain certain areas where
their interests collide, and it leads to friction in their
relations. Some of these areas include: 8 Environmental
Issues:- While India seeks to lead the third world countries
in the global environmental debate of North vs. South, the
United States is the de facto leader of the global North. This
often leads to debate around the issue of ‘historic
responsibility’, ‘per-capita emissions / total emissions’,
financing technology for green energy transition etc.
India’s Relations with Russia: - Russia remains a big hurdle
in the USA developing a full faith in India’s approach to the
partnership. Closer ties with Russia are important for India
for its defence requirements as well as to balance China. On
the other hand, Russia remains an arch-rival of the USA.
Indian purchase of S400 defence system from Russia was a
big concern for the USA which tried its best to stop it. But
overall, we can say that point of convergences is way more
than the point of divergences which keeps the warmth of
Indo-U.S. relations intact. Additional Information India-US
Relation International Cooperation:- The United States
welcomed India joining the UN Security Council in 2021 for
a twoyear term and supports a reformed UN Security
Council that includes India as a permanent member. India
is an ASEAN dialogue partner, an Organization for
Economic Cooperation and Development partner, and an
observer to the Organization of American States. Together
with Australia and Japan, the United States and India
convene as the Quad to promote a free and open
Indo-Pacific and provide tangible benefits to the region.
India is also one of twelve countries partnering with the
United States on the IndoPacific Economic Framework for
Prosperity (IPEF) to make our economies more connected,
resilient, clean, and fair. In 2021, the United States joined
the International Solar Alliance headquartered in India,
and in 2022 the United States Agency for International
Development (USAID) Administrator Samantha Power
became Co-chair of the Governing Council of the Coalition
for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) where India is a
permanent cochair. 9 Health Sector:- For over 50 years, the
U.S. Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has
engaged in highly successful technical collaboration with
the Government of India and Ministry of Health and Family
Welfare while addressing India’s public health priorities.
CDC supports global health security priorities in India by
providing technical expertise in strengthening public health
systems to prevent, detect, and respond to emerging
infectious diseases, such as COVID-19. CDC supported
Government of India in the conceptualization, development,
and implementation of Integrated Public Health
Laboratories, and is now supporting the scale-up of IPHL
across all 730 districts in India. CDC helped improve
infection prevention and control (IPC) at 50 hospitals led by
the All India Institute for Medical Sciences. Defence
Cooperation:- The U.S. has sold more than $20 billion
worth of arms to India over the last 10 years. Maritime
power is the key to international clout in the 21st century.
About 90% of India’s trade passes through the Indian
Ocean. India has less than 20 submarines in service while
China has 78. That is the one reason why India needs the
intelligence sharing and drones promised by the U.S. Dept.
of Defence and Space. Harsh V Pant says that “India is key
to the US’ ability to create a stable balance of power in the
larger Indo-Pacific and at a time of resource constraints, it
needs partners like India to shore up its sagging credibility
in the region in face of Chinese onslaught.” Military
Exercises:- India engages in the most extensive military
exercises with the United States, witnessing continuous
growth in both scale and complexity. Joint endeavours
include Yudh Abhyas (Army), Vajra Prahar (Special Forces),
Malabar (Navy), Cope India (Air Force), and the tri-services
exercise Tiger Triumph. Additionally, the nation’s
participate in multilateral drills such as Red Flag and
RIMPAC. 10 Concluding Remarks The India-US
relationship, once labelled as “estranged democracies,” has
evolved. Former Prime Minister Vajpayee saw the USA as a
natural ally, while Prime Minister Modi expressed that the
ties have moved beyond the “hesitations of history.”
According to Indian Foreign Minister S Jaishankar, the
interaction has shifted from dealing with each other to
actively working together. While India’s collaboration with
the USA is getting deeper, stronger, and more
comprehensive, India is also mindful of the need to
maintain strategic autonomy. USA’s approach in the present
time is focused on creating a new bipolarity in the world,
which India is not comfortable with, and India does not
want to be caught in the ongoing power rivalry. India’s
desire to protect its border and sovereignty aligns with US
interests, but at the same time, India doesn't want to
become part of the ongoing rivalry between China and the
USA.

Indo Russian Relations || Indian Japan Relations

India-Russia Relations Introduction Russia is a successor
state of USSR. Russia has been a traditional friend and
strategic partner of India. There is a long history of trust,
understanding and mutual compatibility of interest between
the two countries. Their relations are marked with a lot of
stability and continuity. These are multifaceted aspect of
cooperation. Indo-Russian relations are important for both
the countries as well as for world order. If history is a guide
and indicator of future, the relations between two countries
are likely to strengthen unless we choose to reject or forget
history. Russia emerged out of USSR. There has been a
significant transformation in their relationship since
Indo-Soviet era. Indo - Soviet relations were not based on
equal footing but today Indo-Russia relations are based on
equal footing and they are almost equal partners. However,
during the Indo - Soviet era, the relationship was Strategic
in true sense of the term. Even today, they have the
strategic understanding but the nature of strategic
partnership is still evolving. It is expected that it will gain
the same strategic depth as it was prevelant during the Cold
War era. Indo - Soviet relations after collapse of USSR In
Post-Cold War era, both countries were confronted with new
reality. It was a significant loss for USSR from the status of
superpower. Russia became margénalised in international
polities. Confronted by its new reality, Russia was searching
for a new identity in International Politics. It became
difficult for Russia to decide whether to perceive itself as a
European power or Eurasian power. Even from the Indian
side there was no proactive step to reach to its traditional
friend. India was not at ease with new regime in Russia and
India preferred, to diversify its relationship. India felt that
it will not be rational to be completely dependent on Russia.
3 India took steps to improve relations with USA, China
and its South Asian neighbours and a major development
was India's Look East- Policy. India was looking for
strategic autonomy. India went for multi-Vectored
approach. Some analysts believe that the logic behind
1998- Nuclear test was perceived loss of India's most
important strategic partner and perceived understanding
that India will have to go all alone towards ensuring its
security. After the end of Cold War following three schools
of thought emerged in Russia :- Yelstin school of thought:
People belonging to this school believed in the wait and
watch policy. They were waiting for situation to unfold and
then to take decisions. Atlantists: They were the ones who
preferred partnership with countries bordering Atlantic i.e.,
Western Countries. Pro Asian: Two schools of thought
emerged among pro-Asians:- Pro Indian school: Those who
preferred good relationship with India because of Russia's
traditional ties with India. Pro Pakistan school: This school
preferred engagement with Pakistan over India. Ultimately
the Atlantist and Pro-Pakistan group dominated the
decision making process in the Russian establishment.
Because of above development, period from 1991 till 1993 is
known as the phase of tectonic shift in bilateral ties - a
complete break from the past. Revival of Indo-Russian
Relations Following reasons can be attributed for revival of
Indo-Russian relationship: Eastward expansion of NATO
which caused security dilemma for Russia. Russia failed to
gain any substantive benefit from its Pro- West and Pro
European identity, USA refused to give Russia a great
power status. USA projected itself as victor of Cold War I
and Russia as a defeated nation. Russian economy could
not be revived despite following prescriptions of IMF and
World Bank. Disillusionment with the West paved the way
for the victory of Putin. 4 Putin Era 2000 onwards The New
Foreign Policy Statement of Russia was based on a
pragmatic assessment of Russian foreign policy, Russia's
national interest, etc. Putin outlined renewed urgency to
restore Russia's status as great power. He emphasised on
the robust relationship of Russia with non-Eurasian regional
powers like Iran and India. In his Foreign policy concept,
he expressed clear intention to strengthen traditional
partnership with India. Indian leadership pragmatically
reciprocated and called for comprehensive renewal. Areas of
Strategic partnership Defence Economic relations Science
and Technology Global issues Defence It takes place under
the framework of the Indo-Russian Intergovernmental
Commission on military and technical cooperation. It
provides long term goals on military, and technical
Cooperation. There is a joint working group to identify new
area of development, production, sale of military hardware
as well as technology. It also looks at the monitoring
aspect. Some important manifestations of defence
cooperation are:- Brahmos- Supersonic cruise missile
Akula-Nuclear submarine Sukhoi SU-30MKI INS
Vikramaditya S-400 INS Chakra AK-203 Assault Rifles 5
Areas of Concerns 1. USA and Israel along with France have
emerged as another important defence partner of India. 2.
At times, Russian supplies are not on time and sometimes
some parts are missing. 3. Maintenance and spare parts
issue. 4. There is no more friendship pricing products on
defence products. 5. Israel offers more flexible terms of
production and technology transfer. 6. Quality of weapons
like that of American weapons is not so good. Significance
of Indo- Russian relationship There is structural
interdependence between India and Russia with respect to
defence cooperation. Defence infrastructure in India is
primarily made for Russian supplies. Defence relationship
between the 2 countries is not simply oriented towards
strategic interest but they are also bases for economic
relationship. Indo-Russian defence relationship should be
seen from a Historical and structural perspective. Indo -
Russian relations in this context is not simply a relationship
of buyer and seller rather it should be looked at from a
historical perspective. There has been a transformation in
areas of defence between India and Russia. Earlier it used
to be client and supplier relationship but today they have
become equal partners. Economic Relations Improving
economic ties remains one of the goals for both countries.
It has been identified as an area of special focus by both
countries. Trade between India and Russia has been
languishing at 9 to 11 billion dollars in the last 10 years. In
the financial year 2019, India had a trade of 11.26 billion
dollars, which came down to 9.5 billion dollars in the
financial year 2020. Indo-Russian trade is well below its
potential. 6 Trade between India and Russia reached a
record level of 44.4 billion USD during the financial year
2022- 2023, having surpassed the targets set by the
leadership of the two countries. Today, Russia is India’s
fifth trade partner, after the US, China, UAE, and Saudi
Arabia. This comes against the backdrop of sanctioned
Russia, which seeks to fulfil the energy and food supply
needs of India in times of COVID lockdown and disrupted
supply chains across the world. Moscow has become India’s
largest supplier of crude oil as sanctions-hit Russia seeks
more trade with Asian countries. However, out of this
volume, just 2.8 billion USD accounts for India’s exports to
Russia, a declining figure. India’s deficit in trade with
Russia is currently second in volume after its trade with
China Both countries have set an ambitious target of 60
billion dollars of trade in goods and services in 2025. Both
countries are also negotiating for a Free Trade Area
between India and the Eurasian Economic Region. There is
a lot of scope for improvement in economic relations. If we
look at SinoRussian trade, which has widened by 150 billion
dollars, then it appears that IndoRussian trade will be
below its potential. During the visit of the Indian PM to
Russia in September 2019, both countries discussed how to
improve economic relations. India announced plans to
develop the Chennai-Vladivostok sea route, which will
significantly reduce trade between the two countries to 18
to 25 days (currently, India uses the Mumbai St. Petersburg
route, which takes 40-60 days). This agreement will help in
integrating India with the North East Asian Market as well
as the Eastern Region of Russia. India also announced its
Act Far East Policy, under which it decided to extend a
credit line of one billion dollars for the development of
India's Far Eastern Region. This will be India's first-ever
overseas development initiative through Investment. 7
Science and Technology Both countries are continuously
increasing their areas of cooperation. The latest areas are:-
Nano technology, Bio technology, Oil Exploration, Rare
earth elements. Both countries have set up Indo-Russian
Centre for technology transfer, joint production, joint
development and market. Global issues At the platform of
BRICS At the platform of G-20 and SCO Both countries
have similar perceptions on the Israeli- Palestinian conflict.
Both countries recognise Palestinians' right to live in peace.
Both countries want a polar world. Both countries want
multi polarity in Asia. Both countries want IMF and World
Bank reforms. Both countries are cooperating against drug
trafficking. Both countries share similar perceptions on the
Kashmir issue. Russia's approach with respect to Kashmir
remains the same despite change in guards in Russia,
Russia has never forced India in the past for its support on
Kashmir issue at UNSC in bargain of India's support on
other issues. Russia is very important for India's strategic
interest in Central Asia because of Central Asia being
Russia's Zone of influence. There is stability and continuity
in Indo-Russian relations. Cooperation between the two
countries is multi-faceted. Today they have a partnership of
equality. Relationships are more matured and pragmatic
today. Both countries are diversifying their foreign policy
options without sacrificing or overlooking the importance
of their bilateral relationship. 8 Even during the Russia -
Ukraine war India so far has not condemned Russia.
According to India's foreign minister S. Jaishankar, on the
issue of Russia divergence can be seen in Indo-Us
relationship. According to Russia, India is not only the top
foreign policy priority but also the cornerstone of Russian
Foreign policy. According to J. N. Dixit, politics is Volatile,
history evolves but geography remains constant. There are
compelling geostrategic reasons for close Indo-Russian
relationship. Russia on Indian side increases the comfort
level of India in dealing with China. Both countries do not
share neighbourhoods yet they share similar threats from
similar borders. The multi- ethnic, multi-cultural societies of
both countries suffer from similar threats. In pure power
terms, if Russia's resurgence in international politics
happens then it is favourable for India. Despite qualitative
improvement in India's bilateral ties with the USA, India's
discomfort in relationship with the USA is quite evident.
Russia's emergence is facilitating India's national interest
in International Politics. India accepts a big international
role for Russia. Russia recognizes India's dominance in
South Asia. Russia favours India's rise. There is an all party
consensus in India in favour of strong ties with Russia.
Same cannot be said about Indo-US relations. Issues with
trade Relations: A lot of tariff and non-tariff barriers also
exist between countries. The insurance industries between
the two countries are not well developed. A temporary ban
on the import of agricultural commodities from India to
Russia was imposed after a shipment was discovered to
contain beetles. The present Mumbai-St. Petersburg trade
route takes 45 to 60 days, which results in a considerable
delay between the two countries. 9 India- Japan
Introduction India's relationship with Japan goes back to
the ancient period because of Buddhist linkages and
spiritual union existing between the two. Some of the
modern Indian greats were also associated with Japan in
their individual capacity like Gurudev Ravindranath Tagore,
Swami Vivekananda and Subash Chandra Bose.
Russo-Japanese war, 1905 also significantly affected
India's national movement positively because of Japan's
victory over Russia. This event broke the myth of racial
superiority of Whites. Japan also helped Subash Chandra
Bose in the formation of INA during World War 2.

Indian Japan Relations Evolution of Indo - Japan

relationship ❖ 1st Phase (1947-1974): ➢ It is known as the
phase of political indifference, India established diplomatic
relationship with Japan in 1952 and Japan started
providing economic aid to India in 1958 and Japan went on
to become largest economic aid provider to India in 1966.
Bilateral ties during this phase is known as phase of
political indifference because of following reasons:- ✓
Japan shared historical enmity with China whereas India
shared friendly relations with China, ✓ both countries had
differing perception on various regional and global issues
like Vietnam war, ✓ Japan was an US ally whereas India
was closely tied to USSR, ✓ Japan was a capitalist country
whereas India adopted mixed economy. ✓ Japan did
consider India worthy of praise because of India being the
birthplace of Lord Buddha and great ancient civilization.
Japanese perception towards India started Changing with
the success of India in 1965 and 1971 war and with the
success of the Green Revolution. ❖ 2nd Phase (1974-1988):
➢ Relationships between the 2 countries entered into the
phase of political difference because of Pokharan I.
Japanese people are very sensitive about nuclear issue.
From now onwards Japan pressurized India for signing of
NPT. ➢ Ice was broken between the 2 countries only with
the visit of Rajiv Gandhi to Japan in 1988. Rajiv Gandhi's
visit to Japan was India's attempt to engage itself with the
rest of the world. It was part of India's smart diplomacy. ❖
3rd Phase (1988-2000): ➢ It is known as the phase of
engagement between 2 countries. Economic reforms of 1991
had turned India into a lucrative investment destination for
Japanese companies. After the disintegration of the Soviet
Union there were no limitations 3 on Strategic choices of
India. But this phase also witnessed minor lull in bilateral
ties because of Pokhran II. Japan imposed economic
sanctions on India mainly because of following reasons
after Pokhran II:- ✓ Sensitivity of Japanese people towards
nuclear Weapons, ✓ Japan feared that India's nuclear test
might prompt North Korea to go for a nuclear test as well.
✓ But Japanese economic sanctions could not last long. In
fact, Japan was the first country to lift economic sanctions
mainly because of two reasons:- • India's economic reforms
had turned India into attractive investment destination for
Japanese companies, • Rise of China had already disturbed
Japan because China had already replaced Japan from the
leadership position of East Asia. Rise of China is also a
cause of a strategic dilemma for Japan because Japan
fears that during times of geopolitical struggle China would
be able to stop Japan's energy supplies and trade with the
USA, Europe and West Asia. ❖ 4th Phase - Relationship in
21st century: ➢ Relationship between the 2 countries
improved significantly in 21st century because of following
reasons- ✓ shared values - rule of law, independent and
impartial judiciary, free market economy, etc. brings these
two democracies together, ✓ Shared interests both
countries have advocated for free and open Indo-Pacific.
Both countries also called for maritime freedom, freedom of
navigation and over flight in Indo Pacific region. Both
countries want peace and stability throughout the region, ✓
complementarity of interest - both countries are developing
consensus in favour of their candidature for a permanent
berth at UNSC, both countries are also part of G4 grouping
involving India, Japan, Germany and Brazil which is
working for developing consensus on their candidature, 4 ✓
Shared concerns - Rise of China and its aggressive
behaviour in the Indo-Pacific region has brought instability
in the entire region. China's reckless behaviour in various
parts of Asia - South China Sea, East China Sea, Himalayas,
South East Asia and Indian Ocean region has disturbed
peace and stability of the entire region. Security
Cooperation: ❖ Security Cooperation between India and
Japan began in 2011 when Japanese PM Shinzo Abe mooted
the idea of a strategic diamond initiative involving India,
USA, Japan and Australia. This cooperation envisaged
extending India's footprint beyond the Indian Ocean
Region. It will give further boost to India's relationship
with other 3 powers. ❖ Both countries have also signed
logistics exchange agreements with each other under which
warships and fighter jets of both countries will have access
to each other’s' military bases. Cooperation between the 2
countries is also going on in following areas- ➢ Unmanned
Aerial Vehicle, ➢ Unmanned Ground Vehicle, ➢ Robotics.
Cooperation in Andaman and Nicobar and North-East ❖
Japan has planned to invest $ 1 billion in road building
project in the north eastern region of India. India has for
the first time allowed FDI for the development of the
Andaman and Nicobar group of islands, and Japan is the
first country to be allowed for investment. Andaman and
Nicobar holds a significant position in India's foreign policy
thinking because of following reasons:- ➢ Its proximity to
Strait of Malacca which puts Andaman and Nicobar in a
strategic position with respect to surveillance of crucial sea
lanes of communication, ➢ About 1/3rd of India's exclusive
economic zone also lies in Andaman and Nicobar islands
which enjoys special position in India's Act East Policy and
maritime security strategy. 5 India- Japan Economic
Relations ❖ India and Japan have a thriving bilateral trade
of $15.71 billion. Japanese exports to India are $10.49
billion, and Indian exports to Japan are $4.7 billion. ❖
India primarily exports petroleum products, chemical
compounds, clothing accessories, and feeding stuff for
animals. ❖ Japanese exports to India are electronic
equipment, electrical machinery, organic chemicals,
precision monuments, etc. ❖ Japanese FDI in India was $28
billion in 2008. ❖ India is one of the most attractive
investment destinations for Japanese companies. ❖
Japanese FDI is mainly in the automobile sector,
telecommunications, chemicals, and pharma sectors. ❖
Both countries also signed a Comprehensive Economic
Partnership Agreement in 2011. It covers trade in goods
and services. ❖ It also covers investments and the
movement of natural persons, intellectual property rights
(IPRS). This agreement envisages - the abolition of the 94%
tariff by 2021. ❖ Japan has also been extending a highly
concessional loan to India under ODA. India is the largest
recipient of ODA (Official Development Assistance). ➢ ODA
is mainly a tied aid for financing projects in various areas
such as infrastructure, transport systems, smart cities,
rejuvenation of rivers, clean energy, skill development,
water conservation, food processing, etc. Important
Japanese projects in India ❖ Delhi- Mumbai Industrial
Corridor Project: ➢ This project will create a new era of
industrial infrastructure development with the creation of
smart cities across six Indian states. ➢ This project also
envisages the development of infrastructure linkages like -
power plants, clean water supply, high-capacity urban
transport, etc. ❖ Chennai-Bengaluru Industrial corridor
and also a dedicated freight corridor in South India. 6 ❖
Dedicated freight corridor connecting JL-Nehru Port
Terminal, Navi Mumbai, to Dadri ❖ Japanese Industrial
Townships: These industrial townships have been envisaged
as integrated industrial parts with ready-made operational
platforms equipped with the necessary infrastructure. Both
countries have agreed to develop 12 Japanese industrial
townships. ❖ Mumbai-Ahmedabad high speed railway
project: Japan will provide 79,000 crore for this project at a
rate of interest of 0.1%. The tenure of loan repayment will
stretch over 50 years, with a moratorium period of 15 years.

Sino- Indian Relations Sino-Indian Relations ❖ According

to C. Rajamohan, managing New Delhi- Beijing ties remains
one of the most challenging tasks for Indian Foreign policy
makers because of China's presence in the bilateral
relationship of India with big powers of the world. ❖ Both
India and China are great ancient civilizations and these
two countries witnessed civilizational links even during the
ancient period because of the spread of Buddhism. China
and India share a long and disputed boundary, which
results into constant Border stand off and constant
incursions. That is why most of the time hostility, bitterness,
tension and distrust can be seen in bilateral relationship.
Relations between these two Asian giants began on a good
note in 1949 and friendly relations between the 2 countries
can be seen till the Sino-Indian war of 1962. Different
Phases of Bilateral Relationship ❖ Ist Phase - Phase of
friendly relations (1949-1962). ❖ IInd Phase (1962-70)
Phase of intense hostility. ❖ IIIrd Phase 1970-78) Phase of
Indifference. ❖ IVth Phase (1978-1988) - Phase of
Rapprochement. ❖ Vth Phase- Phase of engagement or
re-adjustment (1988-2011). ❖ VIth Phase - Phase of
strategic rivalry (2011-till now). ❖ Strategic rivalry between
the 2 Asian giants are likely to intensify and sustain in
coming decades because of following reasons:- ➢ China
wants unipolarity in Asia whereas India wants multipolarity
in Asia. ➢ China wants Sino centric narrative to dominate
Asia whereas India does not want Asia to be dominated by
China alone. 3 ➢ China considers India a big threat to
Chinese hegemony in Asia in future. ➢ Both countries are
having different perceptions on the future of Asian and
global order. ❖ Earlier Chinese scholars did not consider
India as China's competitor rather they neglected India
because of India's sluggish bureaucracy, infrastructural
bottlenecks but in recent times they have started taking
India seriously because of following reasons:- ➢ noticeable
defence modernization of India, ➢ shifting course of India's
Foreign policy from idealism to pragmatism, ➢ shifting
course of India's foreign policy from non-alignment to
multi-alignment, ➢ growing assertiveness of India on
regional and global issues, ➢ India's assertiveness in
Indian Ocean region, ➢ growing Indo-US- Japan nexus, ➢
Quadrilateral arrangement, ➢ India's ambition to develop
a blue water navy. Note - India has adopted a strategy of
Overt Engagement and Covert containment in dealing with
China. Border Dispute ❖ India shares a boundary of 3,488
km with China and almost this entire boundary is disputed.
❖ India and China share boundary in 3 sectors, namely,
Eastern sector, Western sector and middle Sector ❖ Western
sector - It involves Aksai Chin area which is north eastern
extension of Ladakh. It is a cold desert and also an
uninhabited area. 4 ❖ Before 1954 Chinese maps used to
show this entire territory as Indian area but in 1954
Chinese maps started showing this entire area as Chinese
area. Here China controls Aksai Chin area as well as
Shaksgam Valley or Trans Karakoram Tract, an area of
5,180 km² illegally gifted to China by Pakistan in 1963. ❖
This area was a part of PoK. Aksai Chin is important for
China to maintain its control over Tibet and Xinjiang
province of China. Both are disturbed provinces of China. ❖
Aksai Chin area connects Xinjiang and Tibet. This route is
operational even during monsoon and winter season and
this route is also important for movement of goods (it is the
cheapest route). ❖ This route is more economical as
compared to other routes from a transport perspective. ❖
Middle sector - It is the least disputed of the 3 sectors.
There is hardly any dispute in this sector between the 2
countries. This area is known as Garhwal area. It lies
between Spiti Valley and Shipki La. ❖ Eastern sector- It is
the largest disputed area where China claims 90,000 km of
Indian Territory. This area was earlier known as North
Eastern Frontier Agency (NEFA). ❖ In this sector a
boundary line was drawn between the 2 parties during the
Shimla Convention in 1913-14. Shimla Convention originally
involved 3 parties, namely, British India, China and Tibet.
But China walked out of the Shimla Conference citing the
presence of Tibet as an independent nation but still British
India went ahead and signed the treaty with Tibet itself
which came to be known as McMahon line. China does not
accept this line because China was not present during the
Shimla Convention. 5 ➢ Note- Line of Actual Control- It is
the demarcation separating Indian occupied territory from
Chinese occupied territory. LAC is not demarcated on map.
Due to this, there is divergence in the interpretation of LAC.
India considers LAC to be 3488 km while China considers it
to be around 2000 km. In recent times, there have been
clashes in Galwan Valley and Pangong Tso area because of
differing interpretation of LAC. Relative Position of Both
Countries: ❖ China: ➢ It is a Permanent member of the
United Nations Security Council (UNSC). ➢ It has the
Largest forex reserve in the world (3.6 trillion $). ➢ It is De
jure n-weapon state (legally). ➢ It can manipulate its
external environment to its own benefit. ❖ India: ➢ It
aspires to become a permanent member of the UNSC. ➢ It
is the fastest-growing emerging economy. ➢ It is one of the
IT superpowers. India's perception on boundary dispute 1.
India always held that territorial integrity is sacred and
non-negotiable. 2. India wants demarcation of boundary in
each sector separately. 3. India wants that there should be
earliest conclusion of boundary dispute between the two
countries. China's approach ❖ China believes that
cooperation in other areas should proceed and gradually
boundary disputes should also be resolved. 6 ❖ It appears
as if China is waiting for an opportune moment when it will
start dictating terms to India with respect to resolution of
boundary disputes when it will become a superpower.
Various agreements to resolve boundary dispute ❖ In 1988,
Rajiv Gandhi visited China-During his visit a mechanism of
the Joint Working Group to resolve border dispute and also
to facilitate understanding came into existence. ❖ PV
Narasimha Rao visited China in 1993- during his visit LAC
Accord was signed between the 2 countries. This agreement
was signed for maintenance of peace, stability and
tranquillity along the Sino - Indian border. ❖ Atal Bihari
Vajpayee’s Visit, 2003- during his Visit Special
Representative Mechanism came into existence. The purpose
of this mechanism was to explore the framework for
resolution of boundary disputes from a political
perspective. During this visit, it was agreed upon that
border talks will be held on regular basis. Even today
border talks between 2 countries take place under the
mechanism of a special representative. ❖ Wen Jiaobao's
Visit, 2005 - During this visit, guiding principles for
resolution of boundary dispute between 2 countries took
place. As per guiding principles boundary dispute is to be
resolved in 3 stages. So far these stages are used for
negotiation purpose and to come out with political solution
for resolution of boundary dispute. Those 3 stages are:- ➢
1st stage- agreement to resolve boundary dispute will take
place. This has already taken place. ➢ 2nd stage - hardest
negotiation for resolution of boundary dispute will take
place. ➢ 3rd Stage - actual demarcation of boundary will
take place. Both countries are far off from the 3rd stage. 7
Note - During British rule in India, 2 border lines were
proposed - ❖ Johnson Line, 1865, ❖ Macdonald Line, 1893.
❖ Johnson Line shows Aksai Chin in Ladakh sector i.e.,
under India's control whereas Macdonald Line places it
under China's Control. India considers Johnson Line as a
national border with China whereas China considers
Macdonald Line as National border with India. Note - ❖
Differing perception over LAC has led to overlapping area
and within that area lies a small zone where patrolling is
done by both the sides leading to clashes between Armies of
both the countries. ❖ Progress on resolution of boundary
disputes is extremely slow. The 2 countries are still at the
2nd stage. India is at the disadvantage with status quo
because China has been able to resolve its boundary
disputes with all other neighbours except India and Bhutan.
❖ This brings greater burden on India because it is easier
for China to convince the world that it is interested in
resolution of boundary dispute Whereas India is not
interested about resolution of boundary dispute. ❖
Moreover the era of strategic rivalry between the 2
countries has further delayed and complicated resolution of
boundary dispute. Conflict between India and China in
recent times ❖ In April - May 2020, Indians and Chinese
troops clashed at various border points along the border
specially at Nakula-Sikkim sector, Galwan Valley-Ladakh
sector. 22 8 Indian soldiers were martyred in Galwan Valley
clash which marks the first death near LAC in the last 50
years and first military engagement since 1967. Reasons for
Chinese aggression 1. To respond to India's efforts to
bolster or improve border areas infrastructure in Ladakh
sector. 2. To give message to India on its proximity with
USA and Japan. 3. To pressurise India for resolution of
boundary dispute. 4. To give a message to China's smaller
neighbours that if big power like India can be tamed than
others can easily be tamed by China. 5. To give a message
to western countries that India is too weak to be relied
upon for containment of China's purpose. India's concerns
1. This localised conflict could have been turned into an
all-out war between India and China. 2. On-going
confidence building measures started during the Wuhan
Summit and Mamallapuram Summit. Steps taken to
de-escalate tension between 2 countries:- ❖ In September
2020, foreign ministers of both the countries agreed to the
following plan to de-escalate tension:- ➢ both countries
should work within the framework of Wuhan and
Mamallapuram Summit, ➢ both sides should continue with
their dialogue and quickly disengage - maintaining proper
distance between troops of both the countries and ease
tensions, 9 ➢ both sides shall abide by the existing
agreement and framework on India China boundary affairs,
➢ there should be more dialogue and communication
through Special Representative Mechanisms on India China
boundary related issues, ➢ Both countries should work
actively to conclude new confidence building measures to
maintain and enhance peace and tranquillity on the
Sino-Indian border. India's response 1. India lodged a
strong diplomatic protest. 2. India approved purchase of
various military equipments after Sino - Indian border
clash:- A. Russian fighter jets, B. acquisition of Rafale
fighter jets from France, C. India banned more than 100
Chinese apps including popular app like Tiktok, D. Changes
in FDI rules were made which requires prior approval of
central government for foreign investment from countries
bordering India.
Sino-Indian Relations || India’s Look East Policy One Road
One Belt The idea of One Road One Belt was given during
the visit of Chinese President Xi Jinping to Kazakhstan. It
has 3 components - (1) Maritime silk route, (2) Land Silk
route, (3) Digital silk route. 1. Maritime silk route - It will
consist of maritime infrastructure involving ports, coastal
infrastructure from China's Eastern Coast and covering
through entire South East Asia, Indian Ocean region,
eastern part of Africa, Persian Gulf, Mediterranean, till
Venice in Italy. 2. Land silk route - It consists of Rail-Road
networks, power stations, pipelines, etc. It will cover China's
least developed South-Western region, Xinjiang province,
Central Asia, Mongolia, Russia, Europe and ending at
Venice. Proposed investment in BRI is more than $ 2 trillion
dollars (according to Morgan Stanley, investment under BRI
can go as high as $14-$16 trillion dollars). The plan is to
criss-cross Asia, Africa and Europe. 3. Digital silk route-The
project also envisages connecting BRI countries through
high speed internet networks. It is also known as the Digital
Silk route. Intent of OBOR 1. To turn China into epicentre of
global economics and politics. 2. To replace the USA from
the position of number 1 power of the world". 3. To realise
Chinese dream of turning China into the centre of Universe
China. 3 4. To create conditions for Sino-centric narrative to
dominate Asia 5. To enable China to diversify its transport
routes so that Malacca dilemma of China can be resolved. 6.
To replace the dollar from being the most preferred
currency of the world (in all the countries of BRI only 2
currencies will be used - either Renminbi or local currency).
Objectives of OBOR 1) Geopolitical objectivesa) To create a
dependency bond between China and other partners of BRI.
b) Swift movement of troops would be possible. 2)
Geoeconomic objectives - a) To utilise overcapacity existing
in China. b) Slowdown of Chinese economy can be arrested
and much needed push can be given to Chinese economic
growth. So that Chinese economy will keep a healthy rate.
c) BRI project will help China to utilize its enormous forex
to promote China's economic and strategic interest. d) It
will also help in boosting China's export and balance
China's trade shortfall with USA and Europe. e) It will help
in accelerating development of underdeveloped North
western provinces of China. F) Cultural exchanges would be
made possible. 3) Geo Strategic objectives: ❖ It will help in
resolving China's Malacca dilemma which is also a
diplomatic chokepoint for China. 4 ❖ BRI project will help
China in ensuring its energy security by getting oil and Gas
from Russia and Central Asia. That is why China plans to
connect Russia through the China-Mongolia-Russia land
corridor. ❖ China plans to connect all the land corridors
under BRI. ❖ It will also help in underlining India's
influence in Asia. Proposed Land Corridors: 1. CPEC
(China-Pak economic corridor). 2. China -Eurasia land
corridors. 3. Central Asia -West Asia-land corridor 4.
Mongolia - Russia land corridor. 5. Indo-China Singapore
land corridor NOTE -Six land corridor - BCIM-has been
removed from list of BRI after India's objections.
Challenges 1. Political opposition to Belt and Road initiative
can be seen in many countries of Asia, e.g., Malaysia pulled
out of many Chinese projects under BRI. 2. Legitimacy
question that it passes through Gilgit Baltistan region which
India considers an Indian territory illegally occupied by
Pakistan. 3. There is insistence from the Chinese side on the
signing of FTA with participating countries but countries
are apprehensive that it will lead to Chinese goods flooding
their market. Countries are also concerned about the
possible hidden agenda of China and also the opaque
nature of BRI. Meaning of Belt and Road The Belt ❖ The
Silk road economic belt element refers to plans for a
revitalised series of ancient overland trading routes
connecting Europe and Asia to be built largely with Chinese
expertise. 5 ❖ The idea was first proposed by Chinese
President Xi Jinping during a visit to Kazakhstan in 2013.
Central Asia is seen as the most vital region for the belt
element. The Road ❖ In 2014, Xi Jinping outlined plans to
additionally establish new sea trade infrastructure along
the port Marco Polo route - a maritime silk road connecting
China, South East Asia, Africa and Europe. This would be a
longer route avoiding the Malacca Strait incorporating
fuelling Stations, ports, bridges, industry and infrastructure
through South East Asia and into the Indian Ocean. ❖
Pakistan is seen as one of the most crucial partner country
in this effort through the China Pak Economic Corridor.
Issue of debt trap related to BRI ❖ China's debt trap
diplomacy is the accusation that China uses Belt and Road
as part of its manipulative global strategy, Funding major
infrastructure projects in developing nations with
unsustainable loans then using the debt to gain leverage
over those governments. ❖ The accusation started due to
projects such as Hambantota port development in Sri
Lanka. When the Sri Lankan government was unable to
service Chinese loans then China asked for the control of
Hambantota port to be handed over to a Chinese company
at a lease of 99 years in 2017. The port provides China with
a major piece of infrastructure and a strategic foothold in
the Indian Ocean. ❖ There is also a wider issue of the
opaque nature of Belt and Road and the loans on which it is
built, the Chinese government has never published detailed
information about the size and terms of Belt and Road
loans. This vacuum of information feeds confusion and
mistrust. 6 Note- The Chinese state is the underwriter for
the initiative via its 4 state owned bank lending to state
owned enterprises. BRI has been criticised for the lack of
private sector participation but there is little enthusiasm for
the initiative from even the Chinese private sector due to
lack of return on investment. Future of BRI ❖ Chinese state
banks have directed more support to projects at home. ❖ In
2020, Xi Jinping announced China would seek to peak its
CO2 emissions before 2030 and achieve Carbon neutrality
before 2060. This has real implications for BRI investments.
❖ The next decade will show to what extent the Belt and
Road will drive green infrastructure, industry, energy
solutions and its development will also provide a much
clearer picture of the implications of BRI for the rest of the
world. India's views on BRI 1. CPEC passes through
Gilgit-Baltistan region which is an Indian territory illegally
occupied by Pakistan. 2. India calls this project a violation
of India's Sovereignty. 3. India is of the view that various
projects under BRI in India's neighbourhood and Indian
Ocean region are part of China's string of Pearls strategy to
box India in her own backyard. 4. Flow of Chinese goods
into India through countries like Maldives, Sri Lanka with
whom China has FTA can flood Indian markets with Chinese
goods. 5. India fears that Indian hegemony in the Indian
Ocean region will be challenged. 6. India feels that BRI may
bring smaller nation into Chinese debt trap and there is no
transparency in China's BRI. 7 Why does China want India
to join BRI? 1) If India joins BRI then it is likely to make
OBOR more commercially viable. 2) Legitimacy question
associated with the project can also be sorted out Indian
strategies to counter BRI 1. Asia-Africa Growth Corridor 2.
Project Mausam - this project will help in re-establishing
India’s cultural connection with countries of Indian Ocean
region and it will also help in revival of India's maritime
route. 3. Spice route of India - ancient time spice route to
Asia, Africa and Europe will help in rivalling BRI as even
during ancient period for spice trade. China-Pakistan
Economic Corridor ❖ It is a 3,000 km long mega project to
connect Gwador port in South-Western Pakistan to Kashgar
city in Xinjiang province of China. It is one of the most
important aspect of China's BRI. Gwador will be connected
to Kashgar city through a network of railways, highways,
power stations, pipelines, etc. This corridor is central to
China - Pak relationship. So far China has invested $32
billion in China-Pak Economic Corridor. This corridor is an
extension of China's Belt and Road initiative. Legitimacy
question associated with the project ❖ India feels that
given the vital nature of this project China may change its
stand with respect to Kashmir in future. ❖ The project may
help China in gaining foothold in countries like Afghanistan.
Importance of CPEC for China 1. It will give China direct
access to Indian Ocean region. 2. It will also help in
resolving Malacca dilemma of China to an extent. 8 3. It will
give China direct access to Indian Ocean region, Africa,
West Asia and Europe through the shortest- sea route.
India's response 1. To neutralise Gwadar port India has
heavily invested in Chabahar port of Iran. 2. Presence of
Indian Navy near Chabahar port to provide security to
Indian Oil vessels and merchant cargos coming from
eastern part of Africa and West Asia. Sino-Indian trade
relations ❖ Both India and China have a thriving bilateral
trade which used to be merely $1.7 billion at the beginning
of 21st century but it has grown significantly in last 2
decades. ❖ Major concern of India in this trade relationship
is ever growing trade deficit which has reached an all-time
high in financial year 2022 at $69.4 billion (if we include
India's trade with Hong Kong in this number then it will
grow even higher). ❖ India is the 7th largest trade
destination of Chinese products whereas India is 24th
largest exporter to China. India's export to China reached
$26.3 billion in the financial year 2022. Indian exports to
China 1. Agricultural products like fruits, vegetables, etc. 2.
Agricultural commodities like rice (only non- Basmati rice)
3. Organic chemicals. 4. India is the 2nd largest exporter of
cotton yarn to China 5. India is the largest diamond
exporter to China 6. Export of meat products has also been
allowed recently. China's export to India 1. Mobile phones 2.
PCs and Laptops 9 3. Fertilizers 4. Antibiotics 5. Finished
manufactured products 6. Electrical machineries Indian
demands 1. To open Chinese markets for Indian IT
industry, 2. to open Chinese market for Indian pharma
companies, 3. to open Chinese market for buffalo meat
which alone has potential to generate $2 billion for India, 4.
to liberalise tariffs on Indian products specially China has
so far invested only $4 billion in Indian economy in the 21st
century. China has not accepted the above Indian demands
favourably. It appears as if China is not willing to look at
Indian demands favourably. It is merely looking at India
as an attractive market and not as an economic partner.
Challenges before India in reducing trade deficit: 1.
Manufacturing ecosystem is missing in India. 2. The cost of
land acquisition is very high-It acts as a deterrent in
setting up factories. 3. Bureaucratic hurdles-inspector raj 4.
Archaic set of laws. 5. India is not a part of the global
supply chain which also acts as a hindrance. Indian
Strategies to tackle China India has adopted a strategy of
overt engagement and covert containment in dealing with
China. Overt Engagement Strategy 1. Both countries are
collaborating on the platforms of G-20, SCO, BRICS,
RussiaIndia- China Summit etc. 10 2. Both countries are
also collaborating on climate change negotiation platforms.
3. Both countries want reforms at Western dominated
international financial institutions namely World Bank and
IMF. 4. Both countries are part of AIIB and BRICS Bank
(also known as NDB - New Development Bank). These two
institutions are created as an answer to western dominated
IMF and World Bank. 5. Both countries have taken common
stand against USA's protectionism. 6. Both countries are
collaborating on the platforms of SCO, RATS (Regional
AntiTerrorism Structure). RATS is a part of SCO which is
involved in the following:- i) Extradition of criminals and
terrorists, iⅱ) Anti-drug trafficking operations, ⅲ)
Intelligence sharing, etc Note-Above areas of engagement
will remain relevant only in short to medium term but in the
longer run both countries are bound to have differences
because of differing perception on the future of Asian and
world order. India wants multipolarity in Asia and China
wants unipolarity in Asia. Experts are of the opinion that
strategic rivalry between these two Asian giants are likely
to intensify in coming decades. India's covert containment
strategy 1. India's Look East Policy, 2. Asia-Africa Growth
Corridors 3. Improving relationship with China's
neighbour-like Strategic partnership with Vietnam, 4. India
should also utilize proposed quadrilateral arrangement
involving India, Japan, USA and Australia, 11 5. India has
also started constructing a series of military and
commercial facilities throughout the Indian Ocean region.
6. India entering into defence agreements with the USA.
Note- India should avoid any open and passionate
containment of China strategy because any such strategy
would prove counterproductive for India and this will
intensify China's response in unsettling India. Areas of
differences 1. Ever growing trade deficit between India and
China - China is reluctant in giving India's IT and Pharma
industries access to the Chinese market. 2. China is blocking
India's entry at NSG. 3. China Pakistan Economic Corridor
which passes through Gilgit Baltistan region which India
considers an Indian territory illegally occupied by Pakistan.
4. China wants India to remain tied down to the Indian
Ocean region and South Asia. 5. China does not want India
to go out at international level. 6. It tries to keep India off
balance by evolving India into border stand off and border
incursions so that India would utilise its resources for
containment of China rather than for its socio-economic
development.

India-Africa|| India-Latin America India-Africa Some

Statements on Indo-Africa relations: Narendra Modi (Prime
Minister of India): "India's partnership with Africa is based
on a shared vision of prosperity, peace, and development.
We consider Africa as our natural ally and are committed to
deepening our cooperation across various sectors." Cyril
Ramaphosa (President of South Africa): "India and Africa
have a historic relationship that goes beyond diplomatic
ties. Our cooperation is vital for achieving economic
development, enhancing trade, and addressing common
challenges.” Amina J. Mohammed (Deputy
Secretary-General of the United Nations): "The
collaboration between India and Africa is crucial for
addressing global challenges such as climate change,
poverty, and inequality. Together, they can contribute to a
more inclusive and sustainable world." Indo-Africa
relations: India-Africa summits have already taken place in
2008, 2011, and 2015. India extended a credit line of $10
billion to Africa during the 2015 Summit. To promote
pan-regional ties, India has given thrust to Pan-African
e-networks, which provide telemedicine and tele-education
services to African countries by linking them with top
educational institutions and super-specialty hospitals in
India. Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA) for regional
cooperation is another platform to promote multilateral
engagements. 3 India-African Relations in Recent Years:
India has increased its credit flow to African countries.
African countries are the 2nd largest beneficiaries of India's
credit. African countries have received 12 billion dollars in
Indian credits in the last 10 years. India has established
195 projects based on lines of credit throughout Africa. This
number is three times higher than the one it has
implemented in South Asia. India has extended credit for
projects that include infrastructure development, health
care, irrigation, agriculture, etc. Even Though India's
economic engagement with Africa has increased
significantly in the last few decades. India still lags behind
China in this regard. So China has spent 134.6 billion
dollars. China has taken proactive steps to exploit mineral
reserves in Africa, which include Iron ore, Bauxite ore,
lithium, and cobalt. So far, China has invested more than
59.87 billion dollars in Africa, though experts are of the view
that 50% of China's lending to African countries is not even
included in official debt-related data. In the last decade,
India has tried really hard to improve its engagement with
Africa, and the number of Indian embassies in Africa has
been more than twenty. In February 2023, India organised
the Voice of Global South Summits, where representatives
from African nations were hosted. It is India's attempt to
become a prominent voice for the global south. India has
also utilised its presidency of the Group of Twenty Nations
to highlight debt trap conditions faced by developing
economies.. India's engagement with Africa has been in its
critical sectors which include transportation, social housing,
water, health care, energy, defense, etc. Note: India has also
highlighted the debt distress faced by many African
countries due to China's debt at a high rate of interest,
which is charged at a rate of 5% to 6% interest rate, which
is significantly higher than loans given by either Western
institutions or the World Bank, which has significantly
posed challenges to Africa's growth story. 4 RELATIONSHIP
IN 21ST CENTURY: India has a long history of partnership
with the African continent. India's relationship with Africa
goes back to the 1920s when both India and Africa were
fighting against the colonial rule. Even after India's
independence, India supported the decolonisation process
in Africa. India's engagement with Africa used to remain
limited and political before the 21st century. There was
limited economic cooperation between the two countries in
the 20th century. But economic engagement between India
and Africa grew significantly in the 21st Century. India's
bilateral trade with Africa has now reached $89.5 billion in
2021–22. Today, India is the third-largest trading partner
in Africa, after the European Union and China, with a share
of around 6% of Africa’s total trade. India's development
cooperation with Africa has also grown rapidly. The 21st
century witnessed a qualitative transformation in Bilateral
ties between India and Africa because of the following
reasons: China’s engagement with Africa has increased
rapidly. India is almost a decade and a half behind in its
engagement with Africa, i.e., India has increased its
engagement with Africa significantly in recent years. India
wants support from African countries for UNSC, World Bank,
and the IMF. As a continent, Africa witnessed economic
growth and political stability, which also influenced India's
policy towards dealing with Africa. India also needs Africa
for its energy security and food security (Almost 10–15% of
India's energy supplies come from Africa, and 50% of the
world's arable land is in Africa). 5 Engagement between
India and Africa also increased for insurance security in the
Indian Ocean region against sea piracy. WTO negotiations
and Climate Change negotiations are another reason for
engagement between the two countries. Today, India
doesn't look at Africa as a hopeless continent, but rather as
a continent full of hope. Today, African continents have
India's attention for the following reasons: Africa has some
of the fastest-growing economies in the World. Most of the
African continent has become politically stable today, and
significant growth in Africa has also been witnessed. The
African Union has taken a number of steps to ensure
political stability in Africa. According to the World Bank,
Africa will become a reason for witnessing fast economic
growth in the coming decades because of the political
stability of the demographic dividend (65% of Africa's
population is below 30 years of age). Nature of India's
Engagement with Africa: 1. The nature of India's
engagement with Africa is significantly different from the
Nature of engagement between the West and China in
Africa. 2. The Objective of China and the West is to drain
Africa's wealth of resources, but India's engagement with
Africa is about growing along with African countries, i.e.,
why India's engagement in Africa is appreciated by African
countries. 3. China is being seen as a Neocolonizer in Africa,
and countries in Africa want closer relations with India
because they intend to counterbalance China in Africa. 4.
India has helped Africa in many ways, such as capacity
building, skill development, health, etc. India's Engagement
with Africa 1. India is working on capacity building in
Africa. 2. Driving scholarship to African students. 6 3.
Training African Bureaucrat in India Pan-African
e-network, which has been extended to 48 countries on the
African Continent. 4. Team 9 initiative between India and
Africa started in 2009 and was expanded in 2013. It focuses
on extending credit lines to resource-rich Western African
countries. 5. Other countries have also shown interest in
these initiatives. 6. Cooperation can also be seen in areas of
health. It is an important area of engagement, and India
has provided medicines to fight epidemics in Africa. 7. India
has included or involved itself in primary healthcare
services in Africa. 8. India has set up a number of hospitals
in Africa. a. For example, Large Indian hospital groups like
Apollo and Fortis already have onground tertiary hospital
presence in countries like the Democratic Republic of
Congo, Nigeria, and Tanzania. 1. India has invested in
Africa to ensure India's energy security. 2. India has
extended a soft loan of $10 billion to Africa, subject to the
condition that 70% of the equipment for a particular project
using this soft loan will be sourced from Indian African
companies. 3. Africa's capacity-building program and the
African aid program to ensure cooperation between India
and Africa. 4. The Indian private sector has also invested
significantly in Africa. Indian companies like Airtel, Bajaj
Moto Corp., SBI, etc. already have a significant presence. 5.
India's cumulative investments in Africa stand at USD 70
billion, while it has extended Lines of Credit (LoCs) worth
USD 12.26 billion to countries on the continent, according to
the Ministry of External Affairs (MEA). MEA said on
Wednesday that India's concessional loans, grants, and
capacity-building programs have played a significant role
in Africa's socio-economic development. 6. India's
investments in Africa are in sectors such as oil and gas,
mining, banking, pharma, textiles, automotive, and
agriculture. 7 7. The MEA said 38 African nations have
benefited from India's Duty Free Tariff Preference (DFTP)
scheme, which provides duty-free access to 98.2 percent of
India's total tariff lines. 8. India's investment in Africa is
nowhere in comparison to China's investment in Africa. 9.
China has already invested $100 billion in Africa, and in the
next few decades, it plans to invest $200 billion more in
Africa. India’s Capacity Building Programs in Africa:
India's cooperation in Africa has focused on technological
and economic capacity building. Skill Development and
capacity building are important parts of India's
engagement with Africa. Pan African e-Network Project
(PAENP): The Project was conceived by former President of
India Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam and was formally launched on
February 26, 2009 Under the Pan African e-Network
Project, India has set up a fiber-optic network to provide
satellite connectivity, telemedicine, and Tele-education to
countries in Africa. The Pan African e-Network project aims
to benefit 10,000 students over a period of 5 years through
certificate, graduate, and postgraduate courses. Second
Phase: The Pan African e-network was started in 2018. It is
also known as e-Arogya Bharti or eVidya Bharti. The aim of
these programs is to provide free technical education to
4000 African students every year as well as continuing
medical education for African doctors, paramedical staff,
nurses, etc. The Indian scholarship program has grown
significantly in recent years. India plans to provide
scholarships to 50,000 African students. 8 India's MHRD
(Ministry of Human Resource and Development) in 2018,
India launched the Study by India initiative to attract
students from African countries and India's neighborhoods.
NOTE: Most African students do not want to come to India
for Higher Education due to quality concerns. China is
being viewed as an attractive destination for Higher
Education for African students. China is currently the
second-most preferred destination for education after
France. The poor quality of Education in India is the
primary reason that India is not a preferred foreign
destination in China for African students. INDIA'S
STRATEGIES IN AFRICA: India has adopted three-pronged
strategies in Africa: 1. At the bilateral level a. opening up of
Indian missions in Africa- Recently, India has planned to
open 20 Indian missions in Africa. This is a very useful
strategy. China has a presence in almost every country in
Africa. b. The frequency of high-level visits from India to
Africa has increased considerably in recent years. Africa is a
traditional continent, and symbolic visits carry a lot of
weight and meaning. India has followed a strategy of
giving aid and credit lines to African countries. India has
also been trying to engage the Indian diaspora, which has
ties in various parts of Africa, to improve its ties at the
regional level. 2. At the regional level: India has been trying
to increase its presence at various regional forums:
Economic Community of Western African States (ECOWAS) 9
Central African States. South Africa's Customs Union
Programs like Team 9 initiatives can be further extended to
other countries (It has already been done). Aid Africa
program to bring development to various African countries
has also been taken up. India has set up more than 100
training institutes in Africa to impart vocational training,
IT-related training, food processing, etc. 3. At the
multilateral level, the India-Africa Forum Summit is an
example of the growing India-Africa ties so far. It has taken
place in 2008, 2011, and 2015. During the 2015 India-Africa
Forum Summit in New Delhi, India extended a soft loan of
$70 billion to Africa. Chinese Model: Positives of the Chinese
model: China has a massive presence in Africa. They have a
presence in almost every country in Africa. With respect to
Africa, they have followed a combination of policies, which
include hosting grand events, summits and cultural
programmes to increase interaction with African countries.
High-level visits from Africa to China and from China to
Africa are frequent. China is the biggest investor in Africa.
They have already invested more than $100 billion in
Africa, and the plan is to invest $200 billion more in the
next 10 years. Negatives of the Chinese model: China has
been accused of being a neo-coloniser in Africa. Chinese
companies are also involved in ecologically damaging
practices. China has also been collaborating with the
dictatorships and autocratic regimes of Africa. 10 Most of
the Chinese projects are based on turnkey models. There is
no provision for technology transfer. China has also started
interfering in the domestic politics of Africa. Many China
towns have emerged in various parts of Africa, and violent
clashes can be witnessed between the local population and
the Chinese. Suggestions for India: India should engage
more with the Indian diaspora living in Eastern and
southern parts of Africa to strengthen its ties with African
countries. India should continue with its partnership model
in Africa. India should not try to emulate China. It is
neither possible nor desirable for India. India should play
on her own strength. India should engage herself in those
projects which affect the lives of African people, like - mini
irrigation projects, skill development, etc. There is a lot of
appreciation for India’s engagement with Africa. India and
Latin America Some Statement on Indo-Africa relations:
Manmohan Singh: "India and Latin America share
democratic values, a commitment to social justice, and a
focus on sustainable development. These shared values can
be the foundation for a strong and mutually beneficial
partnership." Narendra Modi (Prime Minister of India):
"India values its ties with Latin America, recognizing the
region's economic potential and cultural richness. We are
committed to strengthening our partnership through
enhanced trade, investment, and collaboration in various
sectors." Michelle Bachelet (Former President of Chile):
"India's engagement with Latin America is of strategic
importance. By fostering closer ties, we can harness the
potential for trade, investment, and cultural exchange,
benefiting both regions." Shashi Tharoor (Indian Author
and Politician): "India's relationship with Latin 11 America
is characterized by mutual respect, shared values, and a
desire for collaboration. Strengthening ties can unlock new
opportunities for trade, investment, and cultural exchange."
India had limited interaction with Latin America during the
Cold War period because of the following reasons: Latin
America during the Cold War period used to be under the
influence of the United States. India adopted the strategy
of NAM and moved closer to the USA after signing the
Treaty of Peace, Friendship, and Cooperation in 1971.
Political instability in many countries in Latin America also
did not create a conducive environment during the Cold
War period for a closer partnership between India and
Latin America. India's foreign policy also couldn't move
beyond the geopolitics of South Asia and IOR India's
interaction with the region remained limited to the
platforms of NAM, UNGA, G-77, etc. The means of
communication during the Cold War period were also not
well developed. The entire Latin American region was not
considered a top priority for the Indian foreign policy
establishment. The economies of India and Latin America
also used to be inward-looking. Limited interaction at
multilateral forums can be seen coupled with common
demands like- NIEO, Re-evaluation of the prices of raw
materials, etc. India-Latin America relations were a symbol
of south-south Cooperation. During the cold war period,
there was no specific platform of interaction between India
and Latin America like the one that exists today; moreover,
the cold war atmosphere also limited the strategic choices
of all the countries in the world. Post-Cold War Phase:
During the post-Cold War phase, there was no strategic
rivalry between the USA and USSR, leading to political
stability in Latin America. (There was no need for military
intervention for the United States in Latin America). 12 The
post-Cold War period also witnessed countries adopting
democracy and a market economy. This phase witnessed a
shift of focus toward economic development and equitable
arrangements. India, Latin America, and China have been
described as the new growth poles of the world that will
lead the 21st century. Language is one of the barriers in
bilateral relations, but even this barrier has been removed
by Indian IT companies by hiring locals in their Latin
American subsidiaries. nteraction between India and LA in
the post-Cold War period increased and gathered
momentum for each passing year because of the following
reasons - Globalization Free market economy Dream of
living in a multipolar world UNSC, WB, and IMF reforms
WTO negotiations Advancements made by China in the
region. Relationship after 2010. Relationships in recent
times have been mainly driven by economic rationality.
India has started increasing its presence in the region,
keeping this view of the Chinese presence in LA in mind. LA
economies have also opened considerably in recent times,
which has further made the region lucrative from India's
point of view India finds great opportunities for Joint
collaboration.

India's 'Look East policy|| India- European Union|| India-

West Asia India's Look East policy India's 'Look East
policy' is a specific type of foreign policy document or
orientation of India towards South East Asia (SEA). India’s
'look east policy’ is manifested in the form of cultivating
extensive strategic and economic relations with countries of
SEA for obtaining objectives of developing meaningful
cooperation and helping India in its rise as a significant
regional and global power. This policy began after the end
of cold war during Prime Ministership of P.V. Narsimha Rao
to give a strategic push to India’s engagement with SEA.
India wanted to improve relations with SEA countries based
on cultural and spiritual connections (Buddhist linkages),
and thereby economically integrating with the region. It
was also a part of India’s diversification of its Foreign
Policy (F.P) strategy as during the post-Cold War era there
were no limitations on strategic choices of countries like
-India. The focus of India's LEP initially was on economic
integration only. Different phases in India's Act East policy-
Phase I - Initially LEP of India focussed mainly on South
East Asia. This policy envisaged to have good relations with
countries of SEA. During its first phase, it had no strategic
content i.e. containment of China angle was missing and it
was also limited to external aspects only. Phase II - During
this phase, it was extended to North Eastern parts of Asia.
It also assumed strategic dimension i.e., containment of
China angle- During this phase, it assumed internal
dimension as well when India realised that special
developmental needs of NE states can be taken care off by
leveraging the potential of ‘Act East Policy’ of India.
Initially India's LEP was put forward as a feature of
economic diplomacy. However, there is an implicit agenda
behind LEP of India. It is to safeguard India's security
concerns. It is India’s containment policy towards China. It
also aimed at safeguarding territorial integrity of India
while taking into consideration special developmental needs
of India's North Eastern states. 3 Objectives of India's Act
East Policy (AEP): 1. In recent years, Indian diplomacy has
become more vibrant, ambitious and confident. Today,
India's AEP covers not only SEA but also NEA, Pacific
islands and Australia, New Zealand. 2. Countries of the
Indo-Pacific region want India to play a larger role in the
region. They want India to counterbalance China because
rise of China and its aggressive behaviour has disturbed the
entire region. 3. Today, India has started exploring cultural
and political ties. India has started working on
civilizational links and sorting out connectivity issues so
that India's LEP could realise its true potential. Core policy
objectives of India's LEP are– Establishing Buddhist
linkages by promoting religious tourism. Turning India’s
NE states as a regional hub and also India’s gateway to
ASEAN. Completing connectivity projects to boost
economic, cultural and strategic ties Differences between
Act East and Look East- India’s LEP was concerned about
improving ties with SEA neighbours, but proactiveness on
the part of India was missing i.e., how it will try to improve
relations with them. Plan of action was missing to realise its
full benefits- Under its Act East Policy, India has started
taking a number of proactive steps to improve ties with
SEA. For example- People to people contact has been
promoted India started reinvigorating platforms such as -
BIMSTEC, MEKONG-GANGA etc. Religious tourism has also
been given a lot of thrust. 4 Projects UndertakenProjects
Kaladan Project- It connects Kolkata port to Sittwe port in
Myanmar and then via River Kaladan, goods will be
transported to states like Mizoram. Connecting Kolkata
port with Chittagong port - to reach to states like- Tripura.
Trilateral highway - connecting Moreh (in Manipur) -
Myanmar - Mae Sot (in Thailand), and this route can further
be extended to Cambodia. Trans-Asian Railway -
connecting New Delhi to Hanoi (Vietnam).
Kolkata-Kunming project - part of BCIM corridor and this
project will connect Kunming (China) - Mandalay
(Myanmar) - Chittagong (Bangladesh)- Kolkata. Benefits of
AEP1. It has made India’s NE states an important part of
India’s foreign policy. India's AEP will take care of special
developmental needs of India’s NE states. 2. India’s NE
states will be the primary beneficiary of India's AEP and
they will also be the primary action of AEP. 3. It identifies
economic and geopolitical importance of SEA countries. 4.
Trade with ASEAN will also give a massive boost to India’s
domestic industry. 5. Countries of SEA have a common
interest in the protection of important sea lanes of
communication. 6. It will also help in tackling issues of drug
trafficking and smuggling in NE states of India. 7. It will
also give a boost to people-to-people contact through
various transport linkages. 8. Cultural, religious and
civilizational links can also be explored 5 Key challenges of
AEP- Stronger presence of China in the region. Myanmar is
a politically fragile country. Integration process of ASEAN
has not been very strong. There are rich countries in ASEAN
and these are also poor countries in ASEAN. These is a
presence of sizeable Chinese diaspora in important
countries like Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia, which
has further compounded India’s problems in SEA. Trade
Relations: Both India and SEA countries have vibrant and
growing trade relations. Today, India is present in ASEAN in
a significant manner. Indo-ASEAN relation has been one of
the most successful areas of Indian diplomacy. Economic
ties between India and ASEAN countries have significantly
addressed India’s developmental and strategic concerns. It
has given a significant push in facilitating development of
India's NE states by increasing its connectivity with the
outside world. Economies of India and ASEAN have mutual
compatibility in various areas for example- India's strength
lies in software whereas SEA strengths are in hardware and
electronic equipments. India’s relations with the region has
strengthened India's place in the global economy. India's
bargaining power has also improved significantly in dealing
with the US and Europe. India has signed FTA in goods in
2009, but FTA in services is yet to be concluded (agreement
in services and investment took place in 2015).
Indo-ASEAN bloc together constitutes $1.8 billion people
and ASEAN is currently India's 4th largest trading partner
accounting for 10.2% of India’s total trade and India is
ASEAN's 7th largest trading partner. Bilateral trade between
the two stands at $71.3 billion. India’s export to ASEAN
stands at $34.1 billion and India’s import from ASEAN
stands at $47 billion. 6 Total FDI inflow into India from
ASEAN since 2000 has been $69 billion. India and ASEAN
have taken a number of steps to improve relations. A
number of agreements and pacts have been concluded, but
there is still room for improvement. Further steps can be
taken for integrating India with the ASEAN value chain and
initiatives like - MAKE IN INDIA can help in the integration
of these two regions in diverse sections such as electronics,
pharmaceuticals. Challenges1. There is poor
implementation of existing pacts and agreements, because
of pressure from Indian industry. 2. FTA in services and
investment is yet to be concluded. 3. Stronger Chinese
presence in the region is another challenge before India. 4.
There is a lack of vision on the part of India as there is no
proper trade policy with respect to SEA. 5. Bureaucratic
hurdles. 6. There is absence of infrastructure near
Indo-Myanmar border. 7. Non-tariff barriers also exist. 8.
Considerable delay in completing connectivity projects. 9.
Economies of NE states are in bad shape and are unable to
capitalise properly on the benefits offered by India's AEP.
Cultural Cooperation- India and SEA countries share
civilizational links. The impact of cultural change can be
seen in aspects such as religion, language, literature,
beliefs, customs and architecture. These commonalities are
an integral part of India's relation with ASEAN countries.
Indo-ASEAN ties have evolved over the centuries through
exchange of people, ideas, cultural values, trade and
commerce. 7 SEA countries used to have ties with India
even during the ancient period as well. For eg. - Evidence of
ceramics and boats - building traditions are similar. Indian
epics like - RAMAYANA and MAHABHARATA also resonate in
the culture of SEA. These epics are very popular in countries
like Thailand, Indonesia, etc. There is a stronger presence
of Indian diaspora in many countries like - Singapore,
Malaysia which have contributed to the deepening of bonds.
Indian diasporic communities have held in shaping the
culture of countries they reside. For e.g. - Tamil language is
one of the official languages of Singapore. Indian epics
like - Ramayana and Mahabharata are shown through
shadow puppetry. World’s biggest temple is found in
Cambodia. Arjuna’s statue can be seen outside the national
museum of Indonesia is another example of civilizational
links between India and SEA. India has taken a number of
steps to improve cultural cooperation between the two
regions. These steps are- Exploring religious linkages
between the two by promoting religious tourism. India has
taken a number of steps to increase people to people
contact between the 2 regionsA. Giving scholarships to
students of ASEAN countries. B. Student exchange
programmes. C. Training bureaucrats of ASEAN countries at
Indian academies and sending bureaucrats to SEA
countries for their mid-career training. D. Exchange of
parliamentarians. E. A consensus is being developed for
finalising India Myanmar- Thailand motor vehicle
agreement (It is yet to be finalised). 8 India and Myanmar
India’s AEP in Myanmar Myanmar is the only country of
SEA with which India shares land as well as maritime
boundary. It is India's gateway of interaction with SEA.
Myanmar prominently figures out in India’s exposition of
AEP. In recent years, India has undertaken a number of
steps to resolve connectivity issues existing between India
and Myanmar. For e.g. Kaladan multi-model transit project,
trilateral highway, etc. Under AEP, India has realised the
economic potential of boosting up connectivity with
Myanmar as it will be a gateway to SEA. India shares a
boundary of 1643 kms with Myanmar, which has largely
remained inaccessible because of dense forest on the Indo
Myanmar boundary and also because of lack of
infrastructure. That is why; in recent times India has
started working on connectivity projects to facilitate
greater people-to-people contact between the 2 countries.
Significance of Myanmar for India- It is India’s gateway of
interaction with SEA countries. Special developmental
needs of India's NE states can also be taken care of by
having good relations with Myanmar. Insurgency problems
can also be tackled with the help of Myanmar in NE. Issue
of drug trafficking can also be tackled with help of
Myanmar. People to People contact and religious tourism
with SEA can be promoted with the help of Myanmar. There
is a friendly government in Myanmar with whom
intelligence sharing and joint patrolling of the border has
been very frequent in recent times. This government wants
India to play a larger role in Myanmar to keep Chinese
influence in check (China is the 9 largest trading partner
and biggest investor in Myanmar but Myanmar wants India
to play a bigger role in future). India helped Myanmar in
adopting multiparty democracy and Myanmar calls India
as her 'spiritual motherland’ because of Buddhism. India
does not share any major dispute with Myanmar and can
play an important role in Myanmar to establish democracy
and to further realise full benefits of India’s AEP. Core
Indian interest in Myanmar 1. Full benefits of India’s AEP
can be realised only with the help of Myanmar. 2. Chinese
influence can be contained (containment of China remains
an objective). 3. India does not want Myanmar’s territory to
be used by Naga insurgents, Mizo insurgents and Assamese
insurgents. 4. tackling drug trafficking issue 5. Myanmar’s
gas reserves for India's energy security. Indian projects in
Myanmar - 1. Kaladan project 2. Trilateral highway 3.
Construction of Rhi Tiddim highway 4. Kalewa - Yargi
corridor 5. Tamu-Kalewa road 6. Land crossing agreement
Indian-Myanmar, 2018 This agreement has been concluded
with an objective of facilitating people-to-people ties and to
promote religious tourism also. Before this agreement,
people living on the India-Myanmar border were allowed to
cross the border for sale, purchase and family visits. This
cross border was earlier possible only with a valid border
pass by paying Rs.20. After securing valid border pass, 10
citizens would have travelled upto 16 kms from a border
crossing point with an overnight stay across the border. As
per 2018 agreement, people having valid Indian and
Myanmar passports can cross the border. There will be no
requirement of special permits - Both countries have
identified following points on each side of boundary as the
crossing point- Morch (Manipur), Tamu (Myanmar),
Zokhawatar (Mizoram), and Reh Khabdar (Myanmar) - the
purpose of this Agreement has been to facilitate religious
tourism (Buddhist tourism), people-to-people contact,
students of Myanmar to travel to India. Way forward for
India in Myanmar- India should help Myanmar in
development of democratic and government institutions.
India can also help in capacity building and skill
development of people in Myanmar. India can launch
special customised programmes for CMLV countries
(Cambodia, Myanmar, Laos, and Vietnam). For e.g.
providing credit line and soft loans to these countries.
Infrastructure-connectivity projects should be completed on
timely basis. By establishing cultural contact and greater
people to people contact, India can leverage the potential
of existing link. India should not be entering into rivalry
with China in Myanmar directly. India should resist any
urge to contain to become part of great game of East to
contain China as it will prove counterproductive for India,
that is why, engagement with Myanmar should not take
place while keeping in mind China factor.

India-European Union Introduction- ❖ India-EU relations

date to the early 1960s, with India being amongst the first
countries to establish diplomatic relations with the
European Economic Community. ❖ A cooperation
agreement signed in 1994 took the bilateral relationship
beyond trade and economic cooperation. At the 5th
India-EU Summit held at The Hague in 2004, the
relationship was upgraded to a ‘Strategic Partnership’. ❖
The two sides adopted a Joint Action Plan in 2005 that
provided for strengthening dialogue and consultation
mechanisms in the political and economic spheres,
enhancing trade and investment, and bringing peoples and
cultures together. ❖ The EU is a significant trade partner
for India and the two sides have been attempting to
negotiate a free trade deal since 2007. A Brief Introduction
to EU: ❖ The European Union (EU) is a highly successful
regional organization, constituting the world's largest trade
bloc, with about one-fifth of global trade. It serves as a
significant market and source of development assistance for
developing countries. ❖ France and the UK, both EU
members, hold nuclear power status and permanent seats
on the UN Security Council. Germany, another member, is a
strong candidate for future UN Security Council expansion.
❖ Four EU countries are part of the G-8, and all are among
the world's most advanced economies. The EU originated
from the Treaty of Rome in 1957, aiming to minimize trade
barriers, travel restrictions, and establish a common
currency, possibly leading to a political union. While NATO
handles military and security matters, the EU focuses on
economic and commercial cooperation among its member
states. Timeline of Relationship- ❖ In 1962, India was the
first developing country to establish diplomatic relations
with European community. EU-India Cooperation
Agreement 1994 provides the legal framework for EU-India
relations. ❖ India and the EU have been strategic partners
since 2004. Since the Lisbon summit in 2000, India and EU
have held regular summits. 3 Dimensions of the India-EU
RelationshipPolitical Dialogue: ❖ The first India-EU Summit
took place in Lisbon in June 2000 and marked a watershed
in the evolution of the relationship. Since then, fifteen
annual summits have been held, the latest one was held in
2021. ❖ The two sides reviewed bilateral relations as well as
exchanged views on regional and global issues. The leaders
expressed satisfaction at the intensification of negotiations
on the Bilateral Trade and Investment Agreement,
welcomed the enhanced cooperation in the field of security,
and called for finalization of an agreement on R&D
cooperation in the peaceful use of nuclear energy.
Parliamentary Interaction: ❖ A Delegation for Relations
with India was formally constituted in the European
Parliament in 2007 to follow relations with India. Select
members also pay an orientation visit to India every year,
and the lasts such visit took place in 2022 Economic and
Trade Relations: ❖ The EU is India's largest trading partner
with 12.5% of India's overall trade between 2015 and 2016,
ahead of China (10.8%) and the United States (9.3%). India
is the EU's 9th largest trading partner with 2.4% of the EU's
overall trade. ❖ India’s export to the EU consists of
engineering goods, pharmaceuticals, gems and jewellery,
other manufactured goods and chemicals. ❖ As of 2021, EU
is India's third largest trading partner, accounting for €88
billion worth of trade in goods or 10.8% of total Indian
trade. 4 Civil Society, Cultural and Educational Contacts: ❖
The India-EU Forum has emerged as an important Track II
forum for discussion between policy analysts on both sides.
It is led by the Paris-based European Union Institute for
Security Studies and the Indian Council of World Affairs
and includes participation from academics, think-tanks,
and on the EU side, even policy makers. ❖ The framework
of India-EU cooperation in the fields of education and
culture is provided by three Joint Declarations signed in
recent years covering cooperation in the fields of Education
and Training, Multilingualism and Culture. ❖ The EU
leadership also participated actively in the Europalia-India
festival inaugurated in Brussels on 4 October 2013 by
President Pranab Mukherjee and King Philippe of Belgium.
Bilateral Agreements: ❖ Over the years, India and the EU
have signed a number of bilateral agreements and MoUs. ➢
Science and Technology Agreement (2001) ➢ Joint Vision
for promoting Cooperation in the ICT (2001) ➢ Customs
Cooperation Agreement (2004) ➢ Cooperation in
Employment and Social Affairs (2006) ➢ Civil Aviation
Agreement (2008) ➢ Agreement in the Field of Nuclear
Fusion Energy Research (2009) ➢ Joint Declaration on
Culture (2010) ➢ Joint Declaration on Enhanced
Cooperation in Energy (2012) Maritime Cooperation: ❖
Maritime security is a key focus in India-EU cooperation,
underscored by the 2005 Joint Action Plan. Both entities
prioritize freedom of navigation, combatting maritime
piracy, and upholding UNCLOS. They emphasize the blue
economy and maritime infrastructure, with a shared
interest in the Indo-Pacific. ❖ In January 2021, the first
virtual Maritime security dialogue occurred. Notably, the
threat of drugs from Afghanistan impacting Europe aligns
with India's security concerns in Afghanistan, creating vital
intersections with Europe's interests. 5 ❖ India’s increasing
salience in the geopolitics of the Indian Ocean, and
especially in the security of the Gulf, the source of much of
Europe’s energy, suggests another area of cooperation.
Point of Divergences in the Relationship: ❖ Trade barriers
like protectionist policies. ❖ Disagreement over IPRs. ❖
Differences in regulatory framework and standards. ❖
Difference of options on the issue of Human Rights and
Democratic values. ❖ China is a significant trade partner of
the EU, and the regions have direct land connectivity,
increasing their stakes in a strong relationship. On the other
hand, India has its own security concerns with China,
making it difficult for India -the EU to be on the same page
while dealing with China. ❖ The fear which India has in its
mind regarding China is the same as with the EU with
regard to Russia. Russia is a major security concern for
Europe, and an arch-rival of the United States, while Russia
is an old strategic ally of India and an important partner in
securing its energy security. ❖ Indians have an allergy to
being lectured to, and one of the great failings in the
IndiaEU partnership has been the tendency of Europe to
preach to India on matters it considers itself quite
competent to handle on its own. Approach of EU towards
India: ❖ The EU's recent India strategy paper
acknowledges several key points: ➢ India is a global
growth engine (fastest growing among emerging
economies). ➢ India is also a huge market and hence huge
scope for job creation in Europe. ➢ EU has balanced trade
with India. Bilateral trade has gone up to Euro 115 billion in
2017. ➢ India is Europe’s partner in Paris Agreement. ➢
India and the EU have overlapping interests in regional
security and stability. ➢ There is a huge compatibility of
interest in fighting against terrorism, in the field of cyber
security, huge scope in working for disarmament,
achievement of SDG 2030. 6 INDIA-EU Bilateral Trade and
Investment Agreement (BTIA): ❖ It is a Free Trade
Agreement between India and EU, which was initiated in
2007. Even after a decade of negotiations, India and EU
have failed to resolve certain issues which have led to a
deadlock. Major reasons for the deadlock are summarised
in the table given below:- ❖ India-EU FTA negotiations
restarted in July 2022. Both the sides are aiming to
conclude the negotiations by 2024. ❖ Harsh V. Pant says
that the conclusion of this agreement will be important not
only for India’s further integration into the global economy
but also to a give a boost to India-EU ties, which have
failed to achieve their full potential. Concluding Remarks: ❖
Despite the strategic partnership established in 2004,
India-EU relations currently lack substantial strategic
weight. The EU needs time to develop a common strategic
culture for meaningful cooperation with India. ❖ Trade
disputes exist, but overall friendly relations persist. India
acknowledges the EU's desire for a larger political role and
engages in political dialogue to address misperceptions and
enhance understanding. Both India and the EU have gained
importance on the global stage, aligning with the evolving
dynamics of world affairs. 7 India -West Asia Introduction-
❖ West Asia has been a grand theatre of International
Politics-since the end of WW-II, because of its location and
also hydrocarbon reserves. It has also been the most
troubled region and politically volatile region because of
following factors- ➢ superpower rivalry ➢ shia-sunni
conflict ➢ Israeli-Palestinian conflict ➢ Kurds issue ➢ Gulf
War I and II ➢ Arab spring, 2011 that originated in Tunisia
and spread like a wildfire to other countries of gulf and
Northern Africa This is also known as the beginning of 4th
wave of democracy by scholars. India-West Asia relations in
21st century- ❖ India's relation with West Asia witnessed
significant changes after the end of cold war and more
specifically in 21st century. The relationship witnessed
qualitative improvement in 21st century because of
following seasons - ➢ presence of 7 million strong Indian
diaspora, which is a huge source of remittances for India ➢
West Asia is the principal source of hydrocarbons for India.
➢ Important gulf nations have also started engaging
themselves with India because they also want to diversify
their foreign policy options. ➢ Retreat of USA from West
Asia especially energy sector of West Asia post- discovery of
shale oil and gas. ➢ Some of the West Asian countries are
sitting on huge forex reserve. They want to invest this
reserve into attractive places like-India. ➢ Indian Foreign
Policy- came out with more comprehensive foreign policy to
deal with West Asia. India does not look at West Asia (WA)
mainly from the angle of oil and Indian diaspora anymore.
8 Note - During CW period, India did not follow a
comprehensive set of strategies in dealing with WA. In the
past, India always used to look at WA from the prism of oil
and Indian diaspora. India always thought that India's
relation with WA countries is standing on its own plane and
India is not into competing relation with any other country.
❖ Another important region for change in India's foreign
policy with respect to WA was the churning through which
Arab states went through after Arab spring movement.
Major strands of India's WA policy- ❖ Presence of
hydrocarbon and India's need for energy security. ❖
poll-turbulence in the region especially after Gulf War II
and Arab spring - Rise of ISIS, ❖ Existing geopolitical
scenario in the region which includes - Iran- Saudi Arabia
rivalry, Iran- Israel rivalry, Israeli-Palestinian conflict
Difference in India's Look East Policy (LEP) and Look West
policy (LWP)- ❖ India's LWP has been materially far more
successful than LEP. India's LEP is yet to cross $100 bn but
India's trade with Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) also has
crossed $250 bn. ❖ India's investment from ASEAN since
2000 has been $69 bn. Saudi Arabia alone is going to invest
more than $100 bn in the Indian economy in the next 5
years. Saudi ARAMCO has made India’s biggest ever
investment in reliance petrochemicals-$15bn. But
unfortunately India's LEP has always gained more media
coverage, made more news and given more importance
than LWP because Indian foreign policy working under
idealist paradigm thought that they share civilisational link
with WA and are not into competing RELATION with other
countries like - China over West Asia Reasons for less than
optimal performance in WA - ❖ Political instability in WA
makes it one of the most polarised and volatile regions of
the world. ❖ WA does not have a pan-regional organisation
like -EU or African Union (AU) Hence, there is limited scope
of institutional relations. ❖ New Delhi's policy with respect
to the region has focussed only on oil and diaspora. 9
Concerns for India in WA: ❖ Increasing Chinese presence in
the region. ❖ Retreat of USA from WA has created void in
the region. ❖ Protection of important sea lanes of
communication. ❖ For anti-piracy operations. ❖ Spill over
effect of radicalisation of WA societies in India especially
after the rise of Islamic state (IS). INDIA'S LOOK WEST
POLICY: ❖ It was announced by former PM Manmohan
Singh at a meeting with the members of GCC in 2004. ❖
Present PM, Narendra Modi has announced 'Link West
Policy'. The focus of this policy will be on 22 members of the
Arab League. ❖ An important aspect of India's LWP has
been to strengthen partnership with members of GCC
countries and improve ties with Iran, Israel and countries
of North Africa.
India-West Asia || India Central Asia Indo - Israel relations
can be broadly divided into following phases1. COLD WAR
PHASE (i) PHASE-I [1948-71] - After their independence,
both the countries adopted different stands. Israel became
an American ally and India became a leader of the NAM.
During this policy, Indian foreign policy took idealistic
stands and did not support Palestinian and Jewish state at
the UN. India did not even accept the existence of Israel as
an independent country. However, India recognised Israel
later on in 1950. During this phase, India took a neutral
stand with a tilt in favour of Palestine. India went on to
give unconditional support to Palestinian issue and did not
even condemn the use of Palestinian suicide bombers
against Israeli installations; rather India justified their
actions as an expression of genuine concerns. (ii) PHASE II
(1971-91] - This was a phase of one-sided hostility with
respect to Israel Because of the USA's role in 1971 war and
USSR’s role in protecting India and signing of the Treaty of
Peace, Friendship and Cooperation in 1971. India showed
hostility towards all American allies. 2. POST COLD WAR
PHASE – India established diplomatic relations with Israel
in 1992 and India's relation with Israel from then onwards
have strengthened at a rapid pace. Today, this bilateral
relation covers wide range of areas- defence, water,
economy, agriculture, innovation, outer-space,
anti-terrorism, surveillance of boundaries, etc. 3 Areas of
cooperation (i) Defence relationship1. It is the most
important area of bilateral relations and is also considered
the 'pivot of bilateral ties'. Israel is the 3rd largest defence
partner of India after the US and Russia. 2. In recent years,
cooperation between India and Israel has increased
significantly on issues pertaining to counter terrorism,
defence etc. 3. There is also institutional partnership
between the 2 countries in areas of defence - exchange of
defence personnel and training of officers at each other’s
military academy. 4. Defence cooperation between the two
is special in the sense that joint production, joint
development and sharing of technology remain an
important aspect of defence partnerships between the two
countries. 5. Israel is helping India in developing the
indigenous defence technology. Israeli defence industry is
willing to start joint ventures with their Indian counterparts
to give a boost to India's 'MAKE IN INDIA' campaign.
Manifestation of defence cooperation Unmanned aerial
vehicle for surveillance in mountainous regions. Spice-2000
used by India for Balakot strike. Israeli AWACS (Phalcon).
Barak series of missiles- Anti-tank missiles spike. killer
drones. electronic surveillance technology. 4 There is also
an intelligence sharing between India and Israel on
counter-terrorism measures. Cooperation between India
and Israel can also be seen for surveillance of India’s
porous and artificial border (especially near LOC) to
prevent infiltration of tourists. (ii) Political relationship - In
the last couple of years, we have witnessed partnership at
the highest level between the 2 countries which is reflected
in the visit of the (first ever) PM to Israel in June, 2017.
This visit makes the beginning of an important phase in the
bilateral relation between them. India opted for the policy
of dehyphenation for the first time with respect to Israel
and Palestine. Today, India's approach has become more
mature, pragmatic and balanced than it was in the past.
Today, India’s relations with both Israel and Palestine is
based upon India’s National Interest and objective
consideration rather than what other party might think. It
means-Palestine as a fundamental factor has got decoupled
from Indo-Israel relations and Israel as a fund factor got
decoupled from Indo-Palestine relation. The current trend
of political relation between India-Israel can be described
in the words of - Chinmaya Gharekhan - "It is complete
reversal of Nehruvian foreign policy with a tilt in favour of
Israel" It does not mean that India has abandoned her
stand on the Palestinian issue. India still supports
Palestinian cause, but at the same time values cherishes its
partnership with both the countries for e.g. India’s vote
against the USA's proposal of shifting its capital from Tel
Aviv to Jerusalem, shows India's policy of dehyphenation. 5
Ques - India has adopted a policy of dehyphenation in
dealing with Israel and Palestine. Do you think it is the best
strategy to deal with Israel and Palestine? Give reasons to
support your answer. Part I- Meaning of dehyphenation
Briefly mention India's policy with respect to Israel and
Palestine in the contemporary times. Part II - India's
policy of dehyphenation logically justifies: Defence
cooperation with Israel. Stand in Palestine. India’s vote
against the US proposal. Part III- Conclusion - India has
adopted a policy of dehyphenation in the recent times as
India-Israel relation is not dependent on India-Palestine
pragmatic approach. (iii) Water - Water remains one of the
most important areas of cooperation between the both,
India-Israel are water-stressed countries. Israel has
developed a number of technologies to conserve and
harvest water. Israel is one of world leaders in the field of
water conservation. It has been advising countries across
the world for judicious use of water. Cooperation can be
seen in the following - Drip irrigation technology.
Rejuvenation of rivers. Desalination of water - Israel has
the best desalination technology in the world. 6 Both India
and Israel are jointly collaborating for the development of
water grids in water stressed Marathwada region in
Maharashtra. Israel also has the best technology for
recycling of waste water. India can learn a lot from
micro-irrigation and aquifer recharge techniques of Israel.
These are important areas of cooperation between the 2
countries. Cooperation in the field of space and
development of innovation fund can also be seen. Both have
undertaken joint projects for R&D. There is also a lot of
goodwill at popular level between the two countries. Areas
of Irritants - Both countries also witness minor irritants in
their bilateral relations.Those irritants are - 1. Israel does
not want to share technology of some weapons with India
like- Barak series of missiles, 2. Defence ties between China
and Israel have also grown significantly, China is Israel's
biggest trading partner in Asia, China has invested $400
million in innovation fund allocated for Israel. 3. Strategic
depth in India’s relation with Iran is also a cause of
concern for Israel because Israel considers Iran as an
existential threat for Israel. 4. Israel wants a relation of
only buyer and seller in some areas of defence, whereas
India wants contract with respect to transfer of technology
and joint production as well. India-Iran Relation
Significance of Iran for India - 1. Iran is important for
India’s strategic interest in the Persian Gulf. 2. Iran is also
important for providing security to Indian oil tankers and
merchant ships in West Asia 7 3. Iran is also important for
neutralising Gwadar port developed by China in
southwestern Pakistan. 4. Iran will also help in reducing
Afghanistan's economic dependence over Pakistan (through
Chabahar Port). 5. India will get access to landlocked
Afghanistan through Iran. 6. India can build infrastructure
in Afghanistan with Iranian support. 7. Iran will also act as
a launchpad for India to have trade with West Asian
countries. 8. Iran is also important for exploring
civilisational links. Evolution of bilateral tiesPhase I - Iran
fulfilled India’s needs of oil like other West Asian countries.
During this phase, we had limited interaction with each
other because Shah of Iran used to be an US ally and India
was close to Soviet Union. Relationship between the two
began after signing of Treaty of Peace and Friendship. Iran
used to condemn India on the Kashmir issue. However, Iran
did not stop energy supplies during the Indo-Pak war (even
Iran supported Pakistan during the Indo-Pak war). Iran
provided military assistance to Pakistan 2. Phase II
[1979-2000] - Iran witnessed revolution in 1979 which
dethroned the Pahlavi dynasty (Shahs regime) and a new
regime came to power which wanted to assume the
leadership of the Islamic world. This new leadership also
declared Iran as an Islamic republic. Iran continued to
support Pakistan on Kashmir issue but this Iranian support
for India on Kashmir issue was not problematic. 8 3.
PHASE-Ⅲ [2001-2005] - In 2003, Atal Bihari Vajpayee
visited Iran and Tehran Declaration was signed leading to
the beginning of strategic partnership. In 2003, the then
Iranian President visited India and Delhi Declaration was
signed between the 2 countries. In this declaration following
steps were taken- Deals on energy supplies were signed.
There was also talk on development of IPI pipeline or
peace pipeline. Development of Chabahar port to give
India land access to Afghanistan and to reduce
Afghanistan's dependence on Pakistan. There were also
talks of connecting the International North - South Trade
corridor (INSTC) with Afghanistan. 4. PHASE IV [2005-15] –
India signed nuclear deal with US in July 2005. Under US
pressure, India voted against Iran at IAEA. India
supported the resolution at IAEA which said - Iran has
violated the NPT and resolution demanded punitive actions
to be taken against Iran, Iran condemned India by stating-
No sensible country would take any such step and the high
price of gas for IPI gas pipeline and thereby sabotaging
IPT gas pipeline. Relation started improving around 2010
when the revival of Taliban was witnessed in Afghanistan,
but once again sanctions were imposed in 2012, which killed
the reengagement process. 5. PHASE V [2015-till Now] -
After the US-Iran nuclear deal, once again India made
massive investment for development of Chabahar port.
Chabahar port was connected to Afghan through Delaram-
Zaranj highway-The purpose was to reduce Afghan's
economic dependence. 9 India decided to finance
Chabahar-Zahedan railway line. India promised to invest
$20 billion for development of various petrochemical
projects in Iran. After Trump assuming power, USA once
again pulled out of nuclear deal over concern of Iran’s
ballistic missile development programme and Iran's
reluctance in opening all its nuclear facilities for inspection.
US made it clear that they will not lead Tehran develop
nuclear-weapons and pulled out of US-Iran nuclear deal
concluded by the Obama administration. Though US have
given waiver to India for development of the Chabahar port
so far but a lot of uncertainties exist between 2 countries
with respect to oil trade and development of Chabahar.
CHABAHAR PORTSignificance for India - 1. Geopolitical
significance - It will give India access to Afghan through
Delaram–Zaranj highway which will reduce dependence of
landlocked Afghan on Pakistan It will also help in
countering Chinese presence in Indian Ocean Region and
will help in protecting the important Sea Lines of
Communication. The port will also help in neutralising
Gwadar port present in South Western Pakistan, constructed
by China. India’s claim of being a net-security provider in
the Indian Ocean will gain credibility with presence of
Indian navy around the Chabahar post and in the Persian
gulf. 2. Geoeconomic significance - It will provide trade
route to Afghanistan. 10 This port may be further extended
to Central Asia and then to INSTC which will give India
access to Europe and Russia through the land route. Free
Trade Area around Chabahar port can be an important
trade centre with West Asia. It will also give significant
boost to Indian export of sugar, rice and wheat to Iran.
Indian export of steel will also increase. 3. Diplomatic
significance - It can provide a link to promote cultural
linkages between India and the countries of West Asia. It
can also be used as a centre to coordinate humanitarian
relief operation and mass evacuation of refugees. Irritants
in Indo-Iran relations /development of port - Increasing
China-Iran cooperation in multiple areas. China has
recently signed a number of deals with Iran. It has
promised to invest $150 billion in Iran in the next 10 years.
China will construct petrochemical complexes, oil refineries
and development oil and gas fields in Iran. Negotiation is
still going on over Farzad -B gas field (This gas field was
discovered by ONGC Videsh Limited in 2012, but now Iran
wants India to go for competitive bidding for use of
Farzad-B gasfield). USA'S CAATSA remains another bone of
contention. India’s export and import to Iran have
significantly declined post-CAATSA. Iranian condemnation
of Kashmir in recent times and equating Kashmir with
Yemen is another irritant in the bilateral ties.

India-Central Asia || India-Afghanistan Relations

INDIA-CENTRAL ASIA BACK GROUND: ❖ India's relation
with the Central Asia goes back to the 3rd century BC. The
Kushan Empire expanded across modern Central Asian
Republic (CAR). ❖ The spread of Buddhism & trading
through silk routes further forms the bond of cultural
exchanges, historical bond as well as economic bond. ❖
Since ancient times India & Central Asian Republics were
connected through silk route which facilitated exchange of
ideas, thought, philosophy. Spices, cotton, silk, etc. were the
main commodities of trade which helped in increasing
cooperation with the entire region. ❖ Even the origin of
Mughal can be traced to the Central Asian republics which
played an important role in the spread of Islam in India. ❖
After the disintegration of USSR in 1991 India recognized
the existence of independence of 5 central Asian republics
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan,
Uzbekistan & established Indian missions in these
Countries. SIGNIFICANCE OF CENTRAL ASIA FOR INDIA: ❖
Energy Security:- Central Asian republics have known 10%
reserves of global crude oil. These countries have also used
reserves of Natural gas, Uranium, etc. ❖ This entire region
is important for India's energy security. ❖ Planned Tapi
Pipeline involving Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan &
India, ❖ This entire region has a huge reserve of gold, iron,
copper, aluminium etc. ❖ Exploration of Central Asian
republic mineral wealth is another important area of
cooperation. ❖ To improve trade relations with the entire
region, India has joined - Ashgabat agreement which helps
in improving Indian trade with the entire region. ❖ India's
soft power with respect to Bollywood, Buddhism, Islam can
further help in strengthening ties in India, & Central Asian
republic. 3 ❖ China's increasing presence in the region
through its belt & road initiative & financial aid leading to
debt trap of these countries has created a favourable
condition for India to engage with the central Asian
Republic through better terms of engagement. ❖ India
unveiled its connection to central Asia to deal with those
entire regions to strengthen political, economic, security &
cultural ties between India & countries of central Asia. This
policy is based on Fore seas, Commerce, connectivity,
consular & community. Following steps has been taken
under these policies:- ❖ To deepen strong political relation
to high level visits. ❖ Strengthening strategic ties through
military training counter terrorism, Coordination &
cooperation with each other on Afghan issues. ❖
Multilateral engagement with CAR through platforms like
SCO, Eurasian economic community. ❖ India looks at CAR
as a long-term energy partner to secure its energy needs
and also far captive breeding of agriculture commodities
(Food Security of India). ❖ India Intends to develop the
International North South Trade Corridor which will give
India land access to Asia & Europe. ❖ Under India's
connects Central Asia Policy, India has also been
developing Central Asian e-network which will help
providing internet connectivity with respect to. Central
Asian Republic. NOTE: ❖ Greater engagement of India with
the Central Asian Republic will give a boost to India's
credibility as a Great Power. ❖ Stronger Indian presence
will also give India a lot of leverage in dealing with
Afghanistan. ❖ Central Asian Republic will also help India
in achieving her food security because these countries have
huge landmass, abundance of water which help India in
captive breeding of many agricultural commodities. 4
INDIA-AFGHANISTAN

❖ At the time of India's independence, India had good

relations with Afghanistan. There was economic interaction
with Afghanistan & frequent high level visits can also be
seen between two countries. ❖ However, India overlooked
Afghanistan’s vital interest with respect to autonomy of
Pashtuns and Durand line. ❖ Ideally, Afghanistan should
have been the 1st Policy priority for Indian Foreign Policy
makers but Indian foreign policy working under Idealist
paradigm could not take up Afghan's demand seriously with
respect to two issues. ❖ India worked for the evolution of
world order based on Equality & Justice but India
neglected her own neighbourhood. Indo Afghan's relations
were not held in a strategic manner & as Indo Afghan's
relations were significant in context of Indo-Pak
relationship and India's relation with central Asia. 1979
ONWARDS: ❖ Afghanistan became an important region
during the cold war period. USSR was successful in
establishing its political influence in Afghanistan, & USSR
installed Puppet Regime in Afghanistan. ❖ After the USSR's
successful invasion of Afghanistan, the Afghan war began &
was supported by the US, Saudi Arabia, and Pakistan.
Eventually the Soviets were defeated in Afghanistan. 5 ❖
After Soviet Forces withdrew from Afghanistan, a coalition
government led by different war lands came into power.
This coalition government represented the US supported
Mujahidin faction. At this point of time India also
recognized this coalition government. ❖ This new
government suffered from the crisis of Internal balancing.
They also wanted to assure their autonomy from Pakistan
but Pakistan wanted to retain its control over Afghanistan.
Pakistan started promoting a new set of insurgencies known
as Taliban. By this time the US also lost its interest in
Afghanistan & Pakistan was in complete control of Taliban.
Ultimately Taliban were able to establish their rule in
Afghanistan (mainly Central & Southern Afghanistan). ❖
Taliban regime was recognized by only 3 countries namely,
Pakistan, UAE, Saudi Arabia. Taliban led government
become a security threat to India & there was increasing
cases of Cross border terrorism in India. POST 9/11 & USA'S
GLOBAL WAR TERRORISM: ❖ After the September 11 attack,
US got involved in Afghan war & India offered
unconditional support to US, in its war against terrorism.
Iudia became a key supplier to the northern alliance. Thus
India increased hatred of Taliban's towards itself.
Ultimately Taliban government was overthrown & new
government was established in Afghanistan led by Hamid
Karzai. ❖ India provides enormous aid for reconstruction of
Afghanistan. India invested more $3 trillion in Afghan
reconstruction. India also helped Afghanistan to become a
member of SAARC. SIGNIFICANCE OF AFGHANISTAN FOR
INDIA SIGNIFICANCE: ❖ Afghanistan’s Location: It is at
the tri-junction of West Asia, South Asia & Central Asia. ❖
Peace and Stability in Afghanistan: It is linked to regional
stability. ❖ Afghanistan is an important tangent hub for
trade & commerce with the Central Asian Republics. ❖ It is
also important for India's Connect Central Asia policy. ❖ As
per US Geological Survey, Afghanistan has mineral
reserves. 6 ❖ India wants access to maintenance of mineral
reserves of Afghanistan. ❖ Afghanistan has untapped
sources of hydrocarbons. ❖ Afghanistan is an important
component of the TAPI Pipeline. INDIAN PROJECTS IN
AFGHANISTAN: ❖ DELARAM ZARANJ HIGHWAY: -
Connecting Chabahar port to Afghanistan. ❖ India has
constructed Afghanistan's Parliament building. ❖ Salma
Dam or Friendship Dam in Herat Province. ❖ India has also
laid down transmission lines of Pole-Khumri-Kabul, ❖ India
is also involved in the construction of schools & hospitals. ❖
India has also been contributing in capacitive building of
the Afghan people. ❖ Indian NGOs are also involved in
community development projects & women empowerment
projects (before Taliban takeover). ❖ India has been
involved in micro-irrigation projects which includes
provided drinking water, pipelines etc. TALIBAN'S
TAKEOVER ❖ USA declared to pull-out of Afghanistan by 31
August 2021. After this declaration Taliban captured most of
the areas of Afghanistan barring Panjsheer valley which
was also captured later on. ❖ Taliban took over of
Afghanistan, threw many questions before the international
community with respect to women rights, religious freedom,
civil rights etc., whether these rights would be respected by
the new regime or not. ❖ So far the Taliban has tried to
convince international community that this time Taliban
rule is different from the earlier version. It will focus on
women rights, women education, civilian rights & religious
freedom etc. ❖ India's Policy with respect to Afghanistan
has been wait & watch approach as events are still in the
process of unfolding and nobody has any idea what will
happen in next year that is why it is preferable for India to
just wait & watch and see whether Taliban is living up to its
promises or not with respect to women rights, civilian
rights, inclusive government, etc. 7 ❖ Off late India has
tried to increase its engagement with Taliban on Taliban's
request. They have requested India to come to Afghanistan
& complete infrastructure projects. ❖ In changing scenario
India may change its relation with respect to Taliban.
During the Taliban's 1st tenure (1996-2001), India had not
recognized the Taliban but this time around India may
change strategy because India doesn't want new regime in
Afghanistan to been antagonistic of India's Interest. ❖
During its earlier regime, Taliban showed a lot of animosity
to India. India missed out on the opportunities related to
peace process in Afghanistan. ❖ Perhaps in future India
will engage itself with Afghanistan for building various
infrastructure projects like Shahtoot dam. It will provide
water to 2 million people of Kabul. Such projects are likely
to improve India's engagement with Taliban regime. ❖
Moreover, it will also help in India's image makeover &
thereby significantly improving India's position in
Afghanistan. WAY FORWARD FOR INDIA 1. India needs to
engage herself with the Taliban regime, because earlier
India's position became unfavourable during Taliban's
earlier regime because Indian government did not
recognize the Taliban. 2. Engagement with Taliban
leadership should take place so that Taliban's could not be
used against India by Pakistan. It will also provide a sort
of guarantee to India that Taliban fighters could not be
used against India in its earlier regime. 3. India should
play an active role & mediate in Afghanistan. 4. India
should not give a message to Taliban that we are deeply
collaborating with western powers against Taliban. So
India should avoid any type of identification with Western
powers.

India-Pakistan || India-Bangladesh || India Sri Lanka

India-Pakistan
❖ According to Stephen P. Cohen - relation between India
Pakistan has deteriorated from where it was in 1947, and
there are no chances of improvement in relation in coming
decades also because both countries are involved in paired
minority conflict. ❖ It is an extreme version of distrust as
one side considers the other as the biggest enemy and itself
as - the victim. Relations between the 2 countries have
deteriorated in the last couple of years even more. Causes
of conflict ❖ From Pakistan's point of view, Kashmir is the
real cause. India thinks terrorism is the real cause and from
the international community’s point of view - Nuclear arms
is the main issue. ❖ According to Stephen P. Cohen-
"Kashmir dispute or any other dispute between the 2
countries are not causes but consequences” It means-even
if Kashmir dispute is resolved, then also relations would not
improve as the real cause lies somewhere else. ❖ According
to the Indian permanent ambassador to the UN Syed
Akbaruddin - "Kashmir is not the problem but India is the
problem for Pakistan". Ewen if India gives Kashmir to
Pakistan, relation between the 2 is unlikely to improve. ❖
Cohen believes that the real causes are following - ➢ Two
different ideas - Idea of India and idea of Pakistan. These 2
ideas are inherently antagonistic. One cannot co-exist with
the other so far the idea of Pakistan based on religion as
the basis of the nation has been challenged with the
creation of Bangladesh. But the idea of India, based on
secular principles has survived and it challenges Jinnah's 2-
nation theory. ➢ Vested interest on both sides primarily in
Pakistan - Pakistan Anny doesn’t want resolution of
Kashmir dispute because Pakistan army enjoys position of
preeminence in Pakistan's society. The Pakistan army is
able to maintain its privileges and economic benefits only
by projecting India as an existential threat. The Pakistan
army has done bigger harm to the people of Pakistan than
to Indians. It is because of them that democracy could
never take roots in Pakistan. 3 ➢ Presence of external
powers in south Asia has further made the matters
complicated- for eg- presence of US and China has made
the matters very complicated in south Asia. ➢ Identity
crisis existing in Pakistan stops it from going for resolution
of any dispute with India. ➢ Pakistan’s sense of insecurity
emerges out of India's growth and economic potential.
KASHMIR DISPUTE ❖ It is one of the most problematic
disputes of the world. It is complicated because it is not
simply an issue of territorial dispute but it is more than
that. ❖ It is a conflict of ideologies, culture, and a problem
of trust and perception. It is a territorial dispute involving
India-Pakistan -China. ❖ It is an area roughly equal to the
size of the UK. It has common borders with China, Pakistan
and Afghanistan. It has a strategic location in Asia. China’s
relations with Pakistan further increase the importance of
J&K in strategic calculations of India. ❖ India claims its
right over the entire state of J&K. India’s claim is contested
by Pakistan which controls 1/3rd of J&K which is called
Azad Kashmir in Pakistan and PoK in India. History of the
dispute ❖ Maharaja Hari Singh of Kashmir wanted to
remain independent leading to signing of standstill
agreement with both India and Pakistan. According to this
agreement- both of them will not interfere in the internal
affairs of Kashmir and will maintain the status quo. ❖
Pakistan could not remain committed to the maintenance of
the status quo. In October 1947, Pakistan launched an
attack with the help of tribesmen. Hari Singh approached
India and India showed its inability to intervene as J&K
was legally not an Indian territory. Hari Singh signed an
Instrument of Accession (IOA) on 26th October, 1947. ❖ This
was as per the provision of Government of India Act, 1947
and India got legal rghts over Kashmir. Now India entered
into Kashmir to stop Pakistan backed tribesmen. ❖ India
also approached the UN which passed - Resolution number-
47 in 1948, which called for immediate ceasefire between
India-Pakistan. According to this resolution, 4 Pakistan has
to withdraw its forces from PoK and India will maintain
minimum military presence only for the purpose of
self-defence and final decision is to be taken according to
the wishes of Kashmiris through plebiscite. A ceasefire came
into existence on December 25, 1948 and the ceasefire line
was demarcated in 1949. Matters could not move beyond
the demarcation of the ceasefire line as Pakistan did not
agree to withdraw its forces. Hence, plebiscite could not be
conducted. Views of India ❖ Kashmir is an integral part of
India. ❖ Religion is an irrelevant factor in boundary
dispute ❖ For conducting plebiscite, Pakistan should vacate
Kashmir. ❖ India is a secular country and minorities are
well protected in India. ❖ India accuses Pakistan for
committing the worst of genocides on people of the same
religion in East Pakistan. ❖ The IOA signed by Hari Singh
makes Kashmir legally an Indian territory, hence plebiscite
is not required. ❖ IOA got the mandate of constituent
Assembly which reflected the will of Kashmiris. ❖ India
does not believe in the 2 nation theory. Views of Pakistan ❖
Hari Singh was not a popular leader. ❖ India disregards the
mandate of UN, which calls for plebiscite in Kashmir, people
of Kashmir do not want to remain with India. ❖ That is
why, India witnesses terrorist attacks in Kashmir. ❖
Pakistan accuses India of violating the standstill
agreement. Contemporary Times Analysis ❖ During the last
couple of years, India has recalibrated its policy towards
Pakistan by adopting following approaches - ➢ It consists
of not holding formal talks with Pakistan until Pakistan
stops- using terrorism as an instrument of state policy
against India. 5 ➢ It involves right to retaliation against
those elements and locations along LoC that are responsible
for cross-border terrorism- India's approach in recent times
has been completely different from what it used to be
during 1990, and till 2014. ➢ This approach was of holding
continuous talks with Pakistan despite occasional terrorist
strikes interrupted by no talks so that public sentiment can
be managed and simultaneously holding a posture of
offensive defence near LoC to limit infiltration. Such a
course of action would be sustained in the hope that
Pakistan would eventually realize the fall of employing
terrorism as a state policy. ➢ In recent times, India has
adopted a different policy based on the premise that
Pakistan is unlikely to change its policy of sponsoring
terrorism given vested interest of Pakistan army. This led
India to conclusion that unless India could hurt the
principle architect of Pakistan's Kashmir policy i.e. Pakistan
army, terrorism would continue unabated that is why in
recent times, India has adopted a policy of striking
Pakistan's army where it hurts the most. ➢ India has also
started divulging information aimed at making public
India's response. For e.g.- divulging information related to
Pakistan's casualties which the Pakistan army early used to
hide. ➢ India has started working on shaping public
perception, for e.g., -owning of surgical strike so that myth
surrounding Pakistan's army could be exploded. ➢ India
has adopted another strategy of not attempting formal
talks with Pakistan and also trying to isolate Pakistan
internationally. For e.g.,-Financial Action Task Force (FATF)-
an independent regulatory body which guides and regulates
- antimoney laundering and terror financing strategies has
put Pakistan under the grey list. FATF identifies Pakistan as
a country with poor implementation record which requires
monitoring. All these policies of India have to make
Pakistan realize falling of its efforts of destabilizing India.
Factors responsible for insurgency in J&K ❖ Pakistan's rote
in fomenting trouble in J&K because it believes that
Kashmir is an unfinished agenda of partition. Though
Pakistan does not admit its involvement in J&K's
insurgency. According to Pakistan - violence and insurgency
is the result of 6 dissatisfaction of Kashmiri and Pakistan
provides only moral & diplomatic support for Kashmiris
struggle for independence but the reality is different - There
is open Pakistani support to separatist leaders. ❖ Special
status of J&K in the past which gave considerable
autonomy to the state in dealing with its internal affairs is
also partly responsible for the insurgency in J&K because it
resulted into the isolation of people from the rest of India.
It became difficult for them to integrate with the rest of
India leading to demand for independence of Kashmir. ❖
Terrorism in Kashmir creates a wedge between security
agencies and common people. Terror means are
deliberately used to create trust deficit and project India as
an oppressor, for e.g.,- use of assault riffles during stone
pelting against security forces leading to retaliation by
security forces and consequent casualties, which further,
creates trust deficit between Indian state & people living in
the Kashmir valley. ❖ Rampant corruption in state further
disturbs development agenda and planning to integrate
people with the rest of India. Way Forward 1. There should
be dialogue with various stakeholders in Kashmir. 2. Human
Rights cases should be dealt strictly by the state. 3. There
should be proper coordination among security agencies and
state police. 4. Offensive launched by the Government of
India under "Operation All out' to flush out terrorists. 5.
Intelligence system needs to be strengthened. 6. India
needs to improve her border infrastructure along the
Indo-Pakistan border to check infiltration of terrorists. 7.
There should be timely completion of fencing projects.
According to former Home Minister - Rajnath Singh -
Fencing projects will be completed by 2020. 8. There should
be greater use of technology for surveillance purposes. 9.
Modernisation of armed forces - includes - modern gadgets,
modern weapons, bullet proof jackets and helmets, night
vision cameras, modern vehicles, etc. 7 10.More
programmes like - UDAAN should be launched under UDAAN
initiative, youths of J&K will be given internship
opportunities in various Indian private companies who will
absorb them after completion of internship. This is a
welcome measure to wean away the youth of Jammu and
Kashmir from radicalism. 11.Infrastructure in various parts
of J&K should be improved. Under Prime Minister, plan for
reconstruction of J&K - improvement of road and education
facilities, healthcare facilities and promotion of tourism
sector etc. has been included 12.All those who moved out of
J&K during 1990, due to insurgency should be given the
opportunity to come back. 13. Victims of militancy should
be adequately compensated. 14.Cutting down on the
finances of insurgent leadership, - money laundering and
Hawala network which provides finances to separatist
leadership should also be tackled strictly by intelligence
agencies. Suggestions to resolve Kashmir dispute ❖ A
certain section wants independence for Kashmir but it is not
possible because of the presence of 3 big countries namely -
India, Pakistan and China. ❖ There is also a proposal that
Kashmir should be given a permanent neutral status
likeSwitzerland, which is again not possible because of the
love of distrust. ❖ To give administration of Kashmir to the
UN under UN Trusteeship. ❖ Musharraf's formula- ➢ The
four-point formula: This proposal, presented at the Agra
Summit in 2001, involved: ✓ Demilitarization: Gradual
withdrawal of troops from both sides of the Line of Control
(LoC). ✓ Self-governance: Increased autonomy for
Kashmiris without compromising India's sovereignty. ✓
Irrelevant borders: Free movement of people and trade
across the LoC. ✓ Joint management: A mechanism
involving India, Pakistan, and Kashmiri representatives to
manage certain aspects of the region. 8 ❖ Dr. Manmohan
Singh's formula: ➢ Approval of Musharraf's line of thinking
he proposed to convert LoC into Line of peace ➢ There
should be continuous dialogue between India and Pakistan.
➢ Resolve the doables like -Sir Creek and Siachen glacier. ❖
Chenab formula- River Chenab can be treated as boundary
and Indian asea should be given to Indian side and
Pakistan area should be given to Pakistan side.
India-Bangladesh ❖ India shares a boundary of 4096 kms
with Bangladesh. It is the longest boundary which India
shares with any country. It came into existence in 1971 and
India was the 1st country to recognise Bangla, whereas
China which resisted creation of Bangladesh for a long time
does not enjoy all-party consensus. It is ironical that India
does not enjoy all-party consensus in Bangladesh. ❖ These
are 2 major political parties in Bangladesh - ➢ Awami
league (AL) ➢ Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) ✓ AL
takes a pro-Indian stand, whereas BNP continues with its
anti-Indian programme. Despite the role of India in the
independence of Bangla, India faces hostility whenever BNP
comes to power. Significance of Bangladesh for India ❖
Bangladesh will help in ending geographical isolation of
India's NE states. Most of these states face issue of
connectivity. States like - Tripura faces a lot of difficulties
from getting goods from rest of India as it is 1760 kms
through Siliguri corridor. ❖ Bangladesh is also a vital
component of India’s Act East Policy. It can help in
integrating South Asia and South East Asia. ❖ Bangladesh
is also important for India's energy security (gas pipelines
MyanmarBangladesh-India). ❖ Bangladesh is also
important for India's containment of China strategy. 9
Issues: 1. Issue of illegal migration: Illegal migration is the
result of both push factors and pull factors. (a) Push factors
➢ Religious persecution in Bangladesh. ➢ political
persecution in Bangladesh ➢ pressure on Land ➢ Lack of
healthcare and educational facilities. etc. (b) Pull factors -
easy availability of land in India, healthcare and
educational facilities, more economic opportunities. 2. Issue
of fencing of border: Because of porous border, there is
cross border migration from Bangladesh into India. This
creates security problems for India. India has been talking
to Bangladesh to take effective steps to check the flow of
illegal migration but nothing could be done. Hence, GOI
decided to fence the Indo-Bangladesh boundary. Purpose of
this fencing is to check illegal migration, smuggling, and
infiltration. Government of Bangladesh criticises India for
violating 1974 treaty, under which no country will construct
defensive work within 150 yards of frontier. 3. Rohingya
crisis 4. Tipaimukh Dam controversy: India planned to
construct a dam on River Barak in 1984. Proposed dam is
380 m long and 163 m high. R. Barak is a part of
Barak-SurmaKushiyara river system. The planned project
after completion will have 1500 MW hydroelectricity.
Bangladesh's objections (i) It will affect the flow of water in
Surma-Kushiyara river system. (ii) It will adversely affect
fisheries and agriculture of the region. (iii) It will also cause
hydrological drought in Bangladesh. (iv) According to
Bangladesh, the dam falls in a seismically sensitive zone. 10
India's stand ❖ Dam is not likely to check the flow of the
Surma-Kushiyara river system because it does not have any
irrigational component. It has twin objectives of- flood
control and hydroelectricity generation. ❖ India has also
modified the designs of the dam which can now withstand
an earthquake of 7.6 magnitude on the Richter scale. ❖
India is willing to share all the data related to flow of water
in Surma-Kushiyara river system. India feels that this issue
is highly politicised in Bangladesh. 5. Water issue ➢ India is
an upper riparian state and construction of dams,
according to Bangladesh, affects the flow of water towards
Bangladesh. Bangladesh opposed India’s construction of
Farakka Barrage, leading to an agreement in 1996 to share
water of Ganga. It still feels that India has not fulfilled her
obligations under this treaty and Bangladesh has not got
her due share of water. ➢ Another issue between
India-Bangladesh is the Teesta River Water dispute which
originates at Cholamu Lake in Sikkim and flows at a
distance of 270 kms through Sikkim and West Bengal. Then
it runs at a distance of 134 km in Bangladesh, before
joining River Brahmaputra near Teestamukh. ➢ In 1983,
India-Bangladesh conducted an ad hoc treaty under which
39% and 36% of water available near the international
border was allocated to India and Bangladesh respectively
and remäning 25% of water remains unallocated. ➢
Bangladesh regards the river crucial to provide
supplementary irrigation facilities in the Rangpur region of
Bangladesh which is called the rice bowl of Bangladesh.
Bangladesh demands 50-50% share of water. ➢ In 2011,
India-Bangladesh (I-B) agreed on an interim agreement
valid for a period of 15 years. Based on the
recommendations of Indo- Bangladesh commission on
water sharing, under which Bangladesh would get 48-50%
of water available near the international borders. This
arrangement could not be signed into final agreement
because of opposition raised by W.B government. 11 6.
China factor in I-B relations ➢ China has emerged as one of
the largest investors in Bangladesh so far.China invested
$30 bn. in Bangladesh mainly in the apparel industry which
has turned Bangladesh into a textile hub. ➢ Experts are of
the view that- Bangladesh may not be a reliable partner in
future because of the closeness of Bangladesh with China.
Bangladesh has also joined BRI of China. Bangladesh
purchases military equipment from China. China has
already replaced India as the largest trading partner of
Bangladesh. ➢ China has also been investing billions of
dollars in various infrastructure projects of Bangladesh.
India's strategies to limit Chinese influence in
Bangladesh/Way forward- (i) Resolving outstanding issues
with Bangladesh as early as possible. (ii) There should be
timely execution of the ongoing projects. (iii) Government
should encourage Indian private sector to invest more in
Bangladesh. (iv) Improving infrastructure near
Indo-Bangladesh border to facilitate more trade. (v) Follow
Gujral doctrine of giving unilateral concessions to smaller
neighbours in letter and spirit. (vi) India should also help in
resolving Rohingya issues. India- Sri Lanka ❖ Both India
and Sri Lanka (SL) share civilisational links and historical
ties. Their bilateral relation goes back to 3000 years back.
Relation during the ancient period can be seen because of
the spread of Buddhism king Ashoka sent his son and
daughter to spread Buddhism in Sri Lanka in the medieval
period, Rajaraja and Rajendra I, ruled the northern part of
SL. ❖ Both countries got independence almost at the same
time. India got independence in 1947 and SL got
independence in 1948. Soon after independence of SL, Sri
Lankan government passed citizenship Act in 1948 and
Language Act in 1956. Citizenship act, 1948 decitizenised
large number of Tamilians. The condition for citizenship
was to provide necessary documents that needed to show
that - either the father of a 12 person was born in SL or they
have been staying in SL from the last 3 generations. This
act specifically targeted Tamilians Language act, 1956 and
mandated that in order to get employment under the state ,
one needs to know the sinhalese language. ❖ These 2 acts
alienated tamilians and this alienation further increased
because of various policies and approach of Sri Lankan
government. ❖ Sri Lankan government passed the 13th
amendment act in 1987, for greater - devolution of power in
Tamilian areas but even this act couldn't be implemented
properly. Then the Eelam war happened in 2007 and ended
in 2009, in which the SL government emerged victorious,
war ended but the crisis did not end. Tamilian diaspora
forced their respective governments to intervene in the
situation. ❖ India also supports SL for rehabilitation of
Tamilian refugees. India provided post-war relief measures
including-food, medicine, etc. As a long term measure India
announced reconstruction of 50,000 houses to provide
shelter to internally displaced people. ❖ India is one of the
largest providers of developmental credit to SL. So far India
has provided more than $2 bn. credit to SL, mostly for
infrastructure development in SL. Provisions of 13th
Amendment ❖ Establishment of elected provincial councils
with sufficient powers. ❖ Merger of North and East part of
SL where Tamil resides into a single province. ❖
Establishment of finance commission to rationally divide
funds across various provinces and also between centre &
provinces. ❖ Tamils to be recognised as an official
language along with Sinhalese and English as a link
language for centre-province communication. ❖
Establishment of HCs for provinces. ❖ China factor in
Indo-SL relations ❖ Both SL and China have upgraded their
relation to strategic partnership level. ❖ High level political
exchanges are frequent between the 2 countries. ❖ SL has
also supported China's OBOR. ❖ China has invested $15 bn
in SL so far. Total national debt of SL is $75 bn. China is the
biggest investor in SL. 13 ❖ China has heavily invested in
the Hambantota port of SL. Sri Lanka has already given
70% control of the project to a Chinese company for a
period of 99 years. Though SL has not agreed for the use of
Hambantota port by Chinese navy as military base. ❖
China has also started developing Special Economic Zones
(SEZ) at Hambantota port. ❖ Taking into account India’s
strategic concerns, SL has given rights to India for
development of following projects. ➢ Palaly airport, Mattala
airport, Trincomalee port- SE part of SL ➢ Colombo port -
This port will be jointly development by India-JapanIndian
strategies to counter China factor (way forward) ❖ timely
execution of various infrastructure projects including -
railways and port projets. ❖ India has signed energy
agreement with SL under which-India will build oil storage
facility and solar energy parks in SL. ❖ Intense economic
and cultural diplomacy with SL both India and SL have
signed Free Trade Area Agreement in 2009. ❖ India has
also planned to construct a land bridge from India to SL. ❖
India has been opening Buddhist circuits in various parts of
India to attract SL citizens. SL and India are also involved
in the establishment of International Buddhist University in
Sanchi. ❖ India is collaborating with countries like Japan
to contain Chinese influence through joint projects like
development of Colombo port and AAGC. Fishermen issue ❖
From SL's point of view, Indian fishermen do not observe
international maritime boundary they stray into SL waters
in search of fishes, prawns, shrimps, etc. ❖ Indian
fishermen use mechanical trawlers which impacts marine
ecology, where SL fishermen are allowed to use only small
fishing boats. ❖ According to SL, Indian fishermen go for
bottom fishing to catch prawns and shrimps. ❖ Fishermen
in India are concerned about the use of force by the SL
navy. Fire arms have been also used against the Indian
fishermen. 14 ❖ Indian fishermen mistakenly enter into SL
waters and get arrested frequently by SL navy. ❖ SL also
accuses Indian fishermen of using synthetic nets which
damages ordinary nets of SL fishermen. Solution ❖ Indian
fishermen should be given subsidies to buy ocean trawlers
so that they can fish in Indian Ocean and high seas. ❖
India and SL should jointly set up Palk Bay Authority, to
regulate fishing in the waters. Both sides should also have
representatives from Fishermen community to regulate
fishing in this authority so that fishermen do not cross each
other’s boundary. ❖ Indian fish trawlers should be fitted
with GPS. ❖ Populate Indian areas with fishes (Indian area
has witnessed de-population of fishes in Indian waters
because of overfishing).

India-Bhutan|| India-Nepal|| India New World Order India

- Bhutan Indo - Bhutan relation goes back to the ancient
times. There is a spiritual union existing between India and
Bhutan. Bhutan is India's closest partner in South Asia.
India and Bhutan are the only 2 countries of South Asia
which did not join China's BRI. India is Bhutan's largest
trading partner and almost entire trade of Bhutan i.e.
Exports and Imports go to India. Bhutan has also been a
preferred destination for Indian tourists. Both countries
have witnessed growing economic ties in recent times. Both
countries are natural partners for each other.
India-Bhutan(IB) relation is guided by following 3 treaties-
Treaty of Punakha (1910) - signed between British India
and Bhutan, under which Bhutan agreed to become a
protectorate of British India. Bhutan surrendered its
external autonomy and allowed to be guided by British
India in matters of defense and foreign affairs. Treaty of
peace and friendship (1950) - under this treaty, Bhutan and
India declared each other as natural partners with an
inseparable future. Article 1 of this treaty recognises that
friendship between India and Bhutan is for all times to
come and there will be perpetual peace between the 2
countries. The Government of India remained a guiding
partner but did not interfere in the internal affairs of
Bhutan. Revision of treaty (2007) - On request of Bhutan,
the terms of treaty was revised. It was suggested that- I-B
will remain close friends and equal partners, but the term
guiding the partner was dropped. There are no limitations
on Bhutan for conducting its foreign policy (fp). It has been
given a lot of freedom by India in conduct of its fp. The
only condition is that - Bhutan should not let its territory be
used against India's interest. Despite the revision of treaty,
close relations between India and Bhutan have remained
unchanged. 3 Economic relationship between (b/w) I-B: 1.
India is Bhutan's largest trading partner. Almost the entire
trade i.e Exports and Imports goes to India. Bhutan started
its 5-year plans on the advice of India. 1st and 2nd 5-year
plans of Bhutan were completely financed by India and
subsequent plans have been partly financed by India. 2.
Important hydroelectricity projects of Bhutan have been
constructed by India - Tala, Chukha, Kurichu. 3. India has
also been constructing 3 other hydroelectricity projects in
collaboration with Bhutan. 4. Bhutan's broadcasting station,
Paro airport and major rail-road networks of Bhutan have
been constructed by India. 5. India has also given a
standby credit facility to Bhutan to address its liquidity
crunch. 6. India also offers Bhutan duty free transit to have
duty trade with other countries. 7. Hydroelectricity has been
the major area of cooperation between India and Bhutan 8.
One major concern for Bhutan is the ever widening trade
deficit which stands at Rs. 3400 cr. and Indian aid to
Bhutan is almost Rs. 4000 cr. According to Bhutan - India is
not doing any favor to it and China has been making more
tempting offer to Bhutan (China made an informal offer of
$10 bn of investment in Bhutan). Irritants in I-B relations1.
Increasing Chinese influence in Bhutan - A section of
Bhutan's society wants deeper engagement with China.
China has made an informal offer of $ 10 billion to Bhutan
for infrastructure development. 2. Bhutan has come out of
Motor Vehicle agreement (BBIN network) citing domestic
concerns. 3. Ever growing trade deficit b/w I-B - is another
area of concern. 4 4. Sometimes Bhutanese territory is also
being used by Indian insurgent groups of NE states (After
‘Operation All clear of 2007’ most of these groups have been
flushed out of Bhutan) 5. Bhutan supplies hydroelectric
power to India at a very cheap rate. China factor in I-B
relations - 1. Both I-B shared a long and disputed
boundary, China wants to resolve this long and disputed
boundary with Bhutan. China has made 'land-to-land
transfer agreement to Bhutan, under which China is willing
to give 495 km² of land to Bhutan and wants only 269 km²
of land which includes adjoining high ridges of Chumbi
valley. If this deal is conducted, then it will increase the
Chinese offensive capability greatly . 2. China also wants to
establish diplomatic relations with Bhutan and wants to
take bilateral relations to an all time high in all areas. 3.
Chinese offer has so far been rejected by Bhutan. Bhutan
has assured Government of India that it has no plans of
concluding a land-to-land deal with China. It has also
assured India of taking into account India's strategic
concerns. Way Forward- Frequency of high-level visits from
both the countries should increase. India should increase
the amount of aid given to Bhutan. there should be timely
completion of ongoing hydro- electricity projects. India
should take care of Bhutan's environmental concerns. India
should try to link India's North East region with Bhutan
effectively. connectivity projects should be completed by
India on time. More people to people interaction should be
encouraged between 2 countries. More scholarships should
be given to Bhutanese students. 5 India-Nepal Indo- Nepal
relations are guided by the Treaty of Peace, Friendship and
Cooperation of 1950. Indo- Nepal relations suffer from a lot
of uncertainty. The relations suffers from unique paradox
where all ingredient to become great neighbor are present.
Those ingredients are - Open border visa is not required to
cross borders. Nepali citizens can apply for government
jobs in India and can also acquire for properties in India.
Indian citizens can also acquire properties in Nepal.
Indian currency is also accepted in Nepal. Important
businesses in Nepal are controlled by Indian business
houses. India is the largest trading partner of Nepal.
There is very high level of People to People contact. India
needs to reorient its Nepal policy which is too much guided
by the China factor. It is the same type of insecurity with
which Pakistan suffers in Afghanistan. According to experts
- India has been too interventionist in the past. It is said
that - India aims to micromanage Nepalese affairs and has
allowed itself to be manipulated by Nepali politicians.
India has also been subjected to negative propaganda in
Nepal for continuing with the policies of the British Raj with
smaller neighbours. India needs to address negative
propaganda in Nepal. India is perhaps overestimating the
China factor in Nepal. It is because of the China factor that
India has taken a number of wrong steps in Nepal and
taken a muscular stand on a number of issues. So far India
has not been able to come out with an appropriate set of
policies. Moreover Nepali politics is extremely polarized and
balancing has become extremely difficult. 6 Irritants in
bilateral Relation - There is always an apprehension in
Nepal that - India overlooks Nepalese interests and
interferes in the domestic politics of Nepal as well. India
does not bother about Nepal's interest. It keeps on
bothering about India’s strategic interest only. Big
brotherly attitude of India is also not liked in Nepal. Nepal
believes that India acts as a hegemon. India does not show
seriousness in executing infrastructure projects in Nepal.
Exampleproject signed in 1995, still not completed. There is
a scarcity of cross-border roads which affects trade
between the 2 countries. It is believed in Nepal that -
Madhesis are getting support from India and creating
troubles for Nepal. It is believed in Nepal that India
deliberately does not complete hydroelectricity projects.
China factor - 1. India's Nepal policy emerges from India’s
insecurity with China and China's Nepal policy is due to
insecurity with Tibet. China does not want Nepal to allow
Tibetans to protest from Nepalese territory and whoever
comes to power in Nepal should keep China's Tibetan
concerns in mind. 2. China feels that India may utilise its
position in Nepal to get a pro-Tibetan stance. Hence, it
wants Nepal to be independent of India. 3. China is going
for a massive project to connect Nepal-China through a rail
link between Lhasa to Kathmandu, China has also promised
to invest more than $20 billion in Nepal. 4. 10 years back,
China was a minor player in Nepal but today it is present in
a very big way in Nepal. Unlike India, China projects itself
as a neutral player in Nepal. China always gives the
message that it is interested only in the development of
Nepal and its people. 7 5. To counter India’s support to NC,
China promoted communist alliance which came to power
in Nepal. Strategic experts feel that - China has very
carefully filled the space left by India. Recently in Aug 2018,
China signed the Transit and Transport Treaty under which
Nepal will get access to 4 Chinese ports. (Traditionally
Nepal had used Indian ports for transit purposes namely
Kolkata and Visakhapatnam). 6. China also plans to build a
railway line to connect Nepal’s border by 2022. 7. China is
planning to complete the Trans - Himalayan Network to
connect important cities of Nepal. 8. It is also following
cultural diplomacy by opening Confucius centres in various
parts of Nepal. Chinese language, Mandarin has gained a
lot of popularity in Nepal, and has also become a part of
schools curriculum in Nepal. 9. China is offering more
scholarships to Nepali students than India. Steps taken by
India: Motor Vehicle Agreement (MVA) to promote
connectivity between India-Nepal has been concluded -
initially concluded among India, Nepal, Bhutan and
Bangladesh. Later on Bhutan walked out of BBIN network
citing domestic concerns. This agreement would regulate
vehicular traffic, passenger’s movement, etc. Purpose of
MVA- It will promote seamless movement of people and
goods among Nepal, Bangladesh, India. It will also give a
massive boost to regional connectivity. It will help in
integration of the region and thereby facilitating economic
development. The plan is to extend this MVA to South East
Asian countries - Myanmar and Thailand. This agreement
intends to create communication linkages by using a
network of roadways, highways and waterways. Benefits of
MVA - 8 Development in the North East. more people to
people contact. It is also India’s strategic response to
China’s BRI. It will help in boosting trade. Challenges faced
by MVA - lack of infrastructure in the bordering areas. lack
of integrated check-posts. dilemma existing among
member countries. presence of informal economy in the
bordering areas and the attempts to formalise it may be
resisted by local people. Raxaul-Kathmandu rail link
India's construction of ARUN-III hydroelectric project (900
MW). Ramayana circuits. Ayodhya - Kathmandu bus
service. Collaboration is also going on for boosting inland
water transport. It appears as if Nepal is giving equal
weightage to its relation with both China-India. It does not
want to remain dependent completely on China-India and
wants concessions from both the parties Way Forward-
India needs to reformulate her Nepal policy. It needs to do
away with muscular policy in Nepal. It needs to continue
with religious tourism with Nepal. India has taken a
number of steps in Nepal to boost India's image in Nepal:
Janakpur railway line. Kathmandu-Ayodhya bus service
India should follow Gujral doctrine of giving unilateral
concession to India's smaller neighbours in letter & spirit. 9
India needs to continue with her 'Neighbourhood first
policy. India should stop siding with political parties in
Nepal and should take a neutral stance on Nepal's domestic
politics. No interference in political process of Nepal. India
should encourage Madhesis to go for political settlement.
There should be timely execution of ongoing projects. India
should complete existing infrastructure development
projects and connectivity projects on time. [NOTE- If India
completes infrastructure projects on time, then China's Tibet
- Kathmandu project would become redundant. India
should try to influence Nepali people through actions and
not only words. That is the only way India would be able to
contain the Chinese influence in the region]. India and New
World Order Meaning of New World Order The New World
Order emerged with the proclamation of George W. Bush
Senior during Gulf War I. Proclamation of New world order
was intentionally done to give the world that there is only
one Superpower i.e., USA. This new world order will be
based upon following things- Promotion of democracy
Economic growth and prosperity Protection of human
rights The proclamation of new world order was done in
the context of Gulf War I. The academic reflection of Bush's
proclamation was varied. Some scholars felt that a new
world order is emerging in a true sense. They were
optimistic. On the other hand, realist scholars felt that the
so-called New world order has nothing new and it is more
disorderly. 10 Various schools of thoughts in India
Nehruvians or Internationalists or Globalists- They felt
that new world order has symbolized the emergence of a
more democratic and powerful world. They put a lot of faith
in internationalism. They wanted India to embrace the new
world order by actively participating in WTO negotiations
and for giving greater importance to emerging
international architecture. They gave greater importance to
soft power. Hyper-realists - They believe that the bipolar
world order was more stable. New world order is more
threatening and anarchical. Hence, India should focus on
developing hard power credentials. India should go for
nuclear testing, military modernization, strategic
understanding with major powers as well as with countries
in neighbourhood or extended neighbourhood. They wanted
that India to go for an active containment policy.
Neo-liberals They talked about the nature of new world
order in terms of complex interdependence. They suggested
proper balancing of hard power and soft power i.e., smart
power to protect vital Indian interest. The neo- liberals
dominated the agenda. Thus, in new world order Nehruvian
Frame of reference of Indian foreign policy was revived.
Although India's engagement with the new world order
began during Rajiv Gandhi's tenure, real breakthrough
came only during the Prime Ministership of P. V. Narasimha
Rao. Narasimha Rao's government can be credited with
setting India on the path of engagement with the new world
order in smart way. 11 Thus, India has increased its
strategic choices. India is actively Lobbying for its
membership at UN on the basis of new credentials and
through new initiatives. In case of nuclear weapons, India
has changed its orientation. It has adjusted itself with a
shift from disarmament to arms control. Although
ideologically, it still emphasizes on disarmament but in
reality it has moved for pragmatic arms control. It has not
left its opposition to discriminatory treaties but at the same
time it is following a more balanced approach towards
nuclear weapons. It has put forward its nuclear draft
doctrine to put itself as a responsible nation. At WTO, India
is engaging itself in dialogue but unlike past approach of
G77 era. India is more interested in searching for a
common ground between North and South; India is trying
to get foothold in many regional groupings. It is actively
engaging itself in new platform of emerging economies of
the 3rd world. India is also trying to normalize its
relationship with its neighbours, e.g., recently during the
economic crisis India has given billions of dollars of aid to
Sri Lanka, India has also helped Maldives for its economic
revival. In Context of West Asia, new foreign policy
orientation has been witnessed. Today, India has been
looking towards West Asia from a broader perspective.
India is no more looking at West Asia merely from the
prism of oil and Indian diaspora. India has also entered
into full diplomatic relationship with Israel considering its
security threat coming from terrorism and the need for
diversification of its armaments. Strength of Indian foreign
policy is that India has engaged itself with Israel without
antagonizing Islamic countries of West Asia. This has been
one of the greatest areas of success for Indian diplomacy.
India is also recasting its diplomacy in the Gulf. Initially,
India has left many important countries like Saudi Arabia
and Turkey i.e., India's engagement with these countries
was less. But once again India has started re-energising its
old ties with countries like Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, UAE,
Iraq, etc. 12 India has started qualitatively transforming
its relationship with African and Latin American countries.
Through its new orientation, India is all set to emerge as a
major power in Asia and to play an important role at
international level but still there are some loopholes in
India's Foreign policy which needs to be addressed and
take following steps: streamlining of administrative
machinery, India needs to promote strategic culture and
think tanks in the country, Indian diplomacy needs to be
more proactive.

India - New World Order || India and Third World || India’s

Nuclear Policy India- New World Order Emergence of China
and India's engagement with existing world order As
stated by China that its rise is peaceful and it is not directed
against any other country is a farce and a big lie. China's
rise as a global power is anything but peaceful. In the
name of peaceful rise doctrine, China has tried to create a
new order in the world as well as in Asia. Rise of China and
its aggressive behaviour in South China Sea, East China
Sea, South East Asia, Indian Ocean Region and Himalayas
has disturbed the whole region and brought insecurities to
countries. To tackle the rising and aggressive China,
India's tilt in favour of USA is clear and evident. In fact,
India has entered into all important foundational
agreement with USA in areas of defence and USA has also
taken following steps keeping in view containment of China
:- Renaming Asia-Pacific as Indo-Pacific and thereby
accepting the centrality of India in the entire region. USA
has declared India as a net security provider in Indian
Ocean Region. It means providing security in Indian Ocean
Region is the responsibility of India and not of other
powers, USA is actively helping India in its defence
modernisation, All important defence agreements which
are needed to modernise Indian Armed forces have already
been concluded. In this new and changing world order,
China's rise is a serious challenge to India on multiple
fronts. That is why India has adopted a strategy of overt
engagement in dealing with Chinna and covert containment
strategy. Overt engagement strategy can be seen at
multiple levels - economic cooperation, cooperation at
various platforms like SCO, BRICS, G-20, etc. 3 Covert
containment strategy- conception of Quad,
India-US-Japan nexus, defence modernisation of India,
India's attempt to develop a series of military and
commercial bases throughout the Indian Ocean - Region to
counter China's String of Pearls - Strategy. India's purpose
focuses on developing a Blue Water Navy (highly
modernised Navy). India-Third World Countries India and
the Third World The concept of the third world originated
in the context of Cold War. After World War II, the world
was divided between 2 worlds - the First World which was
led by USA and which represented the ideology of
capitalism, the Second World i.e, the Communist world led
by USSR. The Third World included the countries which did
not join any of the blocks and preferred to remain
non-aligned. These countries were having a similar colonial
past. Because of colonialism most of these countries
exhibited the structural impact of colonialism in their
polity, economy as well as society. They were
underdeveloped Countries. They were suffering from
poverty, internal social and political crisis, neoimperialism
and neo-colonialism. The world came to be known as Third
world. The term 3rd World was used for the first time by
Statistician Algo Savi. In political literature the concept of
3rd world emerged in the works of Frantz Fanon in his work
‘Wretched of the Earth'. The basic concern of the 3rd world
countries was to end underdevelopment and to gain
autonomy in foreign policy. India was the pioneering
country which promoted the idea of 3rd worldism and
South-South cooperation. In political sphere, it tried to
unite countries of 3rd world on the basis of ideologies like
imperialism, anti-racialism and anti-colonialism. 4 In the
economic sphere, India took initiative to promote the idea
of New International Economic Order. India played a
significant role as a leader of the 3rd world countries at the
platform of United Nations Conference on Trade and
Development (UNCTAD). India was an important force at
G77. India made following suggestions on this platform:- i.
Reforms at International Financial Institutions. ii. ⅱ)
Revaluation of prices of raw materials. iii. Financial and
technical assistance of developing countries. India through
the platform of NAM and UN consistently worked for
South-South Cooperation. Thus 3rd worldism was a very
significant feature of India’s foreign policy during Cold War
world order. According to analysts, India always had an
inspiration to play a significant role in the world politics.
In the initial phase India had to project itself as the leader
of the 3rd world. This was the only strong basis for India to
gain visibility in international politics. India was not having
economic, technological or military power. Hence, only
ideological determinant of India was the strength of India
and this 3nd worldism was the ideology to gain significance
in the world. According to analysts, India's 3nd worldism
was not simply its idealism but it was guided by realist
calculations. India and the 3rd world in the contemporary
times In contemporary times, it is being said that India
has lost its interest in 3rd worldism. It is that today India
aspires to be known as an emerging power. India is
developing close relationships with former colonial powers
and also with those countries which India used to regard
until recently as practicing neo imperialism and neo
colonialism. India is developing a good relationship with
the USA. The countries of South have started believing that
India is not much interested in South-South cooperation as
it used to be in earlier times. India has left a conflicting
approach with North. India is talking about moderation in
world politics and close cooperation with countries of the
North. 5 It is felt that India has developed other
determinants of power like military and nuclear
determinant as well as strong economic credentials. India
is not so much dependent on the rhetoric of the 3rd
worldism. Today India has moved away from idealism.
India is giving foremost importance to its national interest.
India is working for economic and strategic cooperation
with the West. At times, India is also accused for delaying
various negotiations at WTO. It is said that India has left
the leadership of 3rd world union. India is no more talking
about New International Economic Order (NIEO). India is
a primary beneficiary of the globalisation process. India's
leadership of 3rd world is also completed by other countries
like China, Venezuela, Iran, etc. However, it is not correct to
say that India is no more aligned with third world. India
still believes in greater South-South cooperation. India has
been a major force behind South-South cooperation. India
has taken following steps to strengthen South South
cooperation:- a) India is putting a common front at WTO, b)
for climate change negotiations, India is Spearheading the
global South, c) India is also putting demands for reforms
at UNSC, World Bank and IMF, d) India aims to share its
skills and achievements with other countries of the South, e)
c) India exported millions of Covid 19 Vaccine during
raging Covid 19 pandemic, f) India's leadership is still
preferred by a Number of countries of South. Despite China
pursuing vigorous diplomacy with countries of South,
India's leadership is preferred in many regions of the world.
It is wrong to say that India has left its 3rd worldism but
India's strategies, and approaches have certainly changed
in contemporary times. India's 3rd Worldism today is more
pragmatic and more balanced than in previous times
because India aspires to become a big power in coming
years. Today, India expects 3rd world countries to support
India at UNSC so that India can get UNSC membership.
India's support to 3rd world countries is no more guided by
idealism of the Cold War era rather it is driven by
pragmatism of today. 6 India's Nuclear Policy India's
approach with respect to nuclear weapons has been a major
policy dilemma faced by Indian foreign policy makers. On
one hand, India proposes the goal of complete elimination
of nuclear Weapons. It criticises the non-nuclear
proliferation regime as it does not aim to end nuclear
Weapons. On the other hand India's aspiration to be
recognized as a nuclear weapon state at negotiating table
of all non-proliferation related talks. India's approach with
respect to nuclear weapons has been called ambiguous.
According to Western critics, India was never truly
committed towards the goal of nuclear disarmament. India
was simply looking for the time when it will be in a position
to emerge as a Nuclear weapon state. However, Indian
establishment denied these charges. According to Indian
establishment, India was forced to take actions. It was
never Indian desire to go for nuclear weapons. India's
decisions emerges from the structural conditions of
International Politics more specifically South Asian politics.
Hence, it becomes important to analyse India's approach
towards Nuclear weapons and to understand India's
contemporary view point with respect to nuclear weapons
and major non- proliferation initiatives. Ist phase
(1947-1960) The Indian Constitution establishes India as a
country committed towards world peace. Nehru and Gandhi
criticized Nuclear weapons as a diabolical use of science.
Nehru called Nuclear weapons as Satanic. India adopted
the policy of non-alignment as India preferred to remain
out of power politics. Nehru championed the cause of global
disarmament through the platform of UN and NAM. India
had initiated and supported disarmament measures at UN.
India was among the first countries to sign PTBT (Partial
Test Ban Treaty) in 1964. J.N. Dixit summarises India's
approach in the first phase as following:. 7 I. India opposed
Nuclear weapons, II. India demanded for comprehensive
disarmament programme, III. India asked for peaceful use
of nuclear energy, IV. India demanded for stopping the
proliferation of Nuclear weapons. Views of critics India's
nuclear policy during this phase was ambiguous. Stephen P.
Cohen in his book ‘Emerging India’ writes that India's
Nuclear programme was never completely peaceful. Atomic
Energy Act of 1948 was amended in 1962. This amendment
made all information related to nuclear programmes
censored. This shows that military objective was always
present in India's so called peaceful Nuclear programme.
According to realist scholars, India's approach was based
on high sounding moralism. According to pragmatists,
India was neither willing to be a nuclear fish nor nuclear
fowl. India wanted to use its resources for its development.
India felt that it will be vital for India to make world
understands importance of disarmament till the time India
was developing its capabilities and India's disarmament
was nothing but a safety wall.

India’s Nuclear Policy || India-France Relation Second

Phase (1970): ❖ India conducted the 1st peaceful nuclear
test in 1974. According to Indian establishment, following
reasons were responsible for such an act: ➢ As a result of
Chinese aggression security of South-Asia had deteriorated,
➢ In 1969 China conducted nuclear test, ➢ China and
Pakistan were having good relationship, ➢ Security
environment in and around Indian Ocean was also
becoming threatening, ➢ USA had established its military
bases, ➢ After 1962, Sino - Indian war, India sought
security guarantees from USA, USSR and UK in the manner
it was available to Japan, New Zealand, Australia, etc.
However India's demand was not considered. ➢ India
looked towards disarmament initiative. Here, also India was
frustrated. India felt that NPT is not a disarmament regime
but it creates inequality among nations. India equated it
with a type of neo-colonialism. Hence, India had no other
options. J.N. Dixit summarises the main elements of India's
approach as:- ✓ India continued with its determination of
using nuclear energy only for peaceful purpose, ✓ Instead
of taking a clear cut instance India took an option of
keeping nuclear weapon option open for future, ✓ He
believes that India missed the golden opportunity of
making nuclear weapons on ideological grounds. ❖ C.
Rajamohan believes that India had to suffer nuclear black
mailing because it failed to take a clear cut option.
According to Indian policy establishments India is always
ready for the goal of nuclear disarmament. India will try
with new vigour to explain the importance of disarmament
approach at the UN and at international forums. ❖
According to C. Rajamohan, by this time India also got a
type of insurance cover from the USSR. India entered into
Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation with the USSR
in 1971. Hence it felt that more pragmatic course of action
will be to advance its position on disarmament. 3 Third
Phase (1980): ❖ In 1980s, Security situation of Asia started
deteriorating further. The end of detente and Soviet
invasion of Afghanistan increased the importance of
Pakistan in USA's foreign policy. ❖ A new arms race in
South Asia had begun. The reports were coming out about
Chinese help to Pakistan in developing its nuclear
capabilities. ❖ In this context, India had to make difficult
choices. India made a last ambitious effort in the form of
Rajiv Gandhi's plan of action for disarmament at UN. ❖
This plan envisaged elimination of Nuclear weapons by
2010, but India's last attempt was not supported by
countries like the USA. India was now convinced about the
futility of adhering to the traditional approach. ❖ India
realised the hypocrisy of developed countries like USA
which kept a blind eye towards Israeli Nuclear programme.
Despite India's declaration of Pokhran I as a peaceful
nuclear explosion, India had to suffer various kinds of
sanctions. Thus, India started moving towards the Realist
approach. Fourth Phase (Post Cold War Era):- 1990s-till now
❖ The Post Cold War scenario created further challenges
For India. With the collapse of USSR, India's security
umbrella was gone. The US President was also becoming a
critique of India's approach towards regimes like
non-proliferation. The issue of Kashmir and violation of
human rights became concerns of the USA's South Asia
policy. ❖ After the end of Cold War, the focus of USA's South
Asia policy was on the goal of non-proliferation. India was
pressurised to sign the NPT. At the same time, the security
environment was also not favourable. Hence it became
necessary for India to urgently review its nuclear policy
options. By this time, India had a sufficient stockpile of
Fissile material to manufacture Nuclear weapons. India had
also developed technology related to the delivery system. ❖
Academic thinking within the country became favourable
for India to execute its right to have credible deterrence. It
was a tough decision to go for Operation Shakti. Up till now
India was talking about disarmament. Indian
establishment had to do cost benefit analysis with pay-offs
of the policies followed uptill now:- 4 ➢ tension with great
powers, ➢ increased burden of technology sanctions, ➢
instability in relations with neighbours. ➢ While deciding to
go for operation Shakti India took following decisions
analysis:- ✓ India is already paying a higher price, ✓ if we
take up the chance we may have to bear additional cost.
However, it will bring benefits in the longer run. Hence,
India took a chance, ✓ India understood that economic
sanctions would not continue for long because by that time
India had already opened its markets and Western
countries were looking at India as lucrative economic
destination. ✓ Above calculations resulted into India's
decision to go for Operation Shakti (Pokhran II).
Immediate impacts ❖ India was condemned worldwide, ❖
India was blamed for initiating arms race in South Asia, ❖
Pokhran II brought USA and China together, ❖ It brought
support and sympathy for Pakistan, ❖ India was projected
as a deviant and Pakistan as a helpless nation. ❖ Economic
and technological sanctions were imposed against India
and Pakistan both. Long term chaos ❖ According to C.
Rajamohan, long term chaos went in favour of India so
long as India was ready to bear burden, the international
community was forcing on India. After India exercised its
options international community accepted the new status of
India. They understood the futility of their traditional
approach. ❖ Diplomatic engagement with both USA and
China showed greater improvement (qualitative
improvement). ❖ Countries like Japan also adjusted to the
changed status of India. Japan unilaterally ended economic
sanctions. 5 ❖ India was in a position to establish regional
balance in South Asia. India developed a new sense of
confidence in dealing with China. ❖ India came to be
regarded as an indispensable element in Asian and global
security dynamics. ❖ India's Nuclear option had convinced
Indian foreign policy makers that world understands the
argument of power and not power of argument. India's
approach towards nuclear weapons since Pokhran II ❖
Once immediate objective was fulfilled, Indian diplomacy
had to face wider challenges. It had to establish that
India's decision was guided by India's need for security
and India does not want to start a new arms race. The first
task which was taken up after Pokhran II was articulation
of India's nuclear doctrine, the purpose was to remove
ambiguities and to give a clear cut message to the world
about the new approaches. ❖ Following approaches of
India emerged out of it :- ➢ India is not ready to accept
any type of coercive diplomacy, ➢ India perceives itself as
a responsible nuclear state, ➢ India will maintain only
minimum credible deterrence and India is not going for
Nuclear weapon race, ➢ India undertook self-imposed
moratorium on further testing, ➢ India's nuclear draft
doctrine played an important role in managing India's
relations with the outside world. India was able to convince
the world about its intentions, ➢ After this doctrine, India
took some other options which created favourable climate
towards India. ➢ India has shown that it is ready to talk on
NPT and CTBT but in a negotiated format. India has shown
that it is not against signing the Fissile Material cut off
Treaty. However, India wants that world should
acknowledge the changed position of India. World should
acknowledge its approach towards nuclear weapons. ❖ C.
Rajamohan has summerizad India's changing approach
towards nuclear weapons as following: 6 ➢ from idealism to
pragmatism, ➢ from disarmament to arms control, ➢ from
the collective security paradigm India accepted the BOP
paradigm. ❖ It is necessary to mention that officially
Indian Government has never left the goal of disarmament.
However, according to Arundhati Ghosh, disarmament
today is a discounted concept in India. ❖ India has also
taken various actions, which shows that India is a
responsible Nuclear Weapon state, India is adhering to the
norms of non-proliferation. Even without signing the NPT
India's record is far better than those who are a party to
NPT. ❖ India has strengthened its national laws. India took
steps to improve relationships with its neighbours. India
has endorsed the national missile defence initiatives of the
USA. This initiative is aimed against rogue nations like
North Korea. India also supported UN sanctions on North
Korea in 2017 for denuclearization of the Korean peninsula.
❖ Thus, through its diplomacy India was able to convince
the world the rationality of India going for nuclear
weapons. Recent views of India on NPT ❖ Recently, it is
suggested that India as well as NPT managers should
change their approach towards each other. On the part of
NPT managers, it is important that they should
acknowledge India's status as a nuclear weapon state. On
the other hand, India should also reform its stand towards
nuclear non-proliferation to save itself from the criticism of
being a hypocrite. ❖ It is said that India projects NPT as a
type of neo-colonialism. However, it is not the reality and by
treating NPT as a type of neo-colonialism, India questions
the intelligence of a large number of 3rd world countries
who have joined the treaty willingly. ❖ India's criticism of
NPT is that it is discriminatory, it is also uniquely Indian.
India should project that there are no fundamental
contradictions with the objectives of NPT and India is
complying with all the norms of NPT. India should have
serious engagement with the NPT regime. 7 INDIA-FRANCE
Introduction ❖ Relations between India and France have
traditionally been close and friendly. With the establishment
of strategic partnership in 1998, there has been a significant
progress in all areas of bilateral cooperation through
regular high-level exchanges at the Head of State/Head of
Government levels and growing cooperation and exchanges
including in strategic areas such as defence,
counter-terrorism, nuclear energy and space. ❖ France was
the first country with which India entered into an
agreement on civil nuclear cooperation following the waiver
given by the Nuclear Suppliers’ Group, enabling India to
resume full civil nuclear cooperation with the international
community. ❖ There is also a growing and wide-ranging
cooperation in other areas such as trade and investment,
culture, science & technology and education. ❖ France has
consistently supported India’s increasing role in
international fora, including India’s permanent membership
of the UNSC. ❖ Both countries have a 'special relationship'
with each other so much so that by August 2019, France has
been called "India's new best friend" by a researcher of the
Hudson Institute. Dimensions of the India-France
Relationship ❖ Dialogue:- France and India have instituted
a Strategic Dialogue at the level of National Security
Advisors. NSA held talks with the Diplomatic Advisor to the
French President. Various examples of the platforms where
India and France come together are as follows- ➢ Joint
Working Group on Counter-terrorism. Strengthening
cooperation between France's GIGN and India's National
Security Guard. ➢ India-France Cyber Dialogue. ➢ Track
1.5 India-France Annual Dialogues between the Observer
Research Foundation, India and the Centre for
International Studies and Research, France. ➢ The High
Level Committee for Defence Cooperation (HCDC) at the
level of Defence Secretaries. 8 ➢ Joint Committee for
Economic and Technical Cooperation, at the level of
Ministers of Commerce. ➢ The Indo-French CEOs Forum. ❖
Trade and Investment:- Bilateral trade between the two
countries reached a new peak at USD 13.4 billion in 2022-23,
with exports from India crossing USD 7 billion. ❖ France is
the 9th largest foreign investor in India. Top sectors
attracting FDI inflows from France are Chemicals, Cement
and Gypsum Products, Services Sector, Fuel, Electrical
Equipment and automobile sector. ❖ Civil Nuclear Energy
Cooperation:- France was the first country with which India
entered into an agreement on nuclear energy following the
waiver given by the International Atomic Energy Agency
and the Nuclear Suppliers’ Group, enabling India to resume
full civil nuclear cooperation with the international
community. ➢ A landmark Agreement on Civil Nuclear
Cooperation was signed between India and France on 30
September, 2008 during the visit of Prime Minister Dr.
Manmohan Singh to France. ❖ Space Cooperation:- France
and India view each other as important partners in space
technology and applications. Indian Space Research
Organisation (ISRO) and its French counterpart CNES have
a rich history of cooperation and collaboration spanning
about four decades. Scientific community of the two nations
cooperates in joint radiation experiment, space components
development and space education. ❖ ISRO and CNES have
an umbrella agreement, operating successfully since 1993,
under which joint missions like Megha Tropiques and SARAL
have been taken up. ❖ Arianespace based at France has
been the major provider of launch services to Indian
Geo-Stationary satellites. ❖ Defence Cooperation:-
Indo-French Air Exercise GARUDA. ➢ Indo-French Joint
Naval Exercise VARUNA. ➢ Indo-French Joint Army Exercise
SHAKTI. ❖ Cultural Exchanges:- Indian culture enjoys a
wide and discerning audience among the French
population, as is evident in the numerous cultural events
organised all over France, spanning the entire gamut of
Indian art, music, dance, cinema and literature. 9 ➢ In
keeping with the importance both the countries accord to
cinema and the willingness to enhance cooperation in the
field, a revised Indo-French Bilateral Film Co-Production
Agreement was signed during the visit of French President
to India in 2010. ➢ The 15-month-long Indian cultural
festival- "Namaste France" was held from April 2010 to
June 2011. It was successful in terms of putting India on
the cultural radar of France. ‘Namaste France’ was a
comprehensive presentation of Indian culture including art,
music, dance, fashion, tourism, films, and literature as also
business and education in both its traditional and
contemporary forms. ➢ The Namaste France Festival was
organised in response to ‘Bonjour India’ a similar French
cultural festival, organised by the French Embassy in India.
❖ Diaspora:- According to statistics published by the Indian
Embassy in Paris, the Indian community including NRIs in
France is estimated to be around 106,000, largely
originating from Puducherry, Karaikal, Yanam, Mahe and
Chandranagar. Indians living in France have access to
French social security protection and services through an
agreement concluded in 2008. ❖ Recent Happenings in the
Bilateral Ties: ➢ In July 2023 a joint statement titled "25th
Anniversary of the Strategic Partnership between France
and India: towards a Century of Indo-French Relations"
sets the course for bilateral relations until 2047, marking
significant milestones for both the nations. ➢ The roadmap
for the relationship is built upon three pillars: partnership
for security and sovereignty, partnership for the planet, and
partnership for the people. ➢ There is an Announcement of
an agreement between Atos and the Ministry of Earth
Sciences of India for the supply of supercomputers. ➢
Indian Prime Minister was honoured with the Grand Cross
of the Legion of Honour, France's highest civilian and
military honour, during his visit. ➢ Both countries are
concerned about climate change, where India has
supported France in the Paris Agreement expressing its
strong commitment to mitigating the effects of climate
change. 10 ❖ Both countries, as part of their joint efforts on
climate change, launched the International Solar Alliance in
2015 Background ❖ France always wanted to engage itself
with India. Successive governments in France from the
mid-90s onwards, took active steps to engage themselves
with India. But India hardly appreciated France's overtures
towards India because India did not believe that India's
International position can be transformed with the help of
France. ❖ In recent times, we have witnessed strategic
depth in bilateral relation especially after 2014 because of
the following reasons:- ➢ USA's transactional approach in
dealing with countries like India. ➢ Russia is moving closer
to China because Rusia feels that only China can save the
Russian economy from western sanctions, (Russian alliance
upon China will be more evident post Russian Ukraine war)
that is why Russia can not be completely trusted on vital
issues like Kashmir at UNSC. ➢ France also wanted to move
beyond USA & diversify France foreign options. ➢ France
also wants to play a larger role at global level to cooperate
with like-minded countries. ➢ Recently Australia cancelled a
submarine project worth $6.5bn, which was earlier given to
a French company & after cancellation it was given to an
American company. This incident infuriated France &
promoted France to look for other strategic options with
like-minded countries having similar vision on global
issues. ➢ France intends to play a bigger role for India's
defence modernization. Need for strategic partnership
between India and France:- ❖ During cold war period India
used to rely upon Soviet Union to protect India at UNSC &
Soviet Union was also active as security umbrella for India,
❖ It fulfils India's security needs. It was because of the
Soviet Union that a stable regional balance could be
achieved. ❖ However position of Russia's global calculus
changed because of following reasons:- ❖ USA’s sanctions
on Russia -Severity of the sanction has increased
considerably post Ukraine's invasion by Russia. 11 ❖ Russia
wants to play a bigger role in Asia along with China. ❖
There is deeper economic and political relation between
Russia and China that has further disturbed India. ❖
Because of above reasons India feels that in future Russia
may not be able to give unconditional support to India at
UNSC that is why India started looking for other strategic
options in which France prominently figures out due to
following reasons:- ➢ Intention of France to play a larger
role in the Indo-Pacific. ➢ The USA's transactional
approach has also disturbed France. ➢ Common values
between India & France:- ✓ Democratic values. ✓ A belief
in strategic autonomy. ✓ Multipolarity and multilateralism -
Have been the basis of partnership between India & France.
❖ Common threats like terrorism & emerging threats in
areas of cyber security, space etc. also referred to a need
for closer partnership between India & France at global
level. ❖ France called India as a major pillar of its Indo-
Pacific structures, whereas India has called France as one
of India's premier global & Indo pacific partner. Defence
Cooperation:- 1. Defence cooperation has been one of the
most important areas of strategic partnership between the
two countries; there is symbiotic relationship between India
and France in areas of defence. 2. France started that to
fully support India's vision of "Atma Nirbhar Bharat”
defence Industrialization, joint research & development in
India is needed. 3. France will help India in developing its
defence ecosystem and defence industrialisation. 4. France
is willing to become a technology partner with India for the
development of modern technology in various areas of
defence. 12 Other areas of Cooperation:- ❖ Exchange of
advanced technologies. ❖ Cooperation in the nuclear sector.
❖ Artificial Intelligence. ❖ Digital technology. ❖ Cyber
Security etc. Today France has started playing the same
role for India, which Soviet Union used to play during the
cold war period that is why relation between the two
countries is further going to improve. These partnerships
with like-minded countries like France, Germany, and
Japan are tremendous value for India.

India-U.K. Relations || BIMSTEC || SCO || I2U2 India-U.K.

Relations Introduction ❖ Indo–British relations are the
international relations between the Republic of India and
the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
❖ India has a high commission in London and two
consulate general in Birmingham and Edinburgh. ❖ Both
countries are full members of the Commonwealth of
Nations. ❖ The United Kingdom has an Indian population
of over 1.5 million. Former Prime Minister of the United
Kingdom David Cameron described Indian–British relations
as the "New Special Relationship" in 2010. ❖ On 25 October
2022, Rishi Sunak was appointed Prime Minister of the
United Kingdom, becoming the first British Asian and the
first of Indian descent to hold that position. A Brief History
of the Relations (Since 1950) ❖ India decided to remain in
the Commonwealth of Nations after becoming a Republic.
Both Britain and India have since pursued quite divergent
diplomatic paths. ❖ In particular, India became a major
force within the NonAligned Movement, which initially
sought to avoid taking sides during the Cold War. This
contrasted with Britain's position as a founding member of
NATO, and key ally of the United States. ❖ At any rate,
between 1947 and 1997, the UK had been hostile to India
virtually on all issues involving India. India's independent
‘non-aligned’ foreign policy and its close ties with the USSR
during the Cold War had irked Britain. ❖ Britain opposed
the Indian take-over of Goa from the Portuguese and
Sikkim from the Maharajah. It opposed India's nuclear
tests. It kept needling India on the dispute with Pakistan
over Kashmir. 3 ❖ On its part, India opposed the invasion
of Egypt during the Suez Crisis and demanded that the
Indian Ocean be declared a Zone of Peace. ❖ But there was
a sea change in the 1990s. Britain's relationship with India
is “primarily driven by economic considerations rather than
political/normative considerations.” ❖ The disappearance
of the USSR in the 1990s and the economic reforms carried
out in India between 1991 and 1996, had cleared the way
for better UK-India ties. India's domestic market and its
finances to invest abroad had grown exponentially. ❖
British Prime Ministers began to make a beeline to India
beginning with John Major's visit to Delhi in 1997. In 2006,
UK's Business and Enterprise Committee aimed at
establishing a relationship with India “as special as the one
with the US.” John Major predicted that “within 25 years
India will have firmly established herself as one of the
world's economic powers”. ❖ Through an FTA, the UK aims
to double UK-India trade by 2030. Britain and India have
already announced a scheme for young professionals, which
will give 3,000 Indians and 3,000 Britons a pathway to live
and work in each other's countries for up to two years.
Economic Dimension of the Relations ❖ India is the 2nd
largest foreign investor in the U.K. ❖ There are many
bilateral trade agreements between the two nations
designed to strengthen ties. For example, in 2005, the Joint
Economic and Trade Committee (JETCO) were inaugurated
in New Delhi aimed at boosting two-way bilateral
investments. ❖ The growth of India's multinational
companies contributed greatly to UK's business and
economy. As of 2019, Indian companies in the UK generated
over 48 billion pounds. Also, they have employed more than
105,000 people in the UK. This kind of phenomenon, where
non-Western countries impact the West, has been
commented on by sociologist Anthony Giddens as "reverse
colonialism". 4 ❖ At a dinner on 15 August 2017, held to
mark 70 years of India's independence, UK Foreign
Secretary Boris Johnson said: "We in the UK are the
beneficiaries of reverse colonialism." ❖ In September 2017
the High Commission of India in the UK, with the support of
the UK India Business Council, announced the Access India
programme, a unique scheme set up to help many more UK
SMEs’ export to India. Whilst many large UK companies
have a presence in India, small and medium-sized British
companies do not. India hopes that the Access to India
programme will not only encourage British SMEs to export
to India but also inspire them to manufacture in India
fulfilling the aims of the Make in India initiative. Political
Dimension of the Relations ❖ After India became a
Republic, Queen Elizabeth II visited three times, in 1961,
1983 and 1997. ❖ Three Presidents of India have paid state
visits to the United Kingdom: Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan in
June 1963 Ramaswamy Venkataraman in October 1990 and
Pratibha Patil in 2009. ❖ Prime Minister Narendra Modi
visited the UK from 12 to 16 November 2015. During the
visit, Modi became the first Indian Prime Minister to
address the British Parliament. ❖ The UK government
commits to support India's permanent membership of
United Nations Security Council. Education and Cultural
Exchange ❖ Various Indian students have gone to the UK to
attain higher levels of education. From 2004 to 2009, the
number of Indian students studying in the UK doubled from
10,000 to over 20,000. ❖ During the 2010 UK-India
Summit, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and
India came into agreement to support education by
implementing the United KingdomIndia Education and
Research Initiative (UKIERI). 5 ❖ Queen Elizabeth II
hosted the official launch of the UK- India Year of Culture in
February 2017 at Buckingham Palace with Indian Finance
Minister Arun Jaitley representing Prime Minister Narendra
Modi. Defence Cooperation ❖ India and the UK have active
defence cooperation with dialogue at Defence Secretary and
three services level. ❖ At the services level, joint exercises
and wide ranging exchanges between the three services are
conducted on the basis of mutually agreed agenda. Both
sides have emphasised the need to look at joint production
and joint research rather than just sales and the need to
move beyond a buyer-seller relationship. Science,
Technology and Research ❖ India-UK signed the Science
and Technology Agreement in 1996. The Science and
Innovation Council was set up in 2006. Both sides are
jointly working in the areas of nanotechnology,
biotechnology, telecom, solar energy use and weather
forecasting. Nuclear Cooperation ❖ Both nations have
signed a Civil Nuclear Cooperation Declaration in 2010
which will help promotion and facilitation of cooperation in
the nuclear field including nuclear trade. ❖ In 2015, the UK
and Indian Prime Ministers signed a Nuclear Collaboration
Agreement between the two countries as part of a
comprehensive package of collaboration on energy and
climate change. Cooperation in the Health Sector ❖ The
Joint Working Group on Health and Life Sciences regularly
meets to prioritise and coordinate bilateral cooperation in
the health sector. ❖ The successful partnership between
Oxford University, AstraZeneca and Serum Institute of
India on Covid19 vaccine demonstrated the potential of
Indian and UK expertise working together to solve
international challenges. 6 ❖ Both the countries are also
working on pandemic preparedness, Antimicrobial
Resistance (AMR), Zoonotic research, non-communicable
diseases, digital health, Ayurveda and alternate medicines,
as well as health worker mobility. BIMSTEC ❖ It is the
group of countries from South Asia and South-east Asia. In
1997, a subregional grouping was formed in Bangkok and
given the name BIST-Economic Cooperation. ❖ BIMSTEC is
headquartered at Dhaka. Members of BIMSTEC are
Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Bhutan
and Nepal. BIMSTEC was formed with a view to enhance
technological and economic cooperation amongst South
Asian and South East Asian countries. ❖ Initial members
India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and Thailand. ❖ 5th Summit
-2022- in Sri Lanka. Significance 1. It acts as a bridge
between the nations of South Asia, South East Asia and thus
can act as a link for integration of two regions. 2. SAARC
could not succeed on account of differences between India
and Pakistan. Bilateral differences between India and
Pakistan are not going to affect cooperation among
BIMSTEC countries. 3. BIMSTEC gives the opportunity to
South Asian nations to integrate with countries of
South-East Asia. 4. If BIMSTEC becomes a success then it
will also bring development in North Eastern states of India
leading to its integration with the rest of the country.
Objective of BIMSTEC 1. Promoting Economic Cooperation:
BIMSTEC aims to enhance economic cooperation among its
member states by fostering trade, investment, and other
economic activities. This includes the promotion of a free
trade area within the region. 7 2. Facilitating Connectivity:
BIMSTEC focuses on improving physical and economic
connectivity within the region. This involves enhancing
infrastructure, transportation, and communication links to
facilitate the movement of goods, services, and people. 3.
Enhancing Trade and Investment: The organization seeks to
create a conducive environment for trade and investment
by addressing barriers and challenges. BIMSTEC aims to
boost economic growth and development in the member
states through increased business collaboration. 4.
Addressing Common Challenges: BIMSTEC addresses
common challenges faced by its member states, including
poverty, climate change, natural disasters, terrorism, and
transnational crime. The organisation encourages
cooperation in dealing with these issues for the collective
benefit of the region. 5. Cultural and People-to-People
Exchanges: BIMSTEC promotes cultural ties and
peopleto-people exchanges among its member countries to
foster understanding and goodwill. This includes initiatives
in areas such as education, tourism, and cultural exchanges.
6. Cooperation in Various Sectors: BIMSTEC collaborates in
various sectors such as agriculture, energy, technology,
fisheries, public health, and others. The organisation
facilitates dialogue and cooperation to harness the
potential of these sectors for mutual benefit. 7. Regional
Integration: BIMSTEC works towards greater regional
integration by encouraging closer economic and political
ties among its member states. This involves harmonising
policies and frameworks to create a more integrated and
cohesive regional community. Priority areas of BIMSTEC
There are following priority areas of BIMSTEC:- 1) Trade
and investment 2) Transport and Communication 3) Energy
4) Tourism 8 5) Technology 6) Fisheries ➢ In the last few
years India realized that the SAARC process is not giving
any optimistic climate due to differences between India and
Pakistan. Even after more than 30 years of SAARC process,
it has not achieved anything substantial. That is why India
decided to go for alternatives. ➢ BIMSTEC is the grouping
of more than 1.5 billion people with a combined GDP of $
3.5 trillion. This entire area has untapped economic
potential. That is why signing of FTA has become important.
➢ There is also a flip side of the BIMSTEC process - even
after 20 years of BIMSTEC process it has not been able to
achieve anything substantial. BIMSTEC could be a
springboard of India's Act East policy. It will help in taking
care of Special developmental needs of India's North
Eastern states if connectivity issues can be addressed
properly. Limitations 1. Even after more than 20 years of
BIMSTEC formation, it has not given any optimism and
summits are almost like Talk shops with no concrete
achievements. 2. For want of physical linkages and
connectivity issues, the BIMSTEC process has not been very
successful. 3. Countries like Myanmar and Thailand are not
taking much interest in BIMSTEC because they are
members of a much successful organisation- ASEAN.
Suggestion for BIMSTEC 1. Improving Connectivity:
Implement a comprehensive plan to enhance physical and
digital connectivity, focusing on transport infrastructure,
cross-border trade facilitation, and technological
integration. Prioritise projects that bridge connectivity gaps
and promote smoother movement of goods, services, and
people. 2. Concrete Steps for South Asia and Southeast Asia:
Develop targeted strategies for economic collaboration
between South Asian and Southeast Asian nations within the
9 BIMSTEC framework. Establish joint ventures and
initiatives that capitalize on the unique strengths and
resources of both regions. 3. Promotion of Trade and
Commerce: Facilitate trade by identifying and addressing
trade barriers, harmonizing standards and regulations, and
streamlining customs procedures. Implement measures to
encourage private sector engagement and investment
across member states. 4. Institutionalization of BIMSTEC:
Strengthen BIMSTEC's institutional framework by
establishing permanent secretariat offices and specialized
working groups. Define clear roles and responsibilities for
member states, enhancing the organization's efficiency and
effectiveness. 5. People-to-People Connect: Foster
people-to-people exchanges through educational programs,
cultural events, and tourism initiatives. Implement visa
facilitation measures to encourage easier travel among
member states, promoting a sense of shared identity and
understanding. 6. Promotion of Religious Tourism for
Cultural Connect: Leverage the rich cultural and religious
diversity within BIMSTEC countries to promote religious
tourism. Develop and market religious pilgrimage routes,
facilitating cultural exchanges and enhancing mutual
understanding among diverse communities. 7. Leveraging
Buddhist Linkages: Utilize the shared Buddhist heritage
among member states to strengthen cultural ties and
promote understanding. Establish collaborative initiatives
in areas such as education, research, and tourism that
highlight the historical and cultural connections rooted in
Buddhism. Scholars or thinkers on BIMSTEC ❖ C. Raja
Mohan, strategic affairs analyst: "BIMSTEC offers a unique
opportunity for India to deepen its engagement with
Southeast Asia, beyond just ASEAN, and shape a more
cooperative regional order in the Bay of Bengal." 10 ❖ Satu
Limaye, author and scholar: "BIMSTEC's’ strength lies in its
cultural and historical links, which can provide a solid
foundation for building trust and cooperation among
member states." ❖ Harsh V. Pant, strategic affairs analyst:
"BIMSTEC needs to overcome bureaucratic hurdles and
political differences among member states to translate its
plans into action. Implementation is the key to its success."
❖ Deepa Sharma, economist and commentator: "Smaller
BIMSTEC members like Nepal and Bhutan need to be given
a greater voice and stake in the decision-making processes
to ensure inclusivity and address concerns about
dominance." ❖ Brahma Chellaney, geostrategist and
author: "India has a natural leadership role to play in
BIMSTEC due to its size and economic strength. However, it
must use this role responsibly and avoid creating anxieties
among smaller members.” Shanghai Cooperation
Organisation (SCO) ❖ It is a Eurasian political, economic,
international security and defence organization.It came in
existence in 2001. The SCO currently comprises nine
Member States: China, India, Russia, Pakistan, Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. ❖ In 2017, India
and Pakistan became full members. Iran is the new member
of the SCO, which was recently added to the permanent
member countries in 2022. Opportunities for India: ❖ It will
give India a platform to discuss regional and global issues.
Membership in the SCO will give India an opportunity in
Central Asia and Afghanistan. SCO members are
instrumental in the construction of RATS (The Regional
Anti-Terrorist Structure ) for the extradition of criminals,
terrorists, anti-drug trafficking operations,
counterterrorism, and intelligence sharing. ❖ Pending
energy projects can be completed, like the TAPI pipeline
and the CASA-1000 transmission line. Challenges for India:
11 ❖ It is China’s organisation. India has a very limited
role to play. ❖ China can raise the Tibetan issue, and
Pakistan may regionalise the Kashmir issue. ❖ China will
also insist on membership in SAARC. ❖ India cannot raise
terrorism issues. ❖ So India has limited opportunities and
many challenges. Additional Information: The CASA-1000 ❖
The Central Asia-South Asia Electricity Transmission and
Trade Project (CASA-1000) is designed to facilitate
electricity trade between the countries participating. ❖ The
CASA-1000 Project demonstrates landmark cooperation
among Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Pakistan, and Afghanistan.
The TAPI Gas Pipeline ❖
Turkmenistan–Afghanistan–Pakistan–India (TAPI) Gas
Pipeline, also known as the Trans-Afghanistan Pipeline, is a
natural gas pipeline being developed by the Galkynysh –
TAPI Pipeline Company Limited with the participation of
the Asian Development Bank. Scholars or thinkers views on
SCO ❖ "SCO membership gives India access to a vast
Eurasian market and opens up new avenues for trade and
investment, particularly in areas like energy and
infrastructure." - C. Raja Mohan ❖ "SCO needs to evolve
from a security-centric organisation to a more inclusive
platform that addresses economic and development issues."
- Amitabh Matto, Indian diplomat and foreign policy expert.
❖ Dr. Satu Limaye: "India's SCO membership opens a
strategic window to Central Asia, a region brimming with
natural resources and untapped economic opportunities." 12
❖ Prof. Jayant Dasgupta: "SCO needs to move beyond its
security-centric focus and embrace broader economic and
development agendas to foster a more inclusive and
effective organisation." India-Israel and USA-UAE (I2U2) I2
stands for India and Israel, and U2 stands for USA and UAE.
This grouping was conceptualised in October 2021 during a
meeting of foreign ministers of these four countries. It was
agreed upon by these four countries to increase mutual
cooperation and economic partnership with member
countries. Member countries agreed to joint investment in
the following areas: 1. Water 2. Food security 3. Space 4.
Health 5. Transportation 6. Energy, etc. ➢ I2U2 will
significantly help India transform its image at the global
level. I2U2 will help establish India as a great power in the
region. It will also give a lot of credibility to India’s image
as a security provider in the region. ➢ India’s footprint will
go beyond its immediate neighbourhood. I2U2 gives
countries like India and Israel a great opportunity to
deepen their integration with the region. These four
countries can work in a collaborative manner in high
technology areas, which includes artificial intelligence,
energy, climate change, etc. ➢ India is regarded as an
important partner by the other three countries in the group,
thus further boosting India’s image. The USA and UAE want
to have deeper engagement with India in areas such as
information technology, the pharma industry, etc. 13 ➢
I2U2 grouping has the potential to greatly benefit India
economically. In recent years, India’s position has greatly
strengthened because of the efforts taken by the Indian
government. ➢ According to Shashi Tharoor, India's
outreach program to West Asia has strengthened India’s
ties with West Asia like never before. I2U2 grouping will
further cement India’s position in the region. Regional
Integration in South Asia ❖ There are different types of
regional initiative. In international politics, the region
denotes limited number of States linked by geographical
relationship and by degree of mutual interdependence. The
idea of regionalism has primarily come out of school of
liberalism. ❖ The important theories of regionalism are -
functionalism, Neo-functionalism, etc. The process of
globalisation has further given impetus to the process of
regionalization or integration, Uptill now the most
successful case of regional integration is European Union.
SAARC is an example of Weak regional integration model in
comparison to EU and ASEAN. Today the EU has reached to
the status of security community. ASEAN is also moving
towards emerging as security community. ❖ South Asia as a
region is nowhere near the concept of a Security
Community. Nations feel that Security threats are coming
from each other’s rather than outside. There is a visible
lack of trust in South Asia. It appears as if the region is still
guided by the traditional realist paradigm of international
politics, still nations follow self-help and survival concepts.
❖ The type of interdependence which has become the
feature in different regions like Europe, South East Asia is
missing in case of South Asia. The Structural changes in
International politics which has occurred due to the end of
Cold War and because of the emergence of globalisation
and liberalisation. ❖ There was a push for an integration
process because countries needed to go for liberalisation of
trade. Security threats, issues like food security and Climate
change did provide some basis for increased
interdependence among South Asian States also. 14
However the process of integration in South Asia lacks real
substance. This is seen in the inability of South Asian States
to reach certain agreements or failure to implement agreed
framework. ❖ It is said that the integration process is
driven by external factors rather than internal factors. It is
paradoxical to a region like South Asia which is a
geopolitical entity which shares common history which
shows common history and culture which has common
concerns to remain politically divided.
SAARC || SAFTA|| Constitutionalism to Mass Satyagraha
Introduction of SAARC ❖ SAARC is a major regional
initiative of South Asian states to evolve cooperation
through multilateral means. It is an economic and political
organization of 8 countries in South Asia. In terms of
population, its sphere of influence is largest in comparison
to other regional organisation of the world. ❖ In terms of
the necessity of regional integration, it is imperative that
these states should enter into meaningful cooperation with
each other. The entire region witnesses widespread poverty,
conflict, etc. Hence in place of self-reliance countries should
go for alternative development strategy of regional
cooperation. History of SAARC ❖ SAARC was the idea of
President of Bangladesh, Zia -Ur-Rahman. The idea of
SAARC came into existence with the declaration of South
Asian Regional Cooperation adopted by foreign ministers in
Delhi in 1983 and was formally adopted by heads of states
on 8th December, 1985. Objectives of SAARC 1. Welfare of
the people of South Asia. 2. Improving their quality of life.
3. Accelerated economic growth 4. Social progress and
cultural development 5. Give opportunity to live with
dignity 6. Promote collective self-reliance among countries
in South Asia 7. Promote mutual trust, understanding and
appreciation of each other’s problems 8. Strengthen
cooperation among themselves in international forums 9.
Cooperation with other developing countries 10.
Cooperation with other regional organisations 3 Principles
of SAARC There are 3 guiding principles: - 1.
Non-interference in each other's internal affairs. 2. Bilateral
and contentious issues to be kept out of SAARC platforms. 3.
Regionalism will not be a substitute for bilateral or
multilateral obligations. Agenda of SAARC Agenda of SAARC
has evolved over the years. The official agenda of SAARC is
known as Integrated Programme of Action. It covers
following areas (i) agriculture, (ii) rural development, (iii)
telecommunication, (iv) health, (v) transport, (vi) coastal
services, (vii) meterology, (vii) science and technology, (ix)
sports, arts and culture ❖ Nations could not take up the
core agenda of cooperation i.e., economic cooperation
during Cold War period. After the end of Cold War and as a
result of globalisation economic agenda gained
significance. The introduction of economic reforms created
conditions for adoption of economic agenda. ❖ Similarly,
the agenda of SAARC came to include cooperation to
combat terrorism, cooperation in energy security,
reciprocal transit facilities and issues related to climate
Change and growth of international criminal nexus. The
extension of SAARC membership and evolution of South
Asian personality also became an agenda of SAARC. ❖
Although SAARC has evolved a comprehensive new agenda
yet progress on these fronts is extremely slow. The progress
of regionalism in South Asia is still captive of narrow
domestic concerns. 4 Agenda of economic cooperation ❖
The South Asian economy in general is competitive. Trade
structure is tilted towards primary goods. There is little
infrastructure regional trade. Countries of South Asia target
foreign markets. Hence the process of SAPTA and SAFTA
were initiated to promote intra-regional trade. SAARC also
aims to emerge as common market in future. SAPTA (SAARC
Preferential trading Arrangement) ❖ It was signed on 11th
April, 1993 and it came into force on 7th December 1995.
The objective was to promote and sustain mutual trade and
economic cooperation within the SAARC region through
exchange of concessions. The basic principles of SAPTA are:
- 1. Overall reciprocity, 2. mutuality of advantages, 3. tariff
reforms, 4. recognition of special needs of least developed
countries ❖ The framework for creation of a free trade area
covering more than 1.5 billion people came into existence
during Islamabad Summit in 2009. It was decided that
there will be zero customs duty by the end of year 2016 in
practically all products in the region. SAFTA was to become
operational with ratification of all governments of the
South Asian region but Pakistan took unnecessarily long
time to ratify SAFTA. SAFTA requires relatively developed
countries in South Asia to bring down their duty to 20% first
and then 0% (this is yet to be achieved). Problems in SAFTA
(South Asian Free Trade Area) 1. Countries are not very
enthusiastic about SAFTA. 2. Bangladesh has not made any
formal commitment towards SAFTA. 3. Pakistan did not give
India Most Favoured Nation Status initially and after
Pulwama Attack, 2019 India withdrew MFN status given to
Pakistan. 4. Sri Lanka is not interested in SAFTA because it
already has 3 trade area agreements with India. 5 Other
challenges to SAFTA ❖ South Asian borders are porous
which results into Smuggling and illegal trade and it also
results into substantial loss to the government. ❖
Government's revenue can increase only when there is
meaningful cooperation. ❖ There is a national security
consideration clause, it allows countries to withdraw
concession in the interest of national security. ❖ There is a
lot of scope of political interpretation of this clause.
Although it mentions that it will not be used in arbitrary
manners however it is very difficult to establish the concept
of arbitrary manner. Nations define national interest and
national security concerns in various ways. Simplification
and harmonisation of customs clearance procedure is
required. Removal of barriers with respect to intra-SAARC
investment is needed. Conclusion ❖ Successful
implementation of SAFTA is essential to fulfill the core
objectives of SAARC i.e., ensuring the well-being of people of
South Asia. Nations should dilute their nationalistic agenda
while pursuing regional goals. South Asia can benefit
enormously if it can work out important issues like transit
facilities and ending discriminatory policies. Development
of South Asian personality ❖ This is the ultimate
destination of SAARC. It is like the emergence of South
Asian Customs Union and South Asian Economic Union and
finally South Asian Union on the lines of European Union
with common currency but such objectives seem quite
unrealistic considering the complexities in the South Asian
region. In South Asia the concept of supranationalism is too
weak. In South Asia domestic politics shapes regional
policy whereas in EU regional policy shapes domestic
policies. Indian Nationalism Political Strategies of India’s
Freedom Struggle General Introduction Indian National
Movement was the result of the following factors:- ❖ Effects
of the 1st War of Indian Independence:- For the first time
rulers, soldiers and leaders from different parts of India
came in close contact with each other. 6 ❖ Impact of the
Socio-Religious Movements:- The SRRM of the 19th century
such as Arya Samaj, Brahmo Samaj, Ramkrishna Mission,
Theosophical Society, etc played an important role in
creating a new awakening amongst the Indian people. ❖
Effects of the British Rule:- The network of railways and
telegraphs fostered a feeling of unity among the people
hailing from different parts of India. It proved to be a
blessing in disguise. ❖ Economic Exploitation:- made India
mere exporter of raw materials. India achieved
independence on August 15, 1947, as a culmination of the
Indian National Movement spearheaded by the Indian
National Congress. Alongside the INC, various other
organizations played pivotal roles in contributing to this
significant historical movement. Constitutionalism ❖
Constitutionalism is rooted in liberal philosophy. It relies on
the belief in human rationality, advocating for the
achievement of political goals through reasoned dialogue,
eliminating the necessity for violent means. ❖ This
approach is characterized by the use of institutional
methods such as establishing institutions like legislature,
local government, judiciary, etc. ❖ Moderate phase of the
Indian Freedom Struggle (1885-1905) was characterized by
the use of constitutional methods for the achievement of
political aims. ❖ The British rule in India wasn't solely
enforced through coercion; they aimed to establish
hegemony by undertaking benevolent actions for the
Indian population. For example, Seeking legitimacy, the
British included Indians in assemblies and civil services.
NOTE:- Constitutionalism as an idea was originated in
Britain. Constitutional Methods adopted by Early
Nationalists ❖ Constitutional methods differ from direct
actions like passive resistance, satyagraha,
non-cooperation, dharana, haratal, boycott, civil
disobedience, rebellions, mutiny, terrorism, criminal
actions, aiding foreign invasions, etc. ❖ Early nationalists
employed constitutional methods like bringing resolutions
in the assembly, sending memorials, prayers, petitions,
appeals to justice and protests. Their methods are also
known as 3P ,i.e., Prayers, Petition and Protest. 7 ❖ Early
Nationalists adopted constitutional methods because they
believed that British rule is blessing in disguise. They had
great faith in British sense of justice. ❖ M G Ranade
thanked British for introducing rule of law, expressed that
British rule in India is a divine intervention to eradicate the
evils of misrule of the past. ❖ Dadabhai Nauroji held that
British are justice loving people. Indians have to
communicate their demand to the British in ‘reasonable
manner’. ❖ According to Gokhale, constitutional methods
were adopted according to the circumstances. Direct action
required immense preparation and Indians were not ready
for such action. ❖ According to C. Y. Chintamani before
introducing direct actions, we have to address internal
divisions and disunity. Contributions made by the
Constitutional Methods ❖ Constitutionalism provided a
non-violent and peaceful means for Indian nationalists to
express their demands. ❖ It helped in building and
reaching a culture of consensus building. ❖ Adoption of the
constitutional methods by the early nationalists helped
Indian cause gain legitimacy and credibility. ❖ It helped in
preparing a bunch of leaders for the future course of
struggle. Criticism of the Constitutional Methods ❖
Aurobindo Ghosh believed that constitutional methods
reflect ‘intellectual bankruptcy of the leaders’. He was of the
view that Indians will have to strike at the roots of
colonialism. That is – boycotting the foreign goods and
adopting Swadeshi. ❖ According to Tilak, adoption of
constitutional methods in front of alien bureaucracy is
political suicide. ❖ J L Nehru said that constitutional
methods will not work because India does not have
constitutional government. ❖ Bipan Chandra said that
although the moderates did not carried out mass struggles
but they did engage in struggles at the ideological level,
which helped in the foundation of a spectacular mass
movement. 8 Extremist Phase (1905-45) ❖ There emerged a
new generation of leaders who were dissatisfied by the
achievements of the early nationalists. ❖ The second
generation of the leaders represented by Lal Bal Pal (Lala
Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal) are
called as extremists. ❖ The use of the term extremists and
militants is relative. These leaders appear extremist in their
demands and methods in comparison to earlier leaders. ❖
Extremists favoured direct actions like passive resistance,
boycott, Swadeshi, national education, national courts etc.
❖ Tilak rejected the method of petition and asserted that
Swaraj is the birth right of Indians. Tilak justified
‘prajadroh’ i.e. the right of the people to resist the
government which exploits. Contribution of the Extremists
to the Freedom Struggle ❖ The Swadeshi Movement led by
the extremists was a successful campaign which boosted the
spirit of the nationalists. ❖ Extremists helped in preserving
the credibility of the INC. It laid the foundation for
Gandhi’s mass movement. ❖ Extremists used the ancient
Indian cultural symbols extensively which helped in
building the stronger sense of nationalism. Strategy of Mass
Movement Mass movements are of two types:- 1.
Uncontrolled Mass Movements such as French Revolution.
These are spontaneous. 2. Controlled Mass Movements such
as Russian Revolution, Chinese Revolution and Gandhian
Movements. These are planned, directed and controlled
Mass movements can also be categorised into:- 1. Marxist
Movements, these are sudden, comprehensive and want to
immediately overthrow the established system. 2. Gramscian
and Gandhian Movements, Both Gramsci and Gandhi were
contemporary to each other. They suggested two-stage
revolution in case of ‘opaque states’ (Where it is difficult to
understand the exploitative nature) Hence the movement
has to be ‘protracted movement’ known as war of position
before arriving at a point of direct action or frontal attack.
9 Gandhian Strategy of Mass Movements ❖ The mass
movements led by the Gandhi are one of the biggest and
most significant mass movements in the world history.
Gandhi deployed some planning, directing and tools due to
which these movements gain successful outcomes. ❖ Bipin
Chandra posited that the Gandhian mass movement
unfolded over an extended period, encompassing both
active and passive phases. The active phases involved mass
agitation, while the passive phases focused on constructive
programs. Chandra characterizes Gandhi's strategy as
S-T-S (StruggleTruce-Struggle), underscoring the
understanding of mass psychology. Recognizing the limited
capacity of the masses to participate, Gandhi, as a
proficient strategist and psychologist, adeptly knew when to
initiate and conclude movements. ❖ Gandhi's approach is
characterized as 'proactive' rather than reactive. In
Gandhian movements, the proactive nature is evident as
Gandhi consistently took the initiative, never leaving the
ball in the court of the adversary. He compelled the enemy
to respond, dictating the time, place, and the issues at hand.
Gandhi maintained an offensive stance rather than a
defensive one. Non-Cooperation Movement It was the first
pan-India movement led by Mahatma Gandhi to resist
British rule through non-violent means. The movement was
the result of various factors such as the following:- ❖
Rowlatt Act and the suppression of civil liberties. ❖
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre. ❖ Report of the Hunter
Commission and the support for General Dyer. ❖ Economic
distress caused due to world war I. ❖ Khilafat Movement.
Strategy of non-cooperation includes:- 1. Surrender of titles
and honors. 2. Boycott of government schools, colleges and
foreign clothes. 3. No tax campaign in case provincial
congress committee approves. 4. Opening of national
schools, colleges, panchayat courts, promotion of Khadi,
maintaining Hindu-Muslim unity, giving up untouchability.
10 5. Strict adherence to non-violence. 6. Congress to reach
to mohalla levels. ❖ Gandhi called off the movement
abruptly after Chaurichaura incident in February 1922. ❖
Gandhi faced severe criticism not only from non-Congress
leaders but also from within the Congress party itself. Even
Pandit Nehru questioned the decision to halt the movement.
The most substantial critique, however, emerged from the
communist faction, contending that Gandhi have
apprehensions about the masses gaining power. ❖ Whereas
Bipin Chandra argues that the primary motive was Gandhi's
desire for a 'graceful exit.' At this juncture, the masses were
becoming fatigued, with instances of violence, such as the
Mappila revolt in Malabar. Recognizing the potential for the
Mappila revolt to escalate into a communal conflict, Gandhi
understood that the Chaurichaura incident provided the
government with a pretext for deploying substantial force.
Anticipating that government force would instill fear and
hinder the reconstruction of the movement, Gandhi decided
to conclude it. Assessment of the Non-Cooperation
Movement ❖ The movement fell short in achieving its
declared objectives and the commitments made by Gandhi
and the Congress. Nevertheless, from Gandhi’s perspective,
the movement proved successful as he attained his desired
outcomes. ❖ Gandhi aimed to assess the masses’ capacity
for struggle and sought to position the Congress as a party
representing the broader population, not just a ‘microscopic
minority.’ His vision was to transform the national
movement into a mass movement, encompassing various
social classes beyond the middle class. ❖ The movement did
achieve some tangible successes, such as the boycott of the
Prince of Wales’s visit and the boycott of foreign goods.
Civil Disobedience Movement ❖ It is a prime example of the
Gandhian strategy. Non-Cooperation can be viewed as
relatively restrained when compared to Civil Disobedience,
which carried a more confrontational tone. Civil
Disobedience represented a direct challenge to authority,
whereas Non-Cooperation merely aimed at undermining the
economic foundations of colonialism. 11 ❖ While
Non-Cooperation involved refraining from cooperation with
the state, Civil Disobedience went a step further,
constituting a deliberate act of disobedience towards
authority. It essentially questioned the legitimacy of the
state. ❖ The Civil Disobedience Movement concluded with
the GandhiIrwin Pact in 1931, wherein the government
conceded nearly all of Gandhi’s demands. This not only
bolstered the credibility of the Congress but also elevated it
to a position of parity with the government. Gandhi
presents an 11-point list of demands, which included:- 1.
Abolition of salt tax. 2. Total prohibition on sale of liquor. 3.
Reduction of land revenue by half. 4. Reduction of military
expenditure by half. 5. Reduction in the salary of the higher
officials. 6. Hike in the tariff of imported goods. 7. Release
political prisoners. 8. Abolition of CID. 9. License to use
arms in self defence. 10. Rationalization of rupee
pound-sterling ratio. 11.Coastal tariff regulation bill Militant
and Revolutionary Movements ❖ Revolutionary movements
emerged in various phases, playing a crucial role when
mainstream movements were dormant. Despite lacking
support from the Indian National Congress (INC),
resources, and a mass base, revolutionaries exhibited
extraordinary bravery, motivating the youth to sacrifice for
the motherland and restoring lost pride to the Indian
populace. ❖ Notably, Indian women, such as Pritilata
Waddedar, Kalpana Datt, and Madam Kama, actively
participated in these movements. ❖ The inspiration for
Indian revolutionaries stemmed from works like
Bankimchandra Chatterji’s “Anandmath,” Sanchindranath
Sanyal’s “Bandi Jeevan,” Bhagawati Charan Vohra’s
“Philosophy of Bomb,” as well as influences from Irish
nationalists, Russian Nihilists, and Russian revolutionaries.
12 NOTE:- Difference between a Revolutionary and a
Terrorist ❖ Revolutionaries distinguish themselves from
terrorists by avoiding indiscriminate harm to civilians.
Their focus is on targeting oppressors, emphasizing the
importance of distinguishing between acts involving
violence. Peasant Movements ❖ Peasants were one of the
worst sufferers of the population who suffered from the land
settlement policies such as Ryotwari settlement, Mahalwari
settlement and colonial policies such as ruin of the
handicrafts, cultivation of cash crops over food crops of the
British. ❖ Peasant struggles were directed against both the
imperialists as well as the indigenous exploitation done by
money lenders and landlords. ❖ On doing the careful
analysis of the Indian National Movement, researchers have
come to the conclusion that peasant movements in India
reflect two ideologies:- ❖ Communist led movements like
Telangana and Tebhaga movement. ❖ Gandhian
nationalists like Swami Sahajanand Saraswati who formed
the All India Kisan Sabha which held a common session
with INC in 1936 at Faizpur. ❖ One of the most well-known
peasant revolt was Indigo rebellion of 1860 documented by
Din Bandhu Mitra in his book NEEL DARPAN. Peasant
movements were centred around the demands of: ❖
Abolition of zamindari. ❖ Opposition to the exploitation by
money lenders. ❖ Restoration of the land grabbed by the
zamindars ❖ Opposition to Begar or the force labour ❖
Inability to pay the high rent and taxes in case of crop
failure. While the peasant movements aimed at reforming
the agrarian structure rather than overthrowing British
rule, they played a crucial role in raising awareness among
Indians about the exploitative nature of British governance.
Workers Movement ❖ Workers remained divided on the
lines of caste and religion. Their situation were worse than
peasants. Indian working class suffered from low wages,
long working hours, unhygienic and hazardous working
conditions, absence of basic amenities etc. 13 Evolution of
the Workers Movement ❖ Modern workers emerged in the
19th century due to the introduction of railways, post, and
telegrams. ❖ The organized labour movement was initiated
by philanthropists like S. S. Bengalee and Sasipad Banerjee.
❖ The first trade union, known as the Bombay Mill Hands
Association, was formed by N.M. Lokhanday. ❖ The growth
of socialist ideas in India was influenced by the Russian
Revolution, leading some leaders to organize workers. ❖
Lala Lajpat Rai expressed significant concern for workers,
and even Gandhi led protests in Ahmedabad Textile Mill. ❖
In 1920, AITUC (All India Trade Union Congress) was
established with Lala Lajpat Rai as its first president. ❖
AITUC experienced infiltration by communists, who later
formed their own organization called 'Red Flag Trade
Union.' ❖ Eventually, communists formed their separate
organization again. ❖ Later on, Congress left AITUC and
established its own organization, INTUC (Indian National
Trade Union Congress). We can say that the involvement of
the working class contributed significantly to economic and
political advancements, furthering the cause of Indian
nationalism and the freedom struggle in diverse ways.
Nationalist leaders championed the idea of persisting in the
fight against imperialist dominance by actively involving
the working class. For instance, C.R. Das promoted the
incorporation of the workers' cause in the quest for Swaraj,
making the freedom struggle more comprehensive. This
approach strategically targeted the British stronghold, the
industry, and strengthened the resistance against British
rule. Concluding Remarks ❖ The Indian struggle for
freedom witnessed distinct phases and strategies,
encompassing constitutionalism in the moderate phase,
extremism, and later, Gandhian mass movements like
Non-cooperation and Civil Disobedience. Each stage played
a vital role in nurturing nationalism, leading to the eventual
liberation from British rule. 14 ❖ Despite variations in
approaches and ideologies across these movements,
collectively, they laid the groundwork for a unified and
democratic India. Additionally, it is crucial to acknowledge
that the diversity of tactics used during the freedom
struggle reflected the multifaceted nature of the Indian
society at the time. The constitutional phase focused on
legal and administrative channels, the extremist phase
emphasized more on radical methods, and the Gandhian
movements brought in a mass-based, non-violent approach.
❖ Moreover, these movements not only addressed political
concerns but also contributed to social and economic
awareness, fostering a holistic understanding of India’s
struggle for independence. The collaboration of leaders
from diverse backgrounds showcased the inclusivity of the
freedom movement, incorporating voices from various
regions, religions, and social strata. This collective effort
ultimately paved the way for the establishment of an
independent, sovereign nation. Questions asked 1. Comment
in 150 words: Satyagraha and Indian Nationalism. (2023) 2.
Analyse the workers’ movement in India in
preindependence period. (2022) 3. Trace the role of militant
and revolutionary movements in Indian National
Movement. (2020) 4. Differentiate moderate nationalism
from the extremist nationalism in terms of their objectives
and means. (2017) 5. Explain how peasant movements
promoted nationalist ideas during the struggle for Indian
independence. (2014) 6. Comment: Significance of the Civil
Disobedience Movement. (2011)

Introduction to Western Political Thought || Plato

Introduction to Western Political Thought: ❖ Meaning of
Thought: Thought represents a particular age. Thoughts are
largely dependent upon the prevailing social and
intellectual circumstances. In fact, ideas do not grow in
vacuum. It is largely dependent upon the prevailing social
and intellectual circumstances. ❖ It means thinking of any
scholar is greatly shaped by prevailing social and
intellectual circumstances. ❖ For Example: ➢ Ideas of Plato
were greatly shaped by the death of Socrates and defeat of
Athens at the hands of Sparta. ➢ Ideas of Thomas Hobbes
was greatly influenced by prevailing conditions in England.
Influence of History ❖ Western Political Thought embodies
the great writings of numerous political philosophers. ❖
Ideas of Plato and Aristotle greatly influence the Western
Political Thought. In fact, their ideas form the foundation of
the entire Western Political Thought. ❖ There is a close
relationship between political thought and history. It is
believed that the philosophy of any political philosopher
emerges from the history of his times. ❖ Karl Popper’s
criticism of Plato as an enemy of open society is refuted as
he separates Plato from the history of his time in this
analysis. Contextual study of Western Political Thought:
Note: Textual Vs Contextual Study ❖ Text refers to the
specific information or content provided in written or
symbolic form. Context on the other hand is a broader
framework that gives meaning to the text. It is easier to
understand any text if the context behind is understood. 3
❖ It is always safer to undertake the contextual study of
the western political thought. ❖ Example: ➢ The context to
understand the works of Plato is the prevailing conditions of
Athens at the times of Plato. ➢ The context to understand
the works of Marx is growing capitalist society and
worsening conditions of workers in factories. Major Streams
of Western Political Thought: ❖ The entire content of the
Western Political thought has two streams namely, political
idealism and political realism. ❖ Political Idealism or
Political Philosophy: ➢ Plato is regarded as the father of
Political Philosophy. ➢ It dominated the discipline of
Political Thought till the first half of the 19th century. ➢ It
signifies the Moral and Ethical view of Politics. ➢ It is
prescriptive in nature. ❖ Political Realism: ➢ It can also be
considered as Political science. Aristotle is considered as the
Father of Political Science. ➢ It signifies the pragmatic and
the power-centric view of politics. Significance of Western
Political Thought ❖ Political philosophers have been
concerned about important problems in politics, and their
efforts to find solutions have greatly shaped Western
political thought. According to Shelon Wolin, these problems
include the power relations between government and
subject, the nature of political authority, the problems
created by social conflicts, purposes and objectives of
political activity, and the character and utility of political
knowledge. ❖ The works on Western Political Thought are
regarded as Classics, in the sense that they are a dialogue
between different perspectives and interpretations of
reality. 4 ❖ The contents of Western Political Thought are
timeless as it has lived beyond the time when it was written.
Plato dealt with corruption in politics, which was a problem
in his times as well as in contemporary times. ❖ It gave
meaning to the important terms, like class, class struggle,
proletariat, bourgeois, revolution, etc. These words were
used even before Marx. However, he applied these
terminologies to the circumstances and gave meaning to
them. ❖ It contributed to the growth of specialised
language and concepts like that of General Will, state of
nature, civil society, etc. Relevance of Western Political
Thought: ❖ These works have stood the test of time and
have huge intrinsic worth, wide influence and are
suggestive on what should be the nature of the state. ❖
They are universally acknowledged as well as criticised. On
one hand, according to Whitehead, the entire western
philosophy is nothing but footnotes to Plato, while on the
other hand, Popper criticised Plato by calling him as fascist.
❖ They are inspirational. They stimulate our minds to think,
interpret and come up with new orientations. ❖ They deal
with major contradictions and dimensions of political
processes. ❖ While they were concerned with the problems
of their own times, they provided solutions that transcended
all the times and ages. Hence, they provided insights into
the perennial problems of politics, power, authority,
legitimacy, order, etc. ❖ They are regarded as masterpieces
as they do not belong to any one culture, civilization or
time but are cherished by the entire humankind. Criticism to
Western Political Thought: ❖ They are subjected to the
following criticism: ❖ Euro centrism: This means focusing
too much on European experiences and ignoring valuable
insights from non-Western cultures. ❖ Ethnocentrism: This
involves treating Western ideas and values as the best and
universal, without considering the diversity of human
experiences and values in other cultures. 5 ❖ Justification
for Colonialism: Critics say that Western ideas and practices
often supported European colonial domination, which raises
ethical and political concerns. ❖ Lack of Gender
Perspective: Western political thought has often overlooked
the experiences of women and marginalised groups, leading
to criticisms about reinforcing discriminatory social
structures. ❖ Disregard for Cultural Diversity: Critics argue
that Western political thought's emphasis on universal
principles sometimes overlooks the importance of
context-specific solutions and the diversity of cultural
values. Scholarly opinion on Western Political Thought: ❖
Dilthey: "In studying classics, we construct our life
experience with the aid of experiences of the great thinkers.
Communication with their experiences enriches our own
experience.” Questions Asked: Trace the evolution of
Western Political Thought of ancient to contemporary
period. (20 Marks/2020) Plato ❖ Systematic and orderly
thinking of Ancient Greek political thought begins with
Plato's thoughts. ❖ Plato carried forward the idealistic
ideology of Greece, depicting the ideal state, ideal man and
balance in the state, etc. He was a philosopher, and a
revolutionary thinker. He drifted away from the established
systems and demanded an idealist and impracticable order.
Hence, he was also regarded as an idealist among the
idealists, the artist among the artists, the philosopher
among the philosophers, and the revolutionary among the
revolutionaries. 6 ❖ Plato was born in 428 BC in Athens
(Greece) on the island of Virginia. ❖ He was the disciple of
Socrates and the teacher of Aristotle. Circumstances of
Athens ❖ The Circumstances of Athens led Plato to the
development of the theory of knowledge according to which
only a knowledgeable ruler could solve the state of
Pathological affairs of Athens. ❖ Athens was witnessing a
political crisis. It was suffering from political instability.
Political instability resulted in the political weakness of
Athens. ❖ Plato was deeply pained by the defeat of Athens
in the Peloponnesian war at the hands of Sparta and Plato's
teacher Socrates was poisoned. Athens was a divided house
in itself. There was inequality with respect to distribution of
wealth in Athens. ❖ According to Plato, most of the
Problems of Athens were related to the system of
democracy. ❖ Plato believed that democracy is the rule of
ignorants in which the ruling class does not require any
special qualification to become ruler. According to Plato,
any person can reach the position of power by virtue of
lottery. ❖ Plato also associated the execution of his teacher
Socrates with the rule of democrats. Hence, Plato aimed to
establish an ideal state which will be based upon the
principle of excellence. It will not be based on excessive
individualism rather based upon Communitarian spirit.
Such an ideal state was the objective of Plato’s book
“Republic”.
Plato Methodology of Plato ❖ He adopted the deductive
methodology, also called the philosophical method.

❖ However, it is also considered that the methodology of

Plato is an amalgamation of numerous methodologies. ➢
Inductive: According to Nettleship, it is inductive as Plato
related theory with practice. ➢ Dialectical: Plato adopted
the traditional dialectical method which was followed by his
teacher Socrates. He adopted this method during his search
for the idea of good and how it can be achieved. In this
method, Plato discussed the views of numerous actors like
Cephalus, Polemarchus, Thrasymachus, Glucon, etc. to
arrive at his idea of justice. ➢ Teleological: Plato employs a
teleological method, asserting that every phenomenon
pursues its inherent objective. According to him, perceived
reality is a mere reflection of its ideal form. ➢ Analytical:
He has applied this methodology as well, which is quite
evident in his approach of dividing a particular
phenomenon into different parts and analysing each of the
parts. For instance, he analysed the human nature based on
what element dominates the human nature, whether,
appetite, strength or reason. 3 ➢ Historical: In his work,
Laws, Plato has adopted the historical method as well where
he has shown the historical evolution of various states. He
held that the solution to all evils of the earlier city states
lies in the history of these states. Theory of knowledge ❖
According to Plato, knowledge is required because
ignorance breeds Problems. ❖ Ignorance was the main
cause of the problem of Athens. Ignorant rulers were
leading people towards limited goods like power and
wealth. This created Conflict and Factionalism in Athens. ❖
Instead of pursuit of limited goods, if leaders pursue
unlimited goods like beauty knowledge, there will not be
any conflict in society. To be capable of leading people in
the right direction it is necessary that rulers are
knowledgeable. ❖ Knowledge is of two Types ➢ Changing
knowledge: It is not true knowledge, it is just a belief. ➢
Unchanging knowledge: It is true knowledge, it is
unchallenged. It is permanent and eternal. ❖ True
knowledge or unchanging knowledge is the part of the
unchanging universe whereas other types of knowledge or
changing knowledge is a part of a changing universe. 4 ❖
True knowledge is about an unchanging aspect. Idea is the
unchanging aspect and appearance is the changing aspect.
Hence, True knowledge is the knowledge of ideas of things.
❖ Ideas do not exist in material reality. Ideas can be
understood only through reasons and not through sensory
organs. ❖ It means true knowledge is achievable only by
the person in whom reason dominates. Therefore, society
should be led by those in whom reason dominates. ❖ Thus,
Philosophers should be rulers. Philosophers should not have
family and property. Hence, people would understand that
the power position in society is meant for those who can
sacrifice family and property for the sake of society. Thus,
society should be led by the Philosopher king who is the
embodiment of knowledge.
❖ According to idealism, ultimate reality is not in the object
but in the idea behind the object. Object is like the shadow
of ideas. Example- Behind a particular horse, there is an
idea of horseness. Type of horses may differ but the idea of
horseness which represents a characteristic feature of
horses does not change. Thus, reality is inherent in the idea
and what we observe in the material world through our
sensory organs are simply the shadow of that idea. 5 ❖
Thus, Plato laid the foundation of the school of idealism in
political science. The political purpose behind the above
theme was his objective of making Athens an ideal state
through true knowledge. The philosopher king can
comprehend the characteristic features of an ideal state. He
will try to bring the existing state near to the ideal state.
Thus, the philosopher king can resolve the pathological
situation of Athens.

Plato (Part-2)
Methodology of Plato ❖ Plato had used a dialectical
method to give his scheme of education. Education is quite
central in Platonic thought. ❖ The topic of education is
dealt with in a very extensive manner. This is the reason
that French philosopher Rousseau called Plato's book
Republic as the best treatise ever written on education.

Features of Athenian system ❖ In Athens, education was a

private enterprise. It depended on the will of parents.
Education was not the responsibility of the state. Women
did not have access to education. There was no system of
compulsory education. ❖ Plato did not like the above
features of the Athenian system. However, Plato liked the
content of the Athenian system. There was focus on study of
philosophy, music, literature and geometry. Content of
Athenian education led to the development of rational
faculties of man. Plato (Part-2) 3 Features of Spartan
system ❖ Plato was impressed by the Discipline that existed
within the Spartan system. He also liked compulsory
military education in the Spartan system. ❖ He was
inspired by the non-discriminatory nature of the Spartan
system which allowed women to be educated. ❖ Plato
synthesised the institutional features of Sparta with the
content of Athens. Features of Platonian System ❖
Education is State controlled. ❖ Education is meant for both
sexes. ❖ Education is a Lifelong enterprise. ❖ Education is
the most important tool to become virtuous. ❖ Plato has
given special focus on the education of the guardian class.
He elaborates in depth the education system of guardian
class. He also mentions the education of appetite class but
he does not go into detail. Theory of Justice ❖ Plato gives
an unconventional theory of justice. The Conventional
theory of justice defines justice in the legal sense of the
term and the theories of justice are linked with the theory of
rights. ❖ Plato's theory is unconventional because Plato's
theory considered justice as individual virtue as well as
virtue of social institutions. It is an unconventional theory
because it talks about justice in terms of duties rather than
in terms of rights. Meaning of Justice ❖ According to Plato,
justice is based on the principle of functional specialisation.
It means proper placement of all elements in society. It
means proper stationing of all Parts. Methodology of Plato
❖ Plato has described the theory of justice at two levels: ➢
At the level of State ➢ At the level of Individual ❖
According to Plato, "State is individual writ large". This
particular statement shows that for Plato, there is a parallel
between individual and state. He also writes that 4 "State
does not come out of oak or rock but inherent in the human
Mind". The practical significance of this idea is that Plato
wants to establish that nature and character of the State is
determined by the nature and character of its people. ❖
There is a theoretical significance of this idea also.
According to Plato, it is easier to understand things in their
magnified form. State is the magnified form of the
individual. Hence, it is easier to understand the principle of
Justice first at the level of the state and then at the level of
the individual. ❖ In the case of the State, if all the classes
will perform their duties according to their natural aptitude,
then it will result in excellence and harmony in society. ❖
Excellence & harmony are the Purpose of Justice. Therefore,
Justice is a supreme virtue. A just person is the one in whom
reason dominates over courage and appetite. ❖ Plato
evolved his theory of justice by using a dialectical method,
Plato has used a dialectical method to evolve his theory of
Justice. ❖ Dialectical Methods means a method of debate.
It means reaching to the truth through dialogue. Plato
developed his idea of justice by contradicting the existing
theories of justice and mentioning their limitations. There
are four main characters involved in the discussion and
each character represents a particular theory of Justice.

❖ Traditional theory of Justice: It is represented by

character names Cephalus & Polemarchus. 5 ➢ Views Of
Cephalus: "Justice is doing your duties and paying your
dues". Plato accepts the duty aspect but rejects the dues
aspect of his view. According to Plato, it may not be justice
if a person returns a weapon to a mad man because it can
harm others in society. Justice cannot be harmful. Justice is
universal and justice is virtue. ➢ Views of Polemarchus:
According to him, "Doing good to your friend and evil to
your enemy is justice". Plato contradicts because it is not
easy to understand who your friend is and who is your
enemy. A friend can be an enemy in disguise. Plato also
says that justice never does any harm to anyone. It is for
the welfare of everyone. ❖ Radical Theory of Justice: The
character is Thrasymachus who represents a sophist point
of view. According to him, "justice is the interest of the
stronger". Justice is treated here in the sense of law of state.
Those who are in power structure always determine the law.
Laws limit freedom. Law serves the purpose of those who
are in power. This is a sophist approach to justice. ➢ Plato
contradicts because justice is not selective. Secondly, if we
accept Thrasymachus's view, it may lead to a conclusion
that it is better to be unjust than to be just. Given a chance,
man will try to defy laws. For Plato, an unjust man can
never be as happy as a just Man as Justice is for the welfare
of all. ❖ Contractual theory of Justice: This is represented
by a character known as Glaucon. For him, justice is an
interest of weak and weak people combined to form the
State. Plato contradicts this theory. ➢ Firstly, Glaucon
considers Justice as an artificial thing. For Plato, Justice is
eternal and permanent and not man made. Justice is
universal. Justice does not discriminate between weak and
strong. ➢ Thus, by adopting the dialectical approach,
PlatoContradicts above theory of justice and brings out
their limitations and propounds his own theory of justice.

Plato’s theory of Justice ❖ Justice is a virtue ❖ Justice is

universal ❖ Justice is for the welfare of all. ❖ Justice
results in excellence in society. ❖ Justice creates bonds
between individual and state. ❖ Justice brings people
together. ❖ Justice is functional specialisation.

Limitations of Plato’s Theory of Justice ❖ Plato's theory of

Justice focuses only on duties not on rights. ❖ Plato
neglects the rights aspects of individuals. ❖ Plato's theory
of Justice gives no space for individual freedom. ❖ Plato's
theory of Justice is unacceptable in the Present age of
democracy. ❖ Plato's theory of Justice is based on
inequality of individuals. It creates a hierarchical society. ❖
Plato's theory of Justice completely subordinates the people
to the state. ❖ It is based on wrong Psychology. ❖ It does
not result in multidimensional development of human
personality. ❖ According to Sabine, Plato's theory of Justice
is demoralising, static, and unreal. Relevance of Plato's
Theory of Justice ❖ Plato emphasises that justice should be
the basis of the social system. ❖ Indian Constitution also
points out that the Principle of social Justice will determine
the future of India. ❖ Plato's theory of Justice has
influenced the viewpoint of John Rawls. ❖ Plato's functional
specialisation approach is also based on Justice and it is a
feature of all modern societies. ❖ The significance of Plato
lies in the fact that Plato gives superior position to
knowledge in society. Plato’s Theory of Education ❖ In the
Platonian scheme of education, education is a means to
achieve excellence. Education is the main tool to establish
an ideal State for Plato. ❖ Education is the most important
duty of the state. He calls the nature of the state as a
pedagogic institution i.e. imparting education. ❖ For Plato,
education is so important that it cannot be left on the
willingness and capacity of parents. 7 ❖ Education should
not be voluntary, rather it should be compulsory. It is the
foremost duty of the State. Plato's theory of education
brings Plato nears to the contemporary times. ❖ Today it is
widely acknowledged that States should make provisions
for education. One of the reasons for the success of East
Asian countries is the system of education promoted by
these states.

Plato (Part-3) Communism of Plato ❖ The basic concern of

Plato behind providing the system of communism was to
tackle the problem of Corruption. Corruption is the use of
public office for personal gains. ❖ The two main reasons
that promote corruption are money and family. Those in
power use their position to accumulate property. ❖
According to Plato, the influence of family is more
problematic than the influence of money and power. ❖
Family promotes nepotism. It creates inequality among
citizens; the ruling class gives preference to their people.
Family is also a factor behind appropriation of property. ❖
Hence, family and property have corrupting influence. If a
State is corrupt, it faces the crisis of legitimacy and it leads
to political instability. Hence, this problem needs to be
treated.

Suggestions by Plato ❖ Plato suggests communism of

property for the guardian class. They should not have any
private property. ❖ Advantage of such a system will be that
those who have an appetite for property, will not go for
politics. Hence, the problem of corruption is resolved. ❖
Possibility of communism of property ➢ It is possible
because the Guardian class does not need property as the
State is organic in nature and different classes are
interdependent on each other. ➢ There is a division of
labour in society. Producer class will produce, the soldier
class will protect and the ruling class will govern. 3 ➢ The
material needs of the ruling class will automatically be
taken care of. It will also promote solidarity in society and
the ruling class will have enough time to govern the society
in a better manner. ❖ Communism of family ➢ Plato
suggests communism of family for guardian class. This
system has 3 purposes- ✓ Political Purpose- It can solve
the problem of corruption. Family is a major factor
inducing man to become corrupt. If the guardian class has
no family, they will treat all citizens as their own children.
It will ensure legitimacy in the system. ✓ Moral Purpose- It
is associated with the upliftment of women. The State takes
over the job performed by the family. Family is an
institution based upon sexual division of labour. Women are
occupied with family. They do not have time to participate
in public life and become virtuous. This system will result in
the liberation of women and the talent of half of humanity
will not go to waste. ✓ Eugenic Purpose- Not only family
but also marriages are controlled by the state. By
controlling the system of marriage, it was possible to
improve the Greek race. State will select partners for
procreation purposes. Ablest of men and women will be
selected by the state.

Critical evaluation of the system of Communism ❖ Plato

appears to be radical and quite revolutionary in suggesting
such reforms. Plato is criticised by conservative and liberal
scholars. One of the greatest critiques of Plato is his own
disciple Aristotle. 4 ❖ Views of Aristotle: ➢ Aristotle
represents the conservative school of thought. Aristotle is a
functionalist. He believed that whatever exists in society is
performing certain functions. He believes that moderation is
better than extremes. ➢ Aristotle rejects the extreme
measures suggested by Plato. According to Aristotle,
"Family, marriage and private property have been time
tested institutions". They have been part of human
civilization since time immemorial. Since the time human
beings started living in society and leading civilised life
these institutions have existed. Therefore, ending family and
property will not be a progressive. It will be like going back
to the stage when man was living a barbaric life. ➢
According to Aristotle, the institution of private property
gives human beings a sense of achievement. Private
property promotes the spirit of enterprise and social
recognition. ➢ The propertied class has an interest in the
stability of society as well, which is why such a useful
institution should not be abolished. ➢ The institution of
Family provides emotional security to human beings. It's
also an important tool for primary socialisation that is why
it should not be abolished. Ending the institution of
marriage will create the problem of social morality. If all
children will become the children of the public no one will
take their responsibility. ➢ So, there is no sense in ending
this useful institution. Till today, there is no alternative
which is better than the existing system. Had any
alternative existed it would have been in practice. It means
abolition of property and family is not going forward rather
than going backwards.
Plato (Part - 4) Relevance of Plato's Theory of Justice ❖
Plato emphasises that justice should be the basis of the
social system. ❖ Indian Constitution also points out that
the Principle of social Justice will determine the future of
India. ❖ Plato's theory of Justice has influenced the
viewpoint of John Rawls. ❖ Plato's functional specialisation
approach is also based on Justice and it is a feature of all
modern societies. ❖ The significance of Plato lies in the fact
that Plato gives superior position to knowledge in society.
Comparison of Plato's Communism with Modern
Communism of MarxMeaning of Communism: ❖
Communism as an ideology emerged in modern times. Karl
Marx is treated as representative of communism.
Communism emerged as a criticism of capitalism. The
Central idea of communism is the abolition of private
property. Communism gives priority to society over the
liberty of individuals. ❖ The above 2 characteristics of
communism made scholars compare the communism of
Plato with Marx. Karl Popper considered Plato, Hegel and
Karl Marx as enemies of open society. He links Platonic
system and Marxist system because both aim to create a
closed society. Professor Maxey has compared the
communism of Plato and Marx.

Differences between Plato and Marx: ❖ Plato's perspective

is idealist whereas Marx's perspective is materialist. ❖ Plato
believes in continuation of classes whereas Marx believed in
abolition of classes. ❖ Plato's communism is meant only for
guardians class whereas Marx's communism is meant for
the entire society. ❖ In Plato, the basis of class is spiritual.
It depends on the dominant element of the soul whereas for
Marx, the basis of class is economy. It is related to the
ownership of Production. ❖ Plato's theory is elitist whereas
Marx's theory is egalitarian. ❖ Plato's communism is
limited to Greek city states whereas Marx's communism has
an international character. ❖ Marx believes that violent
revolution is a means to bring change in society whereas
Plato believes that education is the means to achieve
communism. Plato nowhere talks about violence. Thus, we
find that there are substantial differences between Plato
and Marx and these differences are more substantial than
similarities. In fact, similarities are superficial.

Plato’s Theory of Philosopher King: ❖ Philosopher king is a

political component of Plato's ideal state. Philosopher king
differs from amateur rulers. ❖ Philosopher king has
theoretical as well as practical knowledge. He is not an
ordinary person. He is a "symbol of knowledge and
sacrifice". He is a product of a long system of education. 4
Reasons for having Philosopher king: ❖ The basic problem
for Plato was the rule of ignorance. So, the solution was the
rule of knowledge. Philosopher king is a personification of
knowledge. Knowledge is virtue. So, the state ruled by the
Philosopher king is virtuous. ❖ The rule of the Philosopher
king is according to the principle of justice. Justice
demands that reason should govern courage and appetite.
❖ Rule of the Philosopher king is better than rule of law.
Law represents average wisdom, law is inflexible, law is not
always in a position to meet exigencies. Hence, the rule of
the most knowledgeable person is preferable over the rule
of law. Powers of Philosopher king: ❖ Philosopher king has
absolute power. He is not limited by the rule of law.
According to Plato, "it is unwise to restrict an expert
medical practitioner with a book on medicine". Limitations
on powers of Philosopher king: ❖ He has to maintain the
system of education as proposed by Plato. He has to
maintain the principle of justice that is based on functional
specialisation. ❖ Philosopher king should have a check on
the inflow of wealth in the state. He should have a check on
the distribution of wealth in the state. Inequalities of wealth
should not result in the creation of two cities- city of Poor
and city of Rich. ❖ Philosopher king should check the size
of the state. It should remain consistent with the principles
of self-sufficiency. Thus, Philosopher king is not restricted
by the public opinion. But he is limited by the basic
structure of the constitution of the Republic. Limitations of
the theory of Philosopher King: ❖ According to Aristotle, for
a ruler, "It is better to be worldly wise rather than to be
wise in the world of ideas". Philosopher king is an utopian
ideal. It is not possible to find a Philosopher King. ❖ It is
against the principle of democracy. There is also the
possibility of misuse of power by the Philosopher King. It is
a well known fact that absolute power corrupts absolutely.
❖ There is no guarantee that the rule of the philosopher
king will not degenerate. ❖ This theory is elitist in nature.
It supports the principles of inequality. According to
Hannah Arendt, active citizenry is necessary for the
protection of freedom. Plato discounts the political sense of
an average person. Plato's theory may breed totalitarian
tendencies. 5 Relevance of Philosopher King: ❖ Plato links
education with good governance. Plato establishes that
philosophy is not a private enterprise. It should serve the
purpose of humanity. Plato establishes that a good ruler
must not simply protect but also create conditions for
upliftment of people. Plato as a Totalitarian Thinker:

Arguments favouring Plato as a totalitarian thinker: ❖ He

completely subordinates individuals to the State. ❖ There is
no concept of rights in Plato’s scheme of ideal State. It only
talks about duties. ❖ In the Republic, the whole is prior to
the part. It means that an individual is not a priority in the
Plato’s scheme of things. ❖ According to Hannah Arendt,
totalitarianism does not allow active participation of people
in civic life. ❖ State controls institutions like family,
marriage, property. Plato's scheme of education is
completely controlled by the State. This is the feature of the
Republic that led scholars to conclude that Plato is the
originator of totalitarianism. ❖ Scholars who considered
Plato a totalitarian thinker are Karl Popper, Isaiah Berlin
and C.E.M. Joad. ❖ However, one cannot completely equate
Platonism with totalitarianism. Argument in favour of Plato
Not being a Totalitarian Thinker: ❖ In contemporary times,
the totalitarianism which existed had an exploitative
purpose whereas Plato’s Republic had a moral purpose. ❖
According to Hannah Arendt, violence is an essential
characteristic of a totalitarian State. Plato nowhere
mentions violence or shows the intention to create violence.
❖ Plato claims obedience to the State through the system of
education and moral upliftment. 6 ❖ According to Levinson
(who was the greatest defender of Plato), Plato belonged to
different time and space and it is incorrect to compare the
incomparable. Plato as Feminist: ❖ It is a doctrine related
to the upliftment of status of women. ❖ Proposition of
feminists - Natural differences are converted into social
inequalities, therefore, women should be given equal
opportunities, like men. ❖ There is a need for institutional
reforms with respect to marriage and family. ❖ Plato's
theory of education does not discriminate between men and
women. ❖ Plato's theory of Philosopher king gives equal
opportunity to women to become rulers. ❖ Plato talks
about abolition of family & private property. These two
issues are also propounded by Radical Feminists and
Marxist Feminists. ❖ Thus, one Can find many Similarities
between Platonism and Feminism. Plato appears to be a
revolutionary thinker. After Plato, it was J. S. Mill who
raised the issue of equality of women in the political
process. Women should also be provided with equality of
opportunity to join political life.