The development of music therapy in mainland china
YUE WU, MM, MT-BC MacPhail Center for Music, MN
ABSTRACT: The application of music therapy in mainland China
has unique features, with its own cultural and historical charac-
teristics. From the ancient usage of music to cure diseases to the
modern standardized practices of music therapy, the history of
exploring the therapeutic use of music in China goes back thou-
sands of years. The purpose of this article is twofold: to review the
development of music therapy in mainland China from a historical
perspective, and to introduce recent accomplishments and future
developmental trends.
Evidence of the therapeutic use of music in China dating back to
the earliest music theory book and a traditional Chinese medicine
book indicates the relationship of music and medicine in the roots of
Chinese culture. The invention of music electrotherapy, the collabora-
tion between doctors and musicians, as well as experimental music
therapy projects are just a few examples of early exploration of music
therapy in China. Tian Gao is considered the pioneer in this field of
study, with contributions in education, advocacy, and the application
of music therapy in modern mainland China.
Today, music therapy in mainland China is facing both chal-
lenges and opportunities. International conferences and trainings as
well as exchange programs and opportunities to study abroad are
opening doors of communication and collaboration. The political
and financial support of the government as well as the introduc-
tion and popularization of different music therapy approaches will
propel the music therapy profession in mainland China into a new
developmental era.
Keywords: history; culture; music therapy; philosophy; music
Music therapy in mainland China has come a long way from the
ancient therapeutic use of music to modern standardized practices,
and yet still maintains its own cultural and historical characteristics.
As a country that has over 5,000 years of history, China started to
use music to cure diseases, to enforce social norms, and to execute
the administration of government as early as 500 BCE, as recorded
(Lin, 2006, p. 164). The ancient philosophy and theory of thera-
peutic uses of music built a profound foundation for today’s music
therapy practices, and this legacy has been cherished and continu-
ously adapted to the contemporary application of music therapy in
mainland China.
In the 1980s, music therapy as a profession began to take hold
in mainland China (Chinese Music Therapy Association, 2013).
A growing number of people had access to music therapy services,
and the Chinese government supported the field both politically and
financially. The purpose of this article is to review the development
Yue Wu is a native of China, who completed her graduate music therapy study at
Colorado State University and now is working as a full-time music therapist at
the MacPhail Center for Music in the Twin Cities area.Address correspondence
concerning this article to Yue Wu, MM, MT-BC, MacPhail Center for Music, 501
S 2nd Street, Minneapolis, MN 55401. E-mail: wu.yue@macphail.org. Phone:
970-980-4720.
The author wishes to thank Tian Gao, Hongyi Zhang, Mingming Liu, Bing Li, Jinyi Li,
and Lujie Wang for generously providing information about the development of music
therapy in mainland China, as well as Drs. Michael Thaut, Lisa Summer, and Dawn Miller
for graciously sharing their experiences and perspectives on music therapy in China. The
author is immensely grateful to Drs. William Davis, Roberta Kagin, Blythe LaGasse, and
Andrew Knight for their guidance and support during the process of writing this article.
© American Music Therapy Association 2018. All rights reserved. For permissions,
please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com
doi:10.1093/mtp/mix023
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of music therapy in mainland China from a historical perspective
and to introduce recent accomplishments and future developmental
trends.
Ancient Philosophy and Theory
Since ancient times, the Chinese words for “music” (樂) and
“medicine” (藥) have been very similar. In ancient China, “music”
(樂) and “medicine” (藥) have the same origin in oracle bone
script and Jin script (formed between 1600 BC and 1000 BC)
(Wang, 1987, p. 467). Many people believed that their ancestors
used music as medicine to improve their physical, emotional,
and spiritual well-being in ancient times (Lai, 2000, p. 119).
Two ancient books written between 476 BCE and 221 BCE
discussed the therapeutic use of music. Yue Ji, translated as
Record of Music, is the earliest fully developed treatise on
music to survive in China (“Record of music,” 2011). This doc-
ument systematically discussed ancient Chinese music theory
and music philosophy, including “the origin, substance, and
characteristics of music and its relationship to government
and society” (Cook, 1995, p. 11). The book recognized that
music is an indispensable part of people’s lives and empha-
sized the social-cultural function of music; the use of music
should cooperate with other areas, including governance,
social norms, ethics, and education (“Yue Ji,” 2016). The book
is “thought to be the single most influential work on music in
the Chinese tradition, inasmuch as the thought exemplified
in this work has continued to exert a great and inescapable
formative influence on much of subsequent Chinese musi-
cal thought” (Cook, 1995, p. 11). According to Yue Ji, music
is a reflection of social life and also a method of expressing
emotion (“Yue Ji”). On the other hand, music can affect one’s
emotions, will, characteristics, and behaviors (ibid.). Different
types of music have different effects: rapid and loud music
typically makes people fretful and impatient; harmonious
and soft music usually has calming and satisfaction-inducing
effects (“Record of music”). Yue Ji indicates that music educa-
tion includes not only teaching knowledge of music and arts,
but also cultivating moral virtue and emotional health (ibid.).
Because music is sequential and structured, social rules and
norms were often taught through songs and dances; because
music is expressive and inspirational, it was also used to
develop value traits such as honesty, love, kindness, and
integrity (ibid.). Based on this philosophy, music was used
as a political and educational tool in the administration of
society to promote social stability, to educate social morals
and norms, as well as to develop good personal characters
and enhance self-cultivation (“Yue Ji”).
Some controversy exists regarding the authorship and pub-
lication of Yue Ji. Guo Moruo (1892–1978), a Chinese his-
torian, archaeologist, and writer, asserted that the book was
written by Gongsun Ni Zi (birth and death unknown), who
was Confucius’s second-generation disciple and lived during
 2 Music Therapy Perspectives
the early Warring States period (476–221 BCE) (Guo, 1945,
p. 161). In contrast, Cai Zhongde (1947–2004), a Chinese
musical historian and philosopher, indicated that Yue Ji was
written by Liu De (?–130 BCE), the second son of Emperor Jing
of Han and a bibliophile in the Western Han Dynasty (206
BCE–8 AD) (Cai, 1997, p. 72).
Besides being used by governors as a political and educa-
tional tool, music was also used by average people to enhance
their health. As written down in the literature of traditional
Chinese medicine, music is the link to mood and behavior
and helps promote harmony and balance between body, soul,
and spirit (Alter, 2005, p. 7).
Huangdi Nei Jing, also translated as Yellow Emperor’s Inner
Canon, is the earliest traditional Chinese medicine theory
book and is “treated as the fundamental doctrinal source for
Chinese medicine for more than two millennia” (“Huangdi
Neijing,” Wikipedia, 2014). The book collected 162 traditional
Chinese medical articles and was most likely written during
the Warring States period (475221 BCE) (“Huangdi Neijing,”
Medical Encyclopedia). According to Huangdi Nei Jing, differ-
ent types of music have different effects on the human body
(Li, 2007). Traditional Chinese music is based on pentatonic
scales. The five basic modes are Gong (C-D-E-G-A), Shang
(D-E-G-A-C), Jue (E-G-A-C-D), Zhi (G-A-C-D-E), and Yu (A-C-
D-E-G). Huangdi Nei Jing discussed the relationship between
these five modes and five human organs, the liver, heart,
spleen, lung, and kidney (Mu, Xuan, & Li, 2000, p. 92), as
well as how to use this relationship to improve overall health
in human beings (Zhang, 2000, pp. 138–139).
These two ancient books showed the rich tradition of the
therapeutic use and philosophy of music in Chinese history;
this became part of the culture and influenced the subse-
quent development in Chinese music therapy. In Horden’s
book Music as Medicine—The History of Music Therapy since
Antiquity, he said that “the whole of Chinese culture, includ-
ing music, is therapeutic” (2005, p. 47).
Early Exploration
After the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in
1949, music therapy attracted the interest of many musicians,
researchers, and clinicians. Music electrotherapy became an
early, exploratory tool for Chinese medical practice and music
therapy. Research suggested the effectiveness of music elec-
trotherapy on a variety of populations. Many clinical and edu-
cational institutes started to develop their own music therapy
programs. In the 1980s, music electrotherapy was introduced
at international conferences and China started to be active in
music therapy affairs worldwide.
In the 1970s, hospitals began to apply music electro-
therapy in rehabilitation and disease prevention (Zhang &
Huang, 2010). Music electrotherapy is the use of music
incorporated with electro-acupuncture. Electro-acupuncture
attaches needles to electrodes, which “send electrical currents
or pulses into the body” (Hsu, 2013). One shortcoming of
electro-acupuncture is that the electrodes keep the same fre-
quency. This increases the likelihood that patients will get used
to the repetitive electrode signals; the outcome is therefore not
as effective (Wang, Xu, Dong, & Dong, 2014, p. 1247). The
principle of music electrotherapy is to transfer a music signal
into low-to-middle electrode frequency (20–20000 Hz) and
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apply this signal to patients’ meridian system (the meridian
system is “a concept in traditional Chinese medicine about
a path through which the life-energy known as ‘qi’ flows”;
Novella, 2012) while patients are listening to the music. Since
music is melodic, rhythmic, and has changes in volume,
the random pulse waveform stimulates the meridian system
with varied electrode frequency that enhances the effect of
the treatment (Wang, Xu, Dong, & Dong, 2014, p. 1247). In
addition, soft music with a flowing melody can calm patients
and bring enjoyment to them during treatment. The benefit of
music electrotherapy is “improving the person’s psychological
and physiological conditions through music and music sig-
nals that act on the auditory system and other systems in the
human body to achieve health, disease prevention, and re-
habilitation purposes” (Zhang & Huang, 2010).
Music electrotherapy was widely used for various psychi-
atric and neurologic conditions such as depression, muscle
injury, facial paralysis, neurasthenia, neurosis, dementia, and
stroke (Wang, Xu, Dong, & Dong, 2014, p. 1247). Music
electrotherapy was utilized in stroke rehabilitation by apply-
ing electric current on the impaired limb and causing muscle
contraction (Liu, 1987, p. 111). The muscle contraction and
expansion caused by electric pulses can enhance muscle
strength and muscle tension, and thus promote functional re-
covery of the impaired limb (ibid., p. 113). The blood ves-
sels also contract and expand under the stimulation of electric
current. Research has shown that this “blood vessel massage”
can promote vasodilation and increase blood flow, and there-
fore improve the cerebral ischemia and hypoxia status (ibid.,
p. 112). In a study conducted by Shuyun Chen (1991, p. 106),
she compared the effects of music electrotherapy and regular
electrotherapy on athletes’ muscle soreness recovery. The
results suggested that music electrotherapy was more effective
than regular electrotherapy and that music also helped reduce
central nervous system fatigue (ibid., p. 107). The Qingdao
Air Force nursing home tested the long-term effectiveness of
music electrotherapy on 168 patients who had neurosis with
symptoms such as headache, insomnia, fatigue, and anxiety
(Dong & Sun, 1996, p. 54). The researchers followed the 168
patients after their treatment for 2–5 years. Results showed
that 52.38% of the patients did not relapse over two years
and also avoided the side effects of traditional medication
therapy (ibid., p. 55). According to Jihong Liu et al. (2013,
p. 101), music electrotherapy can also assist in keeping up
the morale of navy officers and soldiers. The “Healthy Music
Electrotherapy Machine” used in this study combined electro-
therapy, heat therapy, music, and pictures, resulting in two na-
tional utility patents in China (ibid., p. 104). During the 1990s,
music electrotherapy was used with psychotherapy in treating
anxiety neurosis in order to enhance the treatment effect (Hu,
Liu, & Li, 1994, p. 160).
Music electrotherapy was first introduced internationally to
music therapy professionals at the International Music Therapy
Leadership Conference beginning April 16 through 20, 1987,
in Provo, Utah (Miu, 1987, p. 155). Hongshi Miu gave a pres-
entation on music electrotherapy that attracted great attention.
Dr. Peter Jampel, the president of the American Association
for Music Therapy at the time, commented that this approach
“opened another door and developed a new approach for
music therapy” (ibid., p. 156). In 1993, the First International
 The development of music therapy in mainland china
Symposium on Oriental Medicine was held in New York.
Delin Li, representing the Chinese Music Therapy Association,
gave a speech, “Current Development and Future Trends of
Music Electrotherapy in China,” that received positive feed-
back (Zhao & Li, 1996).
In 1980, Bangrui Liu’s introduction of music therapy to
mainland China greatly expanded people’s knowledge of
music therapy and spearheaded the recent exploration of this
field. Bangrui Liu, a Chinese American who was an Arizona
State University Associate Professor of School of Liberal Arts,
was invited to the Central Conservatory of Music in China in
1980 and first introduced music therapy to China (Liu, 1980,
p. 58). During her stay at the Central Conservatory of Music in
China (March 14–June 27), Liu presented five lectures under
the title of “Several Topics of Western Musicology Study” and
held eight seminars with students in the Asian-African-Latin
music group in the musicology department (ibid.). The last
of the five lectures, “The Topic of Music Therapy,” was given
on June 27, 1980 (ibid.). In this lecture, Liu talked about the
origin and development, research trends and theories such as
ISO principle, and application of music therapy in the U.S.,
as well as her own experience working as a music therapist
(ibid., pp. 58–63). Thereafter, many agencies and individuals
started to explore music therapy in mainland China.
In 1984, Hunan Mawangdui Nursing Home founded the
first music psycho-therapy center in mainland China, and
used the “YZJ series microcomputer-controlled music psycho-
therapy machine” to address physical and psychological dis-
orders such as neurosis, hypertension, coronary heart disease,
and so on (Chinese Music Therapy Association). In the 1980s,
Beijing Huilongguan Hospital and Shanghai Mental Health
Center explored the application of music intervention with
psychiatric patients (Peng, 2009, p. 22). From 1986 to 1988,
the China Conservatory of Music and Beijing Huilongguan
Hospital developed a partnership on studying “Music Therapy
and Chronic Schizophrenia”; this study was awarded the
third-place Beijing Science and Technology Progress Award
(Zhang, 2004, p. 106). Beijing Huilongguan Hospital built the
first music therapy room among all the psychiatric hospitals
in the nation in 1991, becoming a new method in psychiatric
rehabilitation in China (Chinese Music Therapy Association).
Thereafter, many psychiatric hospitals, nursing homes, and re-
habilitation centers launched music therapy programs (Zhang,
2004, p. 106).
In 1994, the psychological counseling department at Beijing
Tongren Hospital launched a program to facilitate the treat-
ment of elderly cardiovascular disease and sleep disorders by
using music (ibid.). The program was well received and was
called “enjoyable treatment” by the public (ibid.). Soon after,
music therapy was not only practiced in specialized medical
facilities, but was also integrated into various departments in
general hospitals (ibid.).
In 1988, the China Conservatory of Music established the
first music therapy program in mainland China beginning in
1989 (Chinese Music Therapy Association).The music therapy
program included both undergraduate- and graduate-level
studies with Hongyi Zhang as the only instructor (Hongyi
Zhang, e-mail message to author, April 13, 2014). The first
music therapy organization in mainland China, the Chinese
Music Therapy Association (CMTA) was founded by a group
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of musicians, psychologists, and medical professionals in
October 1989 (Chinese Music Therapy Association). The mis-
sion of CMTA is: “Discussing, studying and advocating music
therapy, as well as creating and developing music therapy
with Chinese characteristics by cooperating closely with pro-
fessionals from the disciplines of music, medicine, psych-
ology, science and medical equipment making” (Zhang, Gao,
& Liu, 2016, p. 67). The association became the bridge to con-
nect music therapy researchers and clinicians that spurred the
development of music therapy in mainland China (Zheng &
Chen, 2004, p. 92). In 1993, China was invited to join the
World Federation of Music Therapy (WFMT) and Hongyi
Zhang became one of the council members (Zhang, 2004,
p. 106). Since then, China has participated in music therapy
affairs worldwide.
Development over the Past 20 Years
The modern practice of music therapy in mainland China
began with the contribution of Tian Gao.
Gao came to the U.S. and studied music therapy at Temple
University in 1986. At the end of 1996, he moved back to
Beijing, China, becoming the first and only person to return
after studying music therapy systematically overseas during
the next 15 years (Gao, e-mail message to author, January
29, 2014). He then implemented in China those theories
and techniques he learned during his studies (Gao’s Music
Therapy Center, “Therapist Tian Gao,” 2014). After returning
to China, Gao attended many trainings related to psycho-
social therapy, such as hypnotherapy, family therapy, psycho-
dynamic psychotherapy, and Eye Movement Desensitization
and Reprocessing (EMDR), all of which were presented by
international well-known professionals (Gao, e-mail message
to author, December 1, 2015). As a certificated EMDR ther-
apist, Gao combined the idea of music entrainment and
music imagery with EMDR, then developed one kind of treat-
ment for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) called Music
Entrainment and Reprocessing (MER) (Gao, 2013A, p. 99).
“MER is aimed at changing clients’ state of pain and anxiety
toward more positive states as the therapist guides the cli-
ent through various relaxation, imagery, and cognitive-based
techniques that are supported with therapist-selected music”
(ibid.). This technique has been suggested to be an effective
method “in eliminating the influences of traumatic events on
many clients” (Gao, 2013B, p. 108).
In his 25 years of clinical practice in both Western and
Eastern cultural conditions, Gao gradually developed his cul-
turally based approach to facilitate the situations and meet the
needs of Chinese clients. According to Gao, many Western
psychology theories and cultural norms are in conflict with
traditional Chinese culture and values (Gao, e-mail message
to author, February 6, 2014). For example, in Chinese culture,
children obey their parents when they are young. As they grow
up, they become responsible for their elders. At the beginning
of his practice, Gao employed the Western style of psycho-
therapy techniques to guide clients, but it turned out that the
tension between clients and their family members increased
(ibid.). In order to meet the needs of Chinese clients, blend-
ing the Western and Eastern philosophies and adapting music
therapy theories and techniques has been necessary. Gao
started to involve traditional Chinese cultural context and
 4 Music Therapy Perspectives
social norms to treat clients; by using this cultural structured
application, the clients’ conditions improved (Gao, e-mail
message to author, December 1, 2015).
In 1996, Gao established the Music Therapy Research Center
of the Central Conservatory of Music in Beijing, China. This in-
stitution was the first specialized music therapy research insti-
tution that combined teaching, research, and clinical services
together. In order to establish a standard, high-quality, inter-
nationally acceptable program, the Music Therapy Research
Center referred to American curricula to develop courses;
English materials were also used to teach. Many researchers
and music therapists from all over the world were invited to
give guest lectures or trainings in the Central Conservatory of
Music in China. The master’s program in music therapy at the
Central Conservatory of Music was established in 1999, and
a bachelor’s program followed in 2003 (Central Conservatory
of Music, 2014).
In 1999, Gao opened the first specialized music psycho-
therapy agency in China, called Gao’s Music Therapy Center
(Gao’s Music Therapy Center, “Therapist Tian Gao”). In the
same year, he started a radio program named “Music Therapy
in Beijing People’s Broadcasting Station” that provided ser-
vices for people suffering from sleep disorders and neuras-
thenia (ibid.). Chinese society was quite open to accepting
music therapy, with many newspapers and TV stations pro-
ducing reports about music therapy (Gao, e-mail message to
author, January 29, 2014). Consequently, through extensive
media coverage, music therapy gained more recognition by
the public. In addition to an increased number of students
enrolling in music therapy programs, there has also been an
increased interest by many music teachers, students, doc-
tors, nurses, and counselors who were hoping to have more
opportunities to learn music therapy theories and techniques
(ibid.). Since 2004, Gao’s Music Therapy Center has offered
music therapy training programs to the public. The center
developed a systematic training model that included both
online and on-campus courses at novice, intermediate, and
advanced levels. Each level has 5–7 courses that are available
throughout the year. However, since these courses are being
offered to working professionals, most classes are held dur-
ing summer, winter, and holiday breaks (Gao, e-mail message
to author, December 1, 2015). In the past 10 years, over 50
trainings have been held; students and professionals from all
over the country have completed the training and received
certificates (Gao, e-mail message to author, January 29, 2014).
The number of attendees has steadily increased by 600 people
every year (Gao, e-mail message to author, December 1,
2015). Some of the trainees were from medical institutions,
such as hospitals and clinics, and then incorporated music
therapy into their own practices (Gao, e-mail message to au-
thor, January 29, 2014).
In 2007, Gao established the Chinese Professional Music
Therapy Association (CPMTA) in Beijing that provides dis-
tance education, professional training, updated music therapy
information, and certified examinations in China (Chinese
Professional Music Therapy Association, 2007). CPMTA is
the organization that identifies Chinese music therapists who
have advanced knowledge and skills for music therapy prac-
tice (Bing Li, in discussion with the author, March 2016). The
mission of CPMTA is “promoting the education and training
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of music therapists in China, establishing a team of Chinese
music therapists that meets the international professional
standard and driving the profession to develop in a fast and
healthy way” (Zhang, Gao, & Liu, 2016, p. 68). The Music
Therapy Certified Training Institution provides a comprehen-
sive curriculum including courses such as Music Therapy,
Music Theory, Musical Skills, Psychology, Physiology, and
Counseling, among others (Gao, e-mail message to au-
thor, January 29, 2014). Certification includes three levels
(novice, intermediate, and advanced), with each level having
specific requirements (Chinese Professional Music Therapy
Association). After completing coursework, students must
complete a 720-hour supervised internship before becoming
certified. By 2015, about 2,000 people had participated in the
training, with over 200 people receiving certification (Gao,
e-mail message to author, December 1, 2015).
In 2008, the devastating Sichuan earthquake occurred in
Wenchuan, Sichuan Province, China. This earthquake measured
8.0 on the Richter scale, causing the deaths of 69,712 people
with 17,921 people missing (“The number of dead and missing
students in Wenchuan earthquake reached 5,300,” 2009). In
response to this tragedy, Gao organized three groups of music
therapy undergraduate and graduate students who traveled to
Wenchuan. Each group spent one month in the earthquake-hit
area and applied music therapy to relieve the pain of people
who suffered the loss of family and loved ones (Wang, Zhang,
& Song, 2013). They set up a series of music therapy experi-
ences and interventions, such as “music performances, music
games, sing-alongs, and music with dance or movement activi-
ties” to help the victims vent their agony, relieve suffering, and
rebuild their hope for life (ibid.). As an observer, a TV reporter
stated that, due to music interventions, “it was the first time
he had seen people happy since the earthquake” (Gao et al.,
2012). Besides Gao and his team, the Guangdong Provincial
Association of Chinese Medicine launched the “Music Love
Home” post-earthquake music therapy rehabilitation assist-
ance project, which involved the Guangzhou University of
Chinese Medicine, Xinghai Conservatory of Music, and China
Conservatory of Music participating (Huo, 2010, p. 685). Gao
became a founding member of the International Association for
Music and Medicine (IAMM) in 2009, where “He has played a
critical role in the international efforts in growing and integrat-
ing music and medicine across the globe” (Zhang, Gao, & Liu,
2016, p. 69).
After 2012, many Chinese music therapists decided to
return to China after studying overseas (Gao, e-mail mes-
sage to author, January 29, 2014). Currently, there are 13
universities/colleges that have a music therapy major in
mainland China (see Figure 1). Current programs include the
Central Conservatory of Music, China Conservatory of Music,
Shanghai Conservatory of Music, Sichuan Conservatory of
Music, Wuhan Conservatory of Music, Shenyang Conservatory
of Music, Minzu University of China, Yunnan Arts University,
the Third Military Medical University, Jiangxi University of
Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shandong University of Arts,
Nanjing Technical College of Special Education, and Shanxi
Changzhi Medical College (Gao, e-mail message to author,
January 29, 2014). In addition, there are other schools prepar-
ing to offer music therapy courses (Gao, e-mail message to
author, December 1, 2015).
 The development of music therapy in mainland china
Figure 1. Schools that offer music therapy degrees in mainland China.
One of the weaknesses of Chinese music therapy education
has been the lack of supervision by qualified music therapists
in students’ practica and internships (Gao, e-mail message
to author, January 29, 2014). Therefore, the students’ clinical
experience may have been substandard, hindering their abil-
ity to achieve a high standard of practice. This lack of super-
vision began to change in 2013. First, more music therapy
major students were encouraged to work in hospitals after
graduating, in order to gain clinical experience. Moreover, a
group of students who had studied abroad and were system-
atically trained joined the field of music therapy in mainland
China and brought the standards of Western clinical practice
into Chinese music therapy practices (Gao, e-mail message
to author, December 1, 2015). In 2015, Gao’s Music Therapy
Center in Beijing started to accept music therapy interns.
At the same time, a number of music therapists returned to
China after finishing their course of study and clinical train-
ing, working as both clinicians and supervisors at the center.
The growing needs of music therapy and growing number of
music therapy supervisors enabled the center to have more
interns. According to Gao, there are many more students who
will finish their studies in the U.S. and plan to go back to
China (ibid.). The center plans to expand their services and
aims to have the largest capacity possible to accept music
therapy interns in mainland China (ibid.). In addition, many
cities, such as Beijing, Guangdong, Zhengzhou, Chengdu, in
mainland China have started to hire music therapists on staff
in their public or community health care systems. Some of the
hospitals include Peking University Cancer Hospital, Fengtai
Maternal & Child Health Hospital, and Jiangmen Maternity
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and Child Health Care Hospital, among many more (Li, in
discussion with the author, March 2016).
As an authority in Chinese music therapy, Gao recom-
mended two students who studied abroad to work in Wuxi
Tongren International Rehabilitation Hospital, in Jiangsu
Province (Gao, e-mail message to author, January 29, 2014).
Wuxi Tongren International Rehabilitation Hospital is an upper
first-class hospital (the highest level of hospital in mainland
China) and has various departments, including neurological
rehabilitation, psychiatric, cardiovascular, otolaryngology,
and geriatric wards, among other medical services (Wuxi
Mental Health Center, “About the hospital,” 2013). Gao had
an agreement with the hospital director to establish the hos-
pital as a designated internship setting for music therapy major
students; the hospital director indicated that all the depart-
ments of the hospital would be open to the practice of music
therapy students (Gao, e-mail message to author, January
29, 2014). The hospital became a university-affiliated intern-
ship site for Chinese students who study at the University of
Melbourne in Australia, Chonbuk National University in South
Korea, the Central Conservatory of Music, Jiangxi University of
Traditional Chinese Medicine, Xiamen University, Changzhi
Medical College, and others in mainland China (Wuxi Mental
Health Center, “The first international neurologic music
therapy training program in China was held in Wuxi,” 2016).
The full-time music therapists working in this hospital also
serve as supervisors for the music therapy internship pro-
grams, providing students more opportunities to practice and
gain clinical experiences (Gao’s Music Therapy Center, “A no-
tification of music therapy internship”).
 6 Music Therapy Perspectives
In addition to Wuxi Tongren International Rehabilitation
Hospital, other music therapy internship sites that employ
full-time music therapists are Beijing Anding Hospital, Beijing
Boai Hospital, Xuanwu Hospital, Beijing Children’s Hospital,
Beijing Xicheng Pingan Hospital, China Rehabilitation
Research Center, and the Young Activities Center of China
Disabled Persons Federation (CDPF) (Zhang, Gao, & Liu,
2016, p. 68). In 2014, Beijing Yinling Nursing Home and the
Second Hospital of Beijing were added as designated intern-
ship settings for music therapy major students; these facili-
ties also have full-time music therapists to supervise students’
practice (Gao, e-mail message to author, March 23, 2014).
In addition to teaching and conducting music therapy
and research, Gao has written, translated, and edited several
books that are quite influential in mainland China (see ap-
pendix): Basic Theory of Music Therapy; An Introduction to
Music Therapy; Clinical Training Guide for the Student Music
Therapist; Receptive Music Therapy; Improvisation: Methods
and Techniques for Music Therapy Clinicians, Educators,
and Students; Music Therapy Clinical Application; and
Music Therapy in Dementia Care (Tian Gao’s Music Therapy
Center, 2015).
In recent years, with the development of music therapy in
mainland China, many music therapists who once studied
under Gao have carried out their own music therapy programs
around the country.
Chunmiao Burn Camp in Chongqing has been providing
free services every year since 2011 for children ages 6–18
who have experienced burn trauma but do not have access
to outpatient treatment. Music therapy is part of this interdis-
ciplinary team that includes doctors, psychotherapists, phys-
ical therapists, and occupational therapists. Starting in 2015,
the camp began to recruit music therapy student volunteers
nationwide and music therapy professional volunteers world-
wide. Music therapists, music therapy students, and musicians
from America, Canada, Taiwan, and mainland China have
participated in this program. Charities and companies donate
to cover fees and living expenses for the clients and volunteers
(Li, e-mail message to author, January 25, 2017). Dr. Annie
Heiderscheit from Augsburg College was invited to visit the
camp in 2015, developing a program called “Music Therapy
in China: Chongqing Burn Camp,” which was designed to
enrich students’ global education experience by visiting
music therapy clinics and communicating with Chinese
music therapists. Augsburg College now offers music therapy
undergraduate and graduate students the following courses:
Music Therapy Practicum (MUS 374) and Transcultural Music
Therapy II (MUS 582) (Center for Global Education and
Experience, 2017).
Yueling Music Therapy Service Center, founded in 2014 in
Chengdu, Sichuan Province, is the first and only music therapy
public welfare service organization in mainland China (Yueling
Music Therapy Service Center, 2017). The organization pro-
vides music therapy services to children with developmental
disabilities, homeless adolescents, older adults, and the gen-
eral public (ibid.). In August 2014, the Yueling Music Therapy
Service Center (in cooperation with the Chengdu Charity
General Association) launched the “Sunshine Charity Music
Therapy Project.” This project provides free music therapy
intervention to homeless children and orphans, as well as to
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children with developmental delays such as autism spectrum
disorder, Down syndrome, and cerebral palsy. The families of
these children often cannot afford the expenses of therapies
(Wang, in discussion with the author, February 2017). After
three years of therapy, the clients’ communication skills, so-
cial adaptability, along with speech and language abilities,
improved greatly (Yueling Music Therapy Service Center). Up
to now, the center has worked with more than 3,000 homeless
children, with the support of government funds (Zhang, Gao,
& Liu, 2016, pp. 69–70).
Future Prospects
Government’s Involvement
The Chinese government has also played an important role
in supporting the growth of music therapy in mainland China.
China has an increasingly aging population, which presents
challenges for Chinese society. The Ministry of Civil Affairs of
the People’s Republic of China predicted that in 2050, China
will have about 400 million people above 60 years old, which
is about 30% of the total population (“A forecast report on
the development trend of population aging in China,” 2006).
The China Central Television (CCTV), the official media in
China, presented a one-week special report about dementia
and Alzheimer’s disease in 2013. The government empha-
sized the aim to “establish a fairer and more sustainable social
welfare system” and “further develop the elderly services in-
dustry” (“The decision on major issues concerning compre-
hensively deepening reforms,” 2013). These facts support the
argument that Chinese society needs music therapy services,
which in turn promotes further development of music therapy
in mainland China.
The social challenge of a growing elderly population be-
came a catalytic factor for China’s New Government Funded
Public Service Model. “A Government’s Purchase Public
Service (GPPS) model is defined as government transfer-
ring part of public service to social organizations, in order
to enhance the quality of public service and efficient use
of funding, to improve the social governance framework,
and to fulfill the more diverse and individualized needs of
the public” (Yueling Music Therapy Service Center). The na-
tional conditions and government’s support provide more job
opportunities for music therapists and new graduates. Gao’s
Music Therapy Center contracted with the Beijing Disabled
Person’s Federation to serve approximately 500 people who
have developmental disabilities (ibid.). By the end of 2016,
thirty-seven community music therapy service programs were
currently thriving (Li, in discussion with the author, November
2016). The music therapy team at Gao’s Music Therapy Center
have been striving to expand the areas of music therapy ser-
vices and advocate for the music therapy profession. From
2015 to 2016, the amount of government funding increased
from $101,890 to $159,480; the number of employed music
therapists increased from three full-time and two part-time
music therapists to six full-time and one part-time music ther-
apist; and the number of music therapy interns increased from
five to eighteen (Li, 2016). Besides government grants, other
sources of income in the field of music therapy in mainland
China are insurance reimbursement and personal pay (Li, in
discussion with the author, March 2016). In 2014, Gao and
 The development of music therapy in mainland china
his team started to popularize music therapy interventions for
Alzheimer’s disease and patients with post-stroke symptoms on
a large scale (Gao, e-mail message to author, March 23, 2014).
This important historic opportunity to promote music therapy
development in China is closely related to international pro-
fessional development and academic communication.
International Conferences and Trainings
China has hosted several international conferences and
invited well-known music therapists and researchers as key-
note speakers and workshop trainers. Many internationally re-
nowned music therapists, including Drs. Cheryl Dileo, Clive
Robbins, Barbara Wheeler, Roberta Kagin, Suzanne Hanser,
Michael Rohrbacher, Rob Amchin, Maria Montserrat Gimeno,
Blythe LaGasse, and Annie Heiderscheit, have come to main-
land China to share their knowledge and skills with Chinese
music therapists (Zhang, Gao, & Liu, 2016, pp. 68–69). The
conferences and trainings have provided important opportuni-
ties to build international connections.
Since 2009, Dr. Lisa Summer, the Director of Music Therapy
at Anna Maria College, has led the Guided Imagery and Music
(GIM) training institute in Beijing, and she has been invited to pre-
sent in multiple universities and colleges across mainland China
(ibid., p. 69). Throughout the years, Summer witnessed the quick
growth of music therapy in China and found “the spirit of the
Chinese music therapists to be so kind, giving, and dedicated to
their work” (Summer, e-mail message to author, April 15, 2017).
Today, Chinese music is widely used with most methods in the
Continuum Model of GIM that developed in the 1980s (except
for the Bonny Method, which only uses Western classical music).
This allows Chinese music therapists to provide a client-centered,
supportive environment for Chinese clients (ibid.).
Dr. Michael Thaut, the director of the Robert F. Unkefer
Academy for Neurologic Music Therapy and the founder of
Neurologic Music Therapy (NMT), attended the Twelfth Chinese
Music Therapy Association conference as a keynote speaker in
April 2015 (Gao, e-mail message to author, January 29, 2014).
The first International Neurologic Music Therapy Training in
China was held in Wuxi on June 18–21, 2016 (Wuxi Mental
Health Center, “The first international neurologic music ther-
apy training program in China was held in Wuxi”). Over 150
music therapists attended the training, and it was estimated that
one-third of the attendants are from countries outside mainland
China, such as America, France, Singapore, Malaysia, Korea,
Hong Kong, Macao, and Taiwan (ibid.). The training program
“provides therapists with advanced clinical training and scien-
tific knowledge in the field of NMT” (Center for Biomedical
Research in Music, 2014). Dr. Thaut expects the introduction of
NMT to supply this developing profession in China with a scien-
tific foundation (Thaut, e-mail message to author, May 1, 2014).
In October 2016, the first Nordoff-Robbins Music Therapy
training in mainland China was held in Beijing. Jacqueline
Birnbaum and Jenny Fu from the Nordoff-Robbins Center for
Music Therapy introduced this approach to Chinese music
therapists, behavior therapists, social workers, special educa-
tion teachers, and so on (Wucailu Autism Spectrum Disorder
Research Center, “The first Nordoff-Robbins music therapy
training held in Beijing,” 2016). Due to the great feedback
received from the first training, Dr. Alan Turry, the managing
director of Nordoff-Robbins Center for Music Therapy, and Dr.
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7
Dong Min Kim, the president of the Korean Nordoff-Robbins
Music Therapy Association, were invited to Beijing to provide
the second training in March 2017 (Wucailu Autism Spectrum
Disorder Research Center, “Nordoff-Robbins music therapy
training,” 2017). This event has also received support from the
China Disabled Persons’ Federation (ibid.).
Dawn Miller, the music therapy internship director at Park
Nicollet Health Services, was invited to present at two confer-
ences in different parts of China. At the Fourth International
Conference of the International Association for Music and
Medicine (IAMM) (June 11–13, 2016), which was hosted by the
Chinese Society of Music Therapy and the Chinese Professional
Music Therapists Association, Miller gave a presentation enti-
tled “Healing from the Core: Music and Imagery in the Cancer
Journey.” At the CPOS Academic Annual Conference and
Eighth Psycho-Oncology and Palliative Care Training Meeting
(June 17–19, 2016) hosted by the Hunan Cancer Hospital and
Chinese Psycho-Oncology Society, Miller presented on the
topic of “Music Therapy in Oncology.” After interacting with
Chinese music therapists and learning about music therapy in
China, Miller stated her impression of Chinese music therapy:
“It is a very exciting time right now for music therapy in China.
I met some music therapy professionals and a lot of students,
who are intelligent, competent, motivated, and excited about
music therapy. I am very impressed about the students from the
Central Conservatory of Music and the leadership from Tian
Gao.” Miller also learned that many music therapists who stud-
ied in America or Europe had come back to China to develop
this field. According to Miller’s observation, these professionals
worked well with each other, and “Music therapy will grow in
China, and people will need music therapy” (Miller, in discus-
sion with the author, July 2016).
Exchange Programs
The undergraduate exchange program between the Central
Conservatory of Music (CCM) and the State University of
New York (SUNY) at New Paltz, New York, was established
in 2005. The exchange program provides the music therapy
undergraduate students at CCM the opportunity to spend their
senior year in the U.S. and study at SUNY, New Paltz (Liu, in
discussion with the author, October 2016).
Exchange programs with Colorado State University and
Augsburg College in Minnesota are in process, and this ex-
change may provide opportunities for students from both
countries to learn from each other (ibid.).
Summary
From the ancient usage of music by governors to today’s
application of Western music therapy techniques blended
with Chinese cultural traditions, the history of exploring the
therapeutic use of music in China goes back thousands of
years. Since early exploration of this subject included cul-
tural traditions, the practical application of music therapy
in mainland China has very unique features. The increas-
ingly aging population in China’s society provides an oppor-
tunity for the further development of this profession. The
support of government and the introduction and popular-
ization of different music therapy approaches will propel
the music therapy profession in mainland China into a new
developmental era.
 8 Music Therapy Perspectives
As a timely topic of intercultural experience and diversity
in music therapy, this article may provide Western clinicians
with an insight into traditional Chinese music philosophy and
its impact on today’s practice. The author hopes that the cul-
tural differences discussed in this article will provide impli-
cations for clinicians who may be working with people of
Chinese descent. Music therapy in mainland China is grow-
ing rapidly, and there is an air of expectancy for future inter-
national collaborations.
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Appendix
Books Written and Translated by Tian Gao
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