Manuela Corbellini

September 19th, 2022

Topic 1.5

Cell Biology

The origin of cells

Essential idea: There is an unbroken chain of life from the first cells on Earth to all cells in organisms alive today.
- Cell theory
- Cells are the smallest unit of life
- All living organisms are composed of cells
- Cells arise from pre-existing cells
- Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) gave crucial evidence to support the hypothesis that cells
must come from pre-existing cells
- His experiment disproved the theory of spontaneous generation, which stated
that life could appear from a combination of dust, air, and other factors.
- Pasteur hypothesized that cells must come from cells and designed an
experiment that he was able to prove false

Pasteur's experiment showed that the spontaneous generation of cells and organisms does not occur.
 Manuela Corbellini
September 19th, 2022
Topic 1.5

- Pasteur boiled nutrient broth in three swan-neck flasks.

- Then he broke the neck of one flask to allow air to enter but left the other
flask unbroken.
- The broth in the flask where the swan neck was not broken remained
clear (as no microbes were formed and any microbes from the air were
trapped in the curve of the swan neck)
- While the broth in the broken-necked flask became cloudy (as microbes
carried the flask in the air grew and multiplied).
- In the third flask, Pasteur tilted the flask to expose the broth to the
microbes in the curve of the swan neck.
- Pasteur's experiment proved that the spontaneous generation
of cells and organisms does not occur on Earth, showing that the
present conditions (temperature, pressure, light, radiation
level) do not sustain the process
The first cells
- Life, in the form of cells, was transported to Planet Earth from elsewhere in the
universe.
- However, evidence supporting this hypothesis has not been found
- Therefore, the first cell must have come from non-living material. This
hypothesis has gained support from evidence collected in the Miller-Urey
experiment
Miller-Urey experiment
- Miller and Urey recreated the conditions of early Earth in a close system by including
a reducing atmosphere (low oxygen) with high radiation levels, high temperature, and
electrical storms
- After running the experiment for a week, some simple amino acids and
complex hydrocarbons were found in the reaction mixture.
 Manuela Corbellini
September 19th, 2022
Topic 1.5

- This experiment proved that the non-living synthesis of simple

organic molecules was possible.

Miller–Urey experiment.

Conditions for emergence of life

- The results of the Miller-Urey experiment helped us to understand what the
necessary conditions are for life to occur.
- Scientists believe that there are four conditions needed for life to emerge and
persist:
1. Simple organic molecules, such as amino acids, fatty acids, and
carbohydrates, must be formed.
2. Larger organic molecules, such as phospholipids, RNA, and DNA, must
be assembled from simpler molecules.
3. Organisms reproduce, so replication of nucleic acids must be possible.
4. Biochemical reactions require set conditions, such as pH. Therefore,
self-contained structures, such as membranes are necessary.
 Manuela Corbellini
September 19th, 2022
Topic 1.5

The endosymbiotic theory

- The endosymbiotic theory explains the origin of eukaryotic cells.
- The proof lies in the double membrane structure of organelles, such as
mitochondria and chloroplasts, and in the comparison of the DNA of those
organelles with prokaryotic genomes
- This theory supports the idea that mitochondria and chloroplasts were prokaryotes
that were taken in by larger prokaryotes by endocytosis.
- Instead of being digested and broken down, these cells remained inside the host
cells.
i. Cells that could carry out aerobic respiration and hence provide energy
to their host cell (which were probably anaerobes who did not need
oxygen) evolved into mitochondria.
ii. Cells that could convert light energy to chemical energy (probably
cyanobacteria) became chloroplasts and passed on sugars produced
during photosynthesis to the host cell.
- The following evidence supports the endosymbiotic theory. Both mitochondria and
chloroplasts:
- Have double membrane, as expected for cells taken in by endocytosis
- Have circular naked DNA, as in prokaryotes
- Have 70s ribosomes, as in prokaryotes
- Divide by binary fission like prokaryotic cells
- Are susceptible to some antibiotics

How the first endosymbionts

may have arisen.
-
 Manuela Corbellini
September 19th, 2022
Topic 1.5

- Symbiosis is two organisms living together.

- With endosymbiosis, a larger cell takes in a smaller cell by endocytosis, so the smaller
cell is inside a vesicle in the cytoplasm of the larger cell.
- Instead of the smaller cell being digested, it's kept alive and performs a useful
function for the larger cell.
- The smaller cell divides at least as frequently as the larger cell so all
cells produced by the division of the larger cell contain one or more of
the smaller cells inside its vesicle.
- According to the endosymbiotic theory, this process happened
at least twice during the origin of eukaryotic cells
1. A cell that respired anaerobically took in a bacterium
that respiration aerobically, supplying both itself and the
larger cell a competitive advantage because aerobic
respiration is more efficient than anaerobic. Gradually
the aerobic bacterium evolved into mitochondria and the
larger cell evolved into heterotrophic eukaryotes alive
today such as animals.
2. A heterotrophic cell took in a smaller photosynthetic
bacterium, which supplied it with organic compounds,
thus making it an autotroph. The photosynthetic
prokaryote evolved into the chloroplast and the larger
cell evolved into photosynthetic eukaryotes alive today
such as plants
- This theory explains the characteristics of mitochondria and chloroplasts:
- They grow and divide like cells
- They have a naked loop of DNA, like prokaryotes
- They synthesize some of their own proteins using 70s ribosomes, like
prokaryotes
 Manuela Corbellini
September 19th, 2022
Topic 1.5

- They have double membranes, as expected when cells are taken into a vesicle
by endocytosis