Lecturers : Dr PS Ramaripa (Female)

Email : suzan.ramaripa@ul.ac.za &

Office no 1009, N-block, First Floor.

Ext. : 2343

1
 What could be done in order
to pass INORGANIC IB
 Buy prescribed textbook and read it.
 Attend regularly.
 Choose a friend who is willing to assist you
and you assist him/her.
 Work very hard.
 Prepare for the topic before it could be
introduced in the class.
 Create your own notes and compare them
with the lecturer’s notes.
2
 TEST DATE
Test 1: 18/08/2023
NB: Tutorial will start next week from
(24/07/2023) onwards. Choose the slot that will
soot you, everyone has to attend the tutorial.
Venues are indicated on the tutorial time table.
Series of Lines in the H
Spectrum
Points to note: The Balmer series

•When an e- “drops” to energy level n = 2,

visible light is emitted.
•The bright line spectrum observed is
called the Balmer series:
3→2 Red
4→2 Blue-green
5→2 Blue-violet
6→2 Violet
NB: n1= nf, n2 = ni Therefore
nf < ni
 Balmer equation
•Pertains to the 4 visible lines in the
hydrogen spectrum, with λ = 410 nm, 434
nm, 486 nm, and 656 nm.
Rydberg equation for Hydrogen
Atom

R = Rydberg constant = 109 678 cm-1

or 1.0974x107 m-1
n2 = shell returning from
n1 = shell returning to When n1 = 1 Lyman
Series
n 1 = 2 Balmer
Series
n 1 = 3 Paschen
Series
The relationship between frequency
and wavelength

c = 3 × 108
m/s

An inverse
relationship
•Electron waves are also governed by de
Broglie equation: λ = h/mv or λ = h/p
Energy of transitions
Common decimal prefixes used
with SI unit.
 Worked example
n1 = 2; n2 =4. Calculate λ in nm, to four
SF’s.
SOLUTION

λ-1 = RH (1/n12 – 1/n22)

= 109 678 cm-1 (1/22 – 1/42)
= 109 678 cm-1 (1/4 – 1/16)
= 109 678 cm-1 (0.1875)
= 2.056 × 104 cm-1
 Worked example, Cont…
Taking the reciprocal gives:

λ = 4.864 × 10-5 cm × 1 m × 1 nm
100 cm 10-9 m

λ = 486 nm
Bohr’s view
Solar System: Any
relationship?
Bohr Atom
 Bohr’s postulates for the H atom
•Electrons exist in stable orbits about the nucleus.

•Only certain orbits are allowed.

•An electron passing from a lower orbit to a

higher orbit must absorb light with exactly the
difference in energy between the two orbits.
Converse is true

•An electron has the lowest possible energy in

the orbit close to the nucleus, i.e. ground-state.
 Bohr equation
•Alternative approach to the Balmer equation.

•Allows calculation of the energy of each energy

level
En = -2.18 × 10-18 (1/n2) J
n is called the quantum number
•For the ground-state H atom, n = 1 & E1 = -2.18 × 10-
18
J
Normalizing to mol-1 of H, we have
E1 = (6.022 × 1023 mol-1)(-2.18 × 10-18 J)
= -1.31 × 106 J/mol
*Show that E4 = -1.36 × 10-19 J
Strengths of the Bohr model
•Accounts for the Rydberg equation

•Satisfactorily explains the H spectrum

•Electrons are in discrete energy levels

within the atom.

•Energy (hv) is involved in moving from

one level to another
SHORTCOMINGS (LIMITATIONS) OF THE
BOHR MODEL
• Can’t explain why certain spectral
lines are brighter than others (It cannot
explain line spectra of atoms other than that of
hydrogen very accurately. i.e., many electron
atoms)

• Treats an e- as if it were a miniature

planet, with definite radius and
momentum (Describes electron as a particle
circling the nucleus not taking into account the
wave-nature of the electron)
Diffraction of water waves on the
surface of a pond
Constructive and destructive
interference
Standing waves on a guitar string

Therefore, L = n × λ
2

Where L is the length of the string, λ is a

wavelength and n is an
Integer.
 Electron waves in Atoms
•QM predicts quantized energy levels

• Schrodinger eqn is the fundamental eqn in QM:

Ĥψ = Eψ

 The wave function, ψ, for an e- is called an

orbital
Electrons not well defined, use probalistic
 Ψ’s differ in shape and energy
 Ψ2 = ψ.ψ* represents the probability of
finding an electron in ψ
Electrons exist in specifically defined shells
around the nucleus of an atom:
27
 Shells, Subshells & Orbitals

• Shells are also called energy levels.

• Shells are made of subshells

 Designated by the principal quantum number, n

 QN n related to size and energy:

n takes integral values 1, 2, 3, …, ∞
 An increase in n also means that e- has higher
energy
Energy levels

29
ℓ Subdivides shells into Subshells

ℓ= 0 1 2 3 4 …..
Subshell = s p d f g …..
 Subshells also called sublevels

Designated by angular momentum quantum number,

ℓ

ℓ takes values 0, 1, 2, …, (n-1)

ℓ gives info about shape and type of orbitals

Subshells are made of individual orbitals

 s Orbitals

• The value of l for s orbitals is 0.

• They are spherical in shape.
• The radius of the sphere increases with the
value of n.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 S-orbital

A graph of probabilities of finding an electron versus

distance from the nucleus, we see that s orbitals possess n
− 1.

Node Node Node

Node: The probability of finding zero electrons
33
34
35
36
 S-orbital

A graph of the wave function squared V/s the radius

37
ℓ v/s Orbital Shapes

•Polar (ℓ = 1) # of orientations = …?
 p Orbitals

• The value of l for p orbitals is 1.

• They have two lobes with a node between
them.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 d-Orbitals

• The value of l for a d orbital is 2.

• Four of the five d orbitals have 4 lobes; the other
resembles a p orbital with a doughnut around the center.

40
 Spatial Orientation of Orbitals
•Given by the magnetic qn (mℓ)

•This qn subdivides sub-shells into individual

orbitals

•Takes values -ℓ, (-ℓ + 1), …, 0, …, (ℓ - 1), +ℓ

i.e., for ℓ > 0, mℓ has 2ℓ + 1 values

e.g., ℓ = 1, electrons are found in the p-

orbitals, mℓ has [2(1) + 1] = 3 values and
mℓ = -1, 0, +1
 Points to Note
•Electrons in atoms occupy orbitals

•A maximum of 2 e-s occupy each orbital

•To distinguish between 2e-s occupying the

same orbital, introduce the 4th qn (ms),
called spin qn

•Spin qn (ms) has only 2 values, i.e., +½ or -½

 Spin Quantum Number, ms

• This led to a fourth

quantum number, the
spin quantum number,
ms.

• The spin quantum

number has only 2
allowed values: +1/2 and
−1/2.
 What are the values of the four quantum
numbers for the d-orbitals
1. 3d, n = 3
2. ℓ = 2
3. ℓ = 2, electrons are found in the d-orbitals,
mℓ has [2(2) + 1] = 5 values and
mℓ = -2 -1, 0, +1 +2
4. ms +1/2 or -1/2

46
What are the four quantum numbers for the
7 nth electron of nitrogen atom

Seventh electron is found on 2p-orpital

1.n = 2
2. ℓ = 1
3ℓ = 1, electrons are found in the p-orbitals, mℓ
has [2(1) + 1] = 3 values and the values for mℓ
= -1, 0, + 1,
Therefore the seventh electron has the value of
mℓ = +1
4. ms = +1/2
47
Energies of Orbitals

• As the number of
electrons increases,
though, so does the
repulsion between
them.
• Therefore, in many-
electron atoms,
orbitals on the same
energy level are no
longer degenerate.
 Magnetic Properties of Atoms
•Because of its spin, an e- behaves like a tiny bar
magnet.

•Substances containing unpaired e-s are weakly

attracted by magnet. Said to be paramagnetic.

•Substances with all e-s paired are weakly repell-

ed by a magnet, and said to be diamagnetic.

Therefore, para-/dia-magnetism provide experimental

Evidence for the presence of un-/paired e-s
 Assigning e-s to Orbitals

Important rules to consider:

AUFBAU principle: states that, electrons orbiting one or
more atoms fill the lowest available energy levels before
filling higher levels

Hund’s rule: e-s occupy a degenerate set of

orbitals singly before any pairing can occur

Pauli’s exclusion principle: No 2 e-s in a given

atom can have the same set of 4 qns

NB: Study the Heisenberg uncertainty principle

Aufbau Principle: Order of filling
subshells (orbitals) with e-s
We fill in electrons according to the
lowest energy sublevels. So we
basically go in order: 1s, 2s, 2p,
3s, 3p now next is 3d BUT the d
orbitals are complex and rather
high in energy, so actually 4s is
lower in energy. So we fill in 4s
next then go back to 3d and so
forth.
Approx. energy level diagram for
atoms with ≥2 e-s
 Electron config v/s Periodic Table

The table is naturally divided into regions of 2, 6, 10, and 14 columns,

which are the #’s of electrons that can occupy s, p, d, and f subshells.
Filling of subshells across periods
 Electron configurations

Two forms:

i) spdf , aka the spectroscopic notation.

ii) Orbital notation

Example: Orbital Notation
 Exercise

What would be the four quantum numbers

for the 20th electron of an atom X. Predict
the name of an atom. Is this atom a
paramagnetic or diamagnetic? Explain.
 Solution
Firstly follow the three rules of occupying electrons in
the orbitals. There are 20 electrons. An atom that has
20 electrons is calcium (Ca). The 20th electron is
found in 4p-orbital.
1.n = 4
2.ℓ = 0
3.mℓ = 0
4.ms = -1/2
5.Diamagnetic, electrons on the 4s-orbital are
paired, so they are weekly repelled by the
magnet.
63
 Spectroscopic Notation

Fe: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d6

 Worked Example
a) Use the periodic table to predict the e-config of Fe
SOLUTION:
Period 1: Fill the 1s subshell
Period 2: Fill the 2s and 2p subshells
Period 3: Fill the 3s and 3p subhells
Period 4: Fill the 4s and then move 6 places in the 3d
region

Therefore, Fe: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d6

•It is desirable to group all subshells of the same

n together: Fe: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2
 Versions of e- configs

•e-s in the outer shell = valence e-s

•e-s in inner shells = core e-s

•Abbreviated (condensed) configs: [core] + v

e.g., Mg [Ne] 3s2
Fe [Ar] 3d6 4s2

•Valence shell e- config: S 3s2 3p4

As 4s2 4p3
 Unexpected e- configs

Exceptions to the general rules of e- config:

•Cr [Ar] 3d4 4s2 expected

But, Cr [Ar] 3d5 4s1 observed

•Cu [Ar] 3d9 4s2 expected

But, Cu [Ar] 3d10 4s1 observed

•Half-filled/filled subshells have special stability

An e- is borrowed from the 4s subshell!!!!
 In other words,

A d-subshell that is half-filled or full (i.e.,

contains 5 or 10 e-s) is more stable than the s-sub-
shell of the next shell. This is because it takes less
energy to maintain an electron in a half-filled
d-subshell than a filled s-subshell.
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