Journal of Counselor Leadership and Advocacy

ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ucla20

Transformational leadership and the big five

personality traits of counselor educators

Caroline Lopez-Perry

To cite this article: Caroline Lopez-Perry (2020): Transformational leadership and the big five
personality traits of counselor educators, Journal of Counselor Leadership and Advocacy, DOI:
10.1080/2326716X.2020.1820406

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/2326716X.2020.1820406

Published online: 16 Sep 2020.

Submit your article to this journal

View related articles

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=ucla20
JOURNAL OF COUNSELOR LEADERSHIP AND ADVOCACY
https://doi.org/10.1080/2326716X.2020.1820406

Transformational leadership and the big five personality traits of

counselor educators
Caroline Lopez-Perry
Department of Advanced Studies in Education and Counseling, California State University, Long Beach, Long Beach,
California, USA

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
This study examined the association between Big Five personality and coun­ Transformational leadership;
selor educators’ transformational leadership style. Findings indicate that all big five personality;
five personality traits were significant predictors. Transformational leaders counselor education; gender;
race/ethnicity
were characterized by a low score on Neuroticism and high scores on
Extraversion, Openness to Experience, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousnes
s. Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Openness to Experience were the stron­
gest predictors. This study did not find gender or racial/ethnic differences.
Implications for counselor education are discussed.

Leadership has become a topic of great importance as the Council for Accreditation and Related
Educational Programs (CACREP) and scholars in the field have underscored counselor educa­
tors’ responsibility to lead the profession (Chang et al., 2012; Wahesh et al., 2018). Proposed
avenues of leadership include advocacy and social justice (Ratts & Greenleaf, 2017), school
counseling (Dollarhide, 2003), curriculum development (Lopez & Mason, 2017), professional
identity and professional advocacy (Lewis, 2012; Myers et al., 2002), and the counseling relation­
ship (Jacob et al., 2013). Counseling organizations such as the American Counseling Association
(ACA), the Association for Counselor Education and Supervision (ACES), and Chi Sigma Iota
(CSI) have even supported leadership fellowships and leadership training for emerging leaders
(Luke & Goodrich, 2010; Wahesh & Myers, 2014), and leadership theory has been utilized to
help counselors and counselor educators develop their leadership style (Council for
Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP), 2016).
Transformational leadership (TL) has been a steady theme in the counseling literature (Chang
et al., 2012; Gibson et al., 2018; Lowe et al., 2017). It can help take an organization or
department beyond the required tasks, roles, and goals (Robbins & Judge, 2010). Leadership
qualities that create dramatic outcomes, influence followers to perform at higher levels, and
motivate them to work for a greater cause have been identified through transformational
leadership theory (Avolio & Bass, 2004). In other professions, effective TL traits can influence
organizational success and performance (Jandaghi et al., 2009). Moreover, leadership or lack
thereof can significantly impact an organization’s growth or direction (Valentine, 2011). TL style
may be valuable to counselor education programs striving to address the challenges of today and
the opportunities of tomorrow. Societal issues such as telemental health and distance counseling
during COVID-19, and racial injustice are some examples of the immediate concerns facing
counselor education. Some long-term issues facing the future of counselor education include
addressing the 20/20 Vision for the Future of Counseling initiative developed by the American
Counseling Association and distinguishing the counseling profession from other mental health
professionals. Despite the emphasis on TL in counselor education, the literature has not

CONTACT Caroline Lopez-Perry caroline.lopez@csulb.edu California State University, Long Beach., Long Beach, CA 90840
© 2020 Chi Sigma Iota
2 C. LOPEZ-PERRY

examined the attributes of counselor educators (Lewis, 2012). Prior work derives from fields
outside of the counseling profession.
Several studies support the relationship between personality and leadership (Church & Waclawski,
1998; Frey et al., 2009; Gentry & Sparks, 2012). According to Robbins and Judge (2010), personality
traits, when couched under the umbrella of the Big Five personality construct, inform who will emerge
as a leader rather than predict effectiveness. Given this relationship, an examination of the personality
attributes that differentiate transformational leaders within counselor education is warranted.
McKibben et al. (2017) have called for intentional leadership training of counselor educators, while
others suggest mentorship as an avenue for leadership development (Maccombs & Bhat, 2020).
However, leadership in counselor education needs further investigation as the specific attributes of
counselor educators who are transformational leaders have yet to be examined. In order to cultivate
a diverse group of leaders, the counseling profession must understand what traits to identify and
develop.
The current study investigated the relationship between personality attributes and TL styles of
counselor educators. Because female faculty face unique barriers in leadership development, including
gender discrimination, women’s socialization, and cultural norms (Hermann, 2014), particular atten­
tion is paid to understanding the leadership styles of female counselor educators by studying the
influence of gender and race.

Literature Review
Transformational Leadership in Counseling
While there are different theories of what constitutes leadership, TL theory has been a steady theme in
counseling. Several authors have conceptualized the overlap between TL and basic counseling skills
(Chang et al., 2012; Jacob et al., 2013; Lewis, 2012). Preliminary research in counseling suggests the TL
is most prominent in counselors (Lewis & Wester, 2004). Lewis (2012) posits that counselors, by their
very nature, focus on relationships and consequently, possess foundational leadership qualities.
Theorists have suggested that leadership presents differently based on contextual influences (Eberly
et al., 2013; Emery et al., 2013). However, much of what we know stems from outside the counseling
profession. The counseling literature has yet to examine the specific attributes of counselor educators
(Lewis, 2012).

Personality Traits and Leadership Behaviors

Leadership often requires social interactions among colleagues, clients, and supervisees; therefore,
personality features may play a role in this social process. The Big Five Factors, also known as the Five-
Factor Model, were developed by Costa and McCrae (2010) as a model to help understand the five
dimensions of personality (Extroversion, Agreeableness, Openness, Conscientiousness, and
Neuroticism) that describe human behavior. Costa and McCrae (1992) determined there was agree­
ment among the competing personality systems on the five broader domains of traits rather than the
specific traits. Thus, the Big Five is one of the more widely accepted models, due to its focus on the
broader domains rather than individual facets of personality, such as 16 Personality Factor (16PF) and
the California Psychological Inventory (CPI) which are represented within the Big 5 Model (John
et al., 1991; Ozer & Reise, 1994).
The Big Five has been used to identify key traits in leadership (Church & Waclawski, 1998; Johnson
& Hill, 2009; Judge & Bono, 2000). Utilizing the Multifactorial Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ), Frey
et al. (2009) found significant differences in personality attributes between those who exhibited a high
transformational leadership style and those who did not. Judge et al. (2002) performed a large-scale
quantitative meta-analysis, which included 222 correlations from 73 studies. Findings indicated that
leadership and personality (measured using the Big Five) accounted for 23% of the variance in
 JOURNAL OF COUNSELOR LEADERSHIP AND ADVOCACY 3

leadership emergence and effectiveness. Studies on the relationship between personality and leader­
ship have focused mainly on the business (Church & Waclawski, 1998; Frey et al., 2009; Gentry &
Sparks, 2012) and military sectors (Johnson & Hill, 2009). Hollenbeck (2000) suggested that successful
organizations employ people that have personality traits that enable the workers to fit well into both
the organization’s internal and external environments. Given the association between personality and
leadership, it is essential to understand the personality traits of counselor educators who are trans­
formational leaders.

Gender and Leadership

Research in the area of TL and personality has indicated that gender differences may exist. A review of
the literature suggests females tend to score higher on all transformational scales (Bass et al., 1996;
Eagly et al., 2003; Frey et al., 2009). Studies have shown gender differences in personality attributes
(Costa et al., 2001; Zheng & Zheng, 2011). Given that women, in general, are more likely to have
a transformational leadership style, studies should account for gender as an influencing variable. Prior
research has focused on male-dominated fields such as business (Church & Waclawski, 1998; Frey
et al., 2009) and military sectors (Johnson & Hill, 2009). Studies on the personality traits related to the
TL styles of counselor educators are lacking, particularly concerning female counselor educators.
Understanding the leadership qualities of female counselor educators is critical, considering the
unique barriers they face in leadership development. Factors such as gender discrimination, women’s
socialization, and cultural norms have contributed to the slow movement of women into academic
leadership positions (Hermann, 2014). Leadership experiences, including a sense of autonomy and
contribution to the profession, significantly influence overall life satisfaction among female counselor
educators (Hill et al., 2005). The CACREP vital statistics report (CACREP, 2018) indicated that 62% of
counselor educators and 76% of doctoral students in counselor education are female. Yet, information
on their leadership characteristics is scarce (Black & Magnuson, 2005). Because Big Five personality
traits can predict who emerges as a leader, counselor education would benefit from a greater under­
standing of the personality characteristics of women counselor educators as leaders. Prior work on
female counselor educators has focused on mothering (Trepal & Stinchfield, 2012), microaggressions
(Avent Harris et al., 2019), occupational satisfaction and quality of life (Hill et al., 2005), and
mentorship (Casto et al., 2005). There are no known reports in the literature on the personality traits
of female counselor educators or female counselor educators of color. Current knowledge regarding
female counselor educator leadership is limited to a study by Black and Magnuson (2005), which
found that leadership was developed and demonstrated within personal, interpersonal, and profes­
sional domains. While this research provides us with a foundational understanding of their leadership
characteristics, additional research would improve our knowledge base. Consequently, this study
centers on personality characteristics related to the TL styles of women counselor educators.

Cross-Cultural Leadership
Greater attention has been given to the influence of gender and race on the leadership experiences of
faculty of color. Heavy workloads, challenging students, and feelings of isolation have been reported
by minority female counselor educators (Shillingford et al., 2013). For Black female counselor
educators, race and gender often compounded the challenges they experienced in academia
(Bradley, 2005). When considering the retention, departmental leadership issues and lack of
opportunities for advancement were among the primary reasons for leaving academic positions
for both women and racial and ethnic minority faculty (Cropsey et al., 2008). Turnover such as this
may hinder the ability to develop women and racial and ethnic minority faculty into leadership
positions. Bradley (2005) found that half of Black female counselor educators were untenured or in
the lower ranks. Research on leadership development has demonstrated that interventions do not
impact men and women in the same way (Avolio et al., 2009). Participation in leadership
4 C. LOPEZ-PERRY

development programs and exposure to a variety of experiences were found to be contributing

factors in the leadership path of Latinos in higher education (Gutierrez et al., 2002). Yet, a larger
number of studies have shown that racial and ethnic minority faculty face a unique set of obstacles
to promotion and tenure including racism, stereotypical perceptions, systemic barriers, and feelings
of isolation (Bradley, 2005; Gutierrez et al., 2002; Mendez-Morse, 2000). Sanchez-Hucles and Davis
(2010) argue that research in the area of leadership must include design variables that represent
aspects of identity, including gender and race.
The intersectionality of gender and race is important to consider when examining leadership in
counselor education. Female counselor educators represent diverse racial/ethnic backgrounds
(CACREP, 2018). Cultural backgrounds may influence the leadership characteristics of people of
color (Ayman, 1993; Chin, 2013); however, cross-cultural leadership in counselor education remains
a relatively unexplored area (Henfield et al., 2017). Intersectionality (Crenshaw, 1989) is a theoretical
framework that contends that individuals have identities (e.g., race, gender, class, sexuality) that
intersect in ways that impact how they are understood and treated. Research has found that women
leaders and leaders of color strongly embraced their ethnic and gender identities when compared to
White males (Chin, 2013). Shao and Webber (2006) found that culture could be important to consider
when studying transformational leadership. Black male counselor educators have noted that racial/
ethnic identity and contextual factors must be recognized as part of one’s leadership identity (Henfield
et al., 2017). Sanchez-Hucles and contemporaries maintain that “to ignore aspects of identity as
unimportant is to tacitly advantages the leadership behavior of the dominant group in the organiza­
tion under study (p. 178).” Therefore, this study centers on the personality characteristics of the TL
styles of counselor educators by examining the intersecting identities of gender and race/ethnicity.
Ethnic minorities in counselor education are often small in number (CACREP 2018), making it
a challenge to find representative samples and adequate sample sizes of ethnic groups. In this study,
racial and ethnic groups are aggregated to compare counselor educators of color to White counselor
educators (Kaneshiro et al., 2011).
The purpose of this exploratory study was to examine and compare the personality attributes of
counselor educators to further understand the characteristics most likely related to the transforma­
tional leadership style. The researcher aimed to understand this question at three levels – for counselor
educators in general, for female counselor educators, and female counselor educators of color by
examining three main research questions:

(1) Are there personality attributes that discriminate between individuals showing High
Transformational Leadership (HTL) or Low Transformational Leadership (LTL)?
(2) Are there gender differences in personality attributes depending on whether individuals are
high or low in transformational leadership style?
(3) Are there differences between women who identify as White and women who identify as
Persons of Color in personality attributes depending on whether they exhibit high or low
transformational leadership style?

Method
Participants
The current research project was approved by the researchers’ Institutional Review Board. Participants
(N= 182) were faculty members of graduate-level counseling programs from CACREP accredited
institutions who identified as counselor educators. Participants were drawn from each of the ACES
geographical representation areas, which were as follows: North Atlantic (23.6%, n= 43), North
Central (18.7%, n =34), Southern (39%, n =71), Rocky Mountain (7.7%, n =14) and Western (11%,
n =20). A priori power analysis was conducted, and a total sample size of 200 was pre-determined for
multivariate analysis with a moderate effect size (Stevens, 2009). Due to the pre-set closure date of the
 JOURNAL OF COUNSELOR LEADERSHIP AND ADVOCACY 5

study, a final sample size of 182 individuals participated in the current study and was included in the
analysis.
The majority of participants identified as female (60.4%, n =110) and 39.6% (n =72) identified as
male. These demographics are similar to the 62% of counselor educators who identified as female
compared to 38% who identified as male in the most recent CACREP Vital Statistics report (CACREP,
2018). In regards to racial/ethnic demographics, 84.4% (n =152) of respondents identified as White
and 15.5% (n =28) identified as a racial/ethnic minority. The percentage of respondents who identified
as a racial/ethnic minority was lower than the 25.7% of counselor educators reported by CACREP
(2018).

Procedure
The sample was recruited from the CACREP directory of 263 full time accredited institutions with
graduate-level counseling programs. Using the CACREP directory, 107 institutions from each of the
five ACES geographical regions were randomly selected from the 263 possible institutions. A stratified
random sampling design ensured that each of the five strata for geography were represented (Balkin &
Kleist, 2016). Using a cluster sample approach, the researcher located the e-mail addresses of current
counselor education faculty members from each of the 107 counselor education programs in selected
institutions (Balkin & Kleist, 2016). Every counselor educator from each of the selected counselor
education programs was sent a questionnaire. A total of 864 counselor educators were approached to
participate in this study. No incentive was provided for participation in the study. Two weekly follow
up reminders were sent to participants who had not responded. A total of 85 participants responded
from the 864 counselor educators who were initially approached to participate. Due to initial low
response rates, another stratified random sample of 108 institutions from the remaining list of
CACREP accredited programs were included in the participant recruitment (Balkin & Kleist, 2016).
The additional 108 institutions allowed for an additional sample of 713 faculty members to be
approached to participate in the study. A total of 102 participants responded from the 713 counselor
educators who were approached to participate in the study in the second wave of data collection.
A total of 187 participants responded to the e-mail message. Four surveys were discarded due to
missing data. Additionally, one additional response was eliminated as the responder taught in
a different program. As a result, this study included responses from 182 participants of the total
1,577 (11.5%; total of 864 from the first wave of data collection and total of 713 from the second wave
of data collection) invited to participate in this study.
Using Qualtrics software, participants were presented online survey questions only after receiving,
reviewing, and consenting to an introduction about the purpose and significance of the study; the
estimated time for completion of questionnaires; a statement concerning anonymity; and an invitation
to consent to participation in the study. The online survey included a demographic questionnaire, the
MLQ, and the Big Five Inventory (BFI). Follow up reminders were sent to participants who had not
completed the survey every 2 weeks for 1 month, informing them that the survey was open for
completion.

Measures
Demographic Questionnaire
A demographic questionnaire gathered the following information: gender (male/female), race/ethni­
city (White or Person of Color), ACES region (North Atlantic, North Central, Southern, Rocky
Mountain, and Western), and age.

Multifactorial Leadership Questionnaire

The MLQ (Avolio & Bass, 2004) is a 45-item self-report survey used to measure participants’
perceptions of leadership behavior. The MLQ expands on the dimensions of leadership measured
6 C. LOPEZ-PERRY

by previous leadership instruments by measuring participant’s leadership behavior based on effective

and ineffective leadership behaviors linked to individual and organizational success (Avolio & Bass,
2004). The major leadership constructs Transformational Leadership, Transactional Leadership, and
Laissez-Faire Leadership provides the basis for these behaviors. The MLQ contains 36 questions that
assessed nine leadership scales (Idealized Attributes (IA); Idealized Behaviors (IB); Inspirational
Motivation (IM); Intellectual Stimulation (IS); Individualized Consideration (IC), Contingent
Reward (CR), Management-by-Exception: Active, Management-by-Exception: Passive and Laissez-
Faire). From the nine scales, this study focused on the five scales that described TL style: IA; IB; IM; IS;
and IC. A five-point scale for rating the frequency of observed leadership behaviors was used (0 = Not
at all, 1 = Once in a while, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Fairly often, and 4 =Frequently, if not always). Examples
of items included “I provide others with assistance in exchange for their efforts” and “I specify the
importance of having a strong sense of purpose.”
The reliability of the seven outcome scales in the MLQ-5X were tested. Cronbach alpha coefficients
above .8 suggest good reliability (Warner, 2007). Cronbach alpha coefficients ranged from .54 to .76.
The IA and IB scales had Cronbach alpha coefficients of .59 and .54, respectively, indicating low
reliability. IM had a Cronbach alpha coefficient of .76. IS had a Cronbach alpha coefficient of .64 and
IC had .72. Lastly, CR had a Cronbach alpha coefficient of .59 and Management by Exception-Active
had Cronbach alpha coefficient of .75. Low levels of reliability on these scales may be due to the fact
that each scale consisted of only four items.

The Big Five Inventory

The BFI a 44-item self-report personality inventory based on the Big Five theory, one of the most
widely used and dominant models of personality in applied research (John et al., 1991, 2008; Ozer &
Reise, 1994; Woods & Hampson, 2005). The BFI measures differences in personality among a general
population. It allows for an efficient assessment of the five dimensions of personality without the need
to measure individual facets (John et al., 2008). The BFI used short phrases based on trait adjectives
recognized as identifiers of Big Five traits (John et al., 1991). The five major domains of personality
assessed were: Neuroticism (N); Extraversion (E); Openness to Experience (O); Agreeableness (A);
and Conscientiousness (C). Sample items include “I see myself as someone who is reserved” and “I see
myself as someone who prefers work that is routine.” Participants respond along a 5-point scale from
strongly disagree to strongly agree.
The reliability of the Big Five Inventory was tested for each of the BFI scales. Cronbach alpha
coefficients ranged from .73 to .88. The scale Openness to Experience had a Cronbach alpha coefficient
of .80 indicating good reliability. The Agreeableness scale had a Cronbach alpha coefficient of .73.
When examining the mean, all participants were scoring high on this scale and there was not a lot of
variation between standard deviations. The Conscientiousness scale had a Cronbach alpha coefficient
of .80 and the Extraversion scale was reported at .88 indicating good reliability for these two scales.
Lastly, the Neuroticism scale had a Cronbach alpha coefficient of .83

Data Analysis
First, descriptive statistics and Cronbach alpha coefficients were computed for each scale used in the
study, and factoral analysis validated the use of the MLQ-5X (Stevens, 2009). In order to analyze the
research questions, a TL variable was created based on methods employed in previous studies
examining the relationship between leadership styles and personality attributes (Blackburn, 2001;
Frey et al., 2009). A TL variable was created by adding individual participant’s mean scores of the five
scales that make up TL style, Idealized Attributes (IA), Idealized Behaviors, (IB), Inspirational
Motivation (IM), Intellectual Stimulation (IS), and Individual Consideration (IC; Blackburn, 2001;
Frey et al., 2009). Bass and Avolio (1990) recommend that ratings for all TL styles should be greater
than 3.0. However, this study utilized a cutoff score of 2.9, consistent with previous studies that created
a TL variable such as Blackburn (2001) and Frey et al. (2009). The maximum mean score was four.
 JOURNAL OF COUNSELOR LEADERSHIP AND ADVOCACY 7

A mean score of above 2.9 determined HTL and a mean score equal to or less than 2.9 determined LTL
(Blackburn, 2001; Frey et al., 2009). Concerning the personality variable, results of the BFI demon­
strate where an individual falls on a spectrum for each trait. Individuals represent a degree of the
personality trait, ranging from extremely high scorers to extremely low, although most typically fall in
the mid-range displaying some of the characteristics of that trait; as such, there is no single cutoff point
that determines whether an individual possesses a trait or not.

Results
Sample Characteristics
The demographic questionnaire included questions about gender, race/ethnicity, ACES region, and
age. All participants responded to the question regarding gender. As noted in Table 1 of the
respondents, 60.4% were female, and 39.6% were male. All participants responded to the question
regarding age. The median age group was 45–54. Regarding the question of race/ethnicity, 84.4% of
respondents identified as White, and 15.5% identified as a racial/ethnic minority. Two respondents did
not answer this question. The percentage of respondents identified as a Person of Color is low and less
than the current rate (25.7%) of faculty of color across CACREP programs (CACREP, 2018).

Research Question 1
Question 1 examined if there were statistically significant differences in personality attributes between
the HTL group and the LTL group. A discriminant analysis using HTL and LTL with personality
attributes as the predictors and TL groups as the outcome determined whether personality attributes
(Openness to Experience, Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Extraversion, and Neuroticism) predict
high or low TL groups. Of the 182 total participants, 128 participants were identified as HTL, and 54
were identified as LTL. As a result of uneven group sizes, the option of prior probabilities being from
group size, not equal size, was selected for the analysis (Stevens, 2009). As noted in Table 2, significant
mean differences were observed for all predictors on the dependent variable. While the log determi­
nants were quite similar, Box’s M indicated that the assumption of equality of covariance matrices was
not violated. Box’s M is 29.588 with F =1.898, which is not significant, p (.019) > (.001). All five
personality attributes were significant predictors when considered individually. The discriminant
analysis revealed an association between groups and all predictors, accounting for 30.3% of between-

Table 1. Personal characteristics.

Percentage Frequency
Gender Male 39.6 72
Female 60.4 110
Total 100 182
Age 20–29 1.6 3
30–34 4.9 9
35–44 23.1 42
45–54 25.3 46
55–63 29.7 54
64+ 15.4 28
Total 100 182
Race/Ethnicity White 84.4 152
Person of Color 15.6 28
Total 100 180
ACES region North Atlantic 23.6 43
North Central 18.7 34
Southern 39 71
Rocky Mountain 7.7 14
Western 11 20
Total 100 182
8 C. LOPEZ-PERRY

Table 2. Test of equality of group means.

Wilks’ Lambda F df1 df2 Sig.
Agreeableness .832 36.339 1 180 .000
Openness to Experience .870 26.780 1 180 .000
Extraversion .917 16.375 1 180 .000
Neuroticism .965 6.432 1 180 .012
Conscientiousness .966 6.405 1 180 .012

group variability. Closer analysis of the structure matrix revealed that Agreeableness score (.682),
Openness score (.586), and Extraversion score (.458) were larger predictors than Neuroticism and
Conscientiousness (Table 3). The cross-validated classification showed that overall, 77.5% were
correctly classified. Canonical coefficient weights were 1.591 for Agreeableness, 1.077 for Openness,
.479 for Extraversion, .303 for Conscientiousness, and .186 for Neuroticism.
A one-way MANOVA was utilized to compare the mean scores of the HTL group (N= 128) and the
LTL group (N= 54) on the scales of personality attributes. The independent variable for this first
research question was leadership style, which was dichotomized into HTL and LTL. The dependent
variables were the five scores from the BFI. A one-way MANOVA revealed a significant multivariate
main effect for leadership style, Wilks’ λ = .697, F (5, 176) = 15.268, p (.000) < (.001). Box’s M indicated
that the assumption of equality of covariance matrices was not violated. Box’s M is 29.588 with F =
1.898, which is not significant, p (.019) > (.001). Given the significance of the overall test, the univariate
main effects were examined. Significant univariate main effects for leadership style were obtained for
each of the five personality variables, Extraversion scale score, F(1, 180) = 16.375, p =.000,
Agreeableness scale score, F(1, 180) = 36.339, p =.000, Neuroticism scale score, F(1, 180) = 6.432,
p =.012, Openness scale score, F(1, 180) = 26.780, p =.000, and Conscientiousness scale score, F(1,
180) = 6.405, p =.012. Levene’s statistics for the five dependent variables that had significant univariate
ANOVAs indicated assumptions of equality of variance were not met for Agreeableness and
Conscientiousness. Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Openness were all non-significant, meaning that
the group variances were equal. Cohen’s effect size values suggest a large effect size for Agreeableness
(.978) and Openness (.840), the moderate effect size for Extraversion (.655), and small to moderate
effect size for Conscientiousness (.411) and Neuroticism (.411).

Research Question 2
A factorial 2 × 2 MANOVA was utilized to determine whether there were gender differences in the
personality attributes of high and low TL styles. Simple main effects for gender were not tested as part
of this analysis because there was no interaction. The independent variables for question two were
gender and leadership style, which was dichotomized into HTL and LTL. The dependent variables
were the five scores from the BFI. A one-way MANOVA revealed a significant multivariate main effect
for TL style, Wilks’ λ = .715, F (5, 174) = 13.896, p (.000) < (.001). However there was no significant
main effect for gender Wilks’ λ = .942, F(5, 174) = 2.138, p (.063) > (.001). Box’s M indicated that the
assumption of equality of covariance matrices was not violated. Box’s M is 71.510 with F = 1.486,

Table 3. Structure matrix.

Function 1
Agreeableness Scale .682
Openness .586
Extraversion .458
Neuroticism −.287
Conscientiousness .286
 JOURNAL OF COUNSELOR LEADERSHIP AND ADVOCACY 9

which is not significant, p (.019)> (.001). Levene’s statistics for the five dependent variables were all
non-significant, meaning that the group variances were equal, and assumptions were met.

Research Question 3
Question three examined participants who identified as female to determine whether there were racial/
ethnic differences in personality attributes of female counselor educators, depending on a high or low
TL style. A factorial 2 × 2 MANOVA was utilized to determine whether there were racial/ethnic
differences in the personality attributes of high and low TL styles of female participants. Simple main
effects for race/ethnicity were not tested as part of this analysis because there was no interaction. The
independent variables for question three were race/ethnicity and leadership style, which was dichot­
omized into HTL and LTL. The dependent variables were the five personality scores from the BFI.
A one-way MANOVA revealed a significant multivariate main effect for TL style, Wilks’ λ = .709, F (5,
100) = 8.222, p (.000) < (.001). However, there was no significant main effect for race Wilks’ λ = .940, F
(5, 100) = 1.276, p(.280) > (.001). Box’s M indicated that the assumption of equality of covariance
matrices was met. Box’s M is 41.216 with F = 1.246, which is not significant at p (.167) > (.001).
Levene’s statistics for the five dependent variables were all non-significant, meaning that the group
variances were equal, and assumptions were met.

Discussion
This study examined the relationship between personality and TL among counselor educators. The
researcher aimed to understand this question at three levels – for counselor educators in general, for
female counselor educators, and female counselor educators of color. The first question examined the
relationship between personality attributes and TL style of counselor educators and found that all five
personality attributes were predictors of transformational leadership. Extraversion, Agreeableness, or
Openness to Experience had more predictive power on TL than other traits. Results suggest that high
scores in Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and Openness, and low scores on
Neuroticism appear to characterize counselor educators with a TL style. The relationship between
personality and TL has been supported in prior studies in business and military sectors (Blackburn,
2001; Church & Waclawski, 1998; Frey et al., 2009). This study suggests that these attributes are also
present in counselor educators who are transformational leaders. Differences in predictive power may
suggest that slight differences in personality may exist among leaders across professions. Future
research may wish to explore how the personality attributes of individuals categorized as transforma­
tional leaders compare and contrast across different career fields.
Findings from question two indicated that there were no gender differences in personality attri­
butes of counselor educators characterized as transformational leaders. These results contradict
previous studies on gender differences in personality (Costa et al., 2001; Zheng & Zheng, 2011). It is
suspected that gender differences in personality depend on the context in which they are measured.
Whereas other studies on personality measured general populations, this study sampled individuals
within a specific profession. People with similar personality traits tend to work best with others of their
type. For example, Saarnio’s, 2010) examination of substance abuse therapists found gender differ­
ences only for one personality attribute, Openness to Experience. Participants in this study identified
as counselor educators, which may have contributed to a pool of participants with similar personal
qualities due to the nature of their profession. Results should also be viewed with caution in light of
lower than anticipated response rates. Future research should consider using a personality instrument
that measures smaller facet level distinctions rather than the broader Big Five variables.
Question three examined whether there were racial/ethnic differences in personality attributes of
female counselor educators. Analysis indicated that there were no racial/ethnic differences in person­
ality attributes of HTL and LTL groups. These findings support the results of a meta-analysis
conducted by Foldes et al. (2008) which suggested that racial/ethnic group differences were relatively
10 C. LOPEZ-PERRY

small (Foldes et al., 2008). Given the relatively low number of racial and ethnic minority participants in
this study (N = 28), the results should be viewed with caution. Future research should consider
oversampling racial and ethnic minority groups to attain adequate numbers of participants in those
groups. One approach is to include in the sample frame, an increased number of specific geographic
areas (domains) with higher-than-average concentrations of the target group (Ofstedal & Weir, 2011).

Implications
Based on the aforementioned, findings can aid counselor education programs to identify and develop
transformational leadership characteristics in both faculty and doctoral students. Counselor educators
characterized as transformational leaders scored high in Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Openness
to Experience and Extraversion and low in Neuroticism and are described along these lines (Costa &
McCrae, 2010). These counselor educators are unconventional, curious, and open to new ways of
thinking (Openness to Experience). They are determined, punctual, and achievement-oriented
(Conscientiousness). Counselor educators who are transformational leaders can be described as
enthusiastic, action-oriented, energetic, and social (Extraversion). Agreeableness describes those
who are compassionate, optimistic, and cooperative. They place value on getting along with others
and compromising their interests for the benefit of others. These individuals tend to be more
emotionally stable and can respond to daily stressors (Neuroticism).
Personality assessments can provide counselor educators and doctoral students with a starting
point for self-exploration into ones’ leadership style. A key to developing leadership traits is self-
awareness. Assessments such as the BFI can be used in faculty development and doctoral leadership
courses to provide individuals with a deeper analysis of their personality. Counseling departments can
provide courses and workshops that provide experiential learning opportunities that promote personal
development and awareness of impact on self on others. In addition to helping both counselor
educators and counselor educators in training gain insight into their personality traits through the
use of assessments, programs might consider providing mentorship opportunities for potential leaders
(Maccombs & Bhat, 2020). While mentoring often focuses on nontenured faculty, Gibson (2016)
maintains that mentoring is beneficial to leadership identity development throughout ones’ career.
Expectations regarding how female leaders and racial/ethnic minority female leaders should behave
may impact the development of one’s personality preferences and the interpersonal needs that affect
leadership ability and style. Martin et al. (2012) found that Big Five personality traits can change in
individuals in response to life experiences and through coaching interventions. By helping White and
racial/ethnic minority female counselor educators understand and explore their personality prefer­
ences–which may or may not reflect cultural and gender norms-mentors enable them to develop their
leadership style in the best, most effective way possible.
Gender and racial/ethnic bias regarding how female leaders should behave may impact the
pipeline to leadership. Leadership is often associated with masculinity and not viewed as favorably
when exhibited by women (Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010). This study did not find gender
differences in the personality attributes of counselor educators based on TL style. Furthermore,
there were no racial/ethnic differences in women who identified as White and women who identified
as a racial/ethnic minority in personality attributes based on TL style. Research has shown that
White female and female faculty of color are overrepresented in service work and underrepresented
in formal leadership positions (Curtis, 2011). Counselor education programs and professional
organizations may wish to evaluate how White female and female counselor educators of color
are recruited and retained, and whether barriers discourage them from assuming formal leadership
roles. Anti-bias mechanisms can be developed inside organizations to prevent gender and racial/
ethnic bias in leadership decision-making. This can include monitoring culture and talent metrics
for women of color (hires, promotions, turnover) in addition to surveying them about how they’re
experiencing their development and progression. Counselor educators can engage in professional
development on personality characteristics of counselor educators identified as transformational
 JOURNAL OF COUNSELOR LEADERSHIP AND ADVOCACY 11

leaders. Lastly, they can examine unconscious bias regarding leadership behaviors and reflect on the
implicit and explicit expectations placed on female counselor educators and female counselor
educators of color.
While this study sheds light on aspects of counselor educators’ transformational leadership
traits, the counseling profession should consider how to support leaders who may not fit existing
cultural norms. The relationship between personality and leadership style is bound within
a cultural context, as such it is important to recognize when organizational culture limits our
ability to see non-traditional leadership traits. For example, cultural norms often exalt extroverted
leaders (Bono & Judge, 2004). However, studies have shown that introverts can also be effective
leaders (Collins, 2001; Grant et al., 2011). Findings from this study indicated that 30% of the
variance between HTL and LTL were accounted for by personality. These results suggest that other
factors need to be explored to better understand how transformational leaders emerge in the
counseling profession.

Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research

This study examined the association between Big Five personality and counselor educators’ transfor­
mational leadership style. It is important to note that the Big Five inform who will emerge as a leader,
but do not necessarily predict a leader’s effectiveness (Lewis, 2012), as such other leadership styles
warrant further examination. Findings must also be considered in light of limitations. The first
limitation is that self-report may have contributed to social desirability bias. Future researchers
could consider having leadership attributes of doctoral students and faculty rated by those they lead
as well as those that supervise them. Secondly, the number of racial and ethnic minority respondents
(15.5%) was less than the 25.7% of CACREP faculty of color. Thus, results regarding racial/ethnic
differences should be viewed with caution. A more purposeful sampling of faculty of color could be
employed in future research. The third limitation was a less than ideal sample size. The sample size
determined necessary for adequate power was approximately 200 participants. This goal was not met
due to low response rates (11.5%). A larger sample might have permitted sub-grouping of race and
gender in question three. Future researchers may wish to utilize methodology other than e-mail
surveys to study this topic. The demographic survey included a binary gender classification and
excluded non-binary populations. Future research should consider options that are inclusive of all
gender identities. Researchers might also consider examining and comparing counselors who hold
leadership positions and those who do not. This information may further help counseling departments
in nurturing the attributes that move counselors into leadership positions.

Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to examine and compare the personality traits of counselor
educators to further understand the characteristics most likely related to TL style. Results
indicate a significant relationship between personality traits and TL. Results also indicate that
counselor educators who are transformational leaders have excellent emotional stability, are
sociable, open to new experiences, and are achievement-oriented and considerate of others.
Contrary to other studies, no gender or racial/ethnic differences were found in the personality
attributes of transformational leaders. These factors may not play as influential a role in the
personality traits of transformational leaders as theorized. Counseling departments and educa­
tional programs can utilize these findings to inform their work when identifying, encouraging,
and developing TL characteristics in counselor educators and doctoral students.
12 C. LOPEZ-PERRY

Acknowledgments
The author would like to convey her sincere gratitude to Dr. Christine Suniti Bhat, Full Professor at Ohio University for
her direction and guidance during this project.

Disclosure Statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

ORCID
Caroline Lopez-Perry http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2333-556X

References
Avent Harris, J. R., Trepal, H., Prado, A., & Robinson, J. (2019). Women counselor educators’ experiences of micro­
aggressions. The Journal of Counselor Preparation and Supervision, 12(2), 2. https://repository.wcsu.edu/jcps/vol12/
iss2/2
Avolio, B., & Bass, B. M. (2004). Multifactor leadership questionnaire: Manual and sampler set (3rd ed.). Mind Garden.
Avolio, B. J., Mhatre, K., Norman, S. M., & Lester, P. (2009). The moderating effect of gender on leadership intervention
impact. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 15(4), 325–341. https://doi.org/10.1177/1548051809333194
Ayman, R. (1993). Leadership perception: The role of gender and culture. In M. M. Chemers & R. Ayman (Eds.),
Leadership theory and research: Perspectives and directions (pp. 137–166). Academic Press.
Balkin, R. S., & Kleist, D. M. (2016). Counseling research: A practitioner-scholar approach. John Wiley & Sons.
Bass, B. M., & Avolio, B. J. (1990). Transformational leadership development:Manual for the multifactor leadership
questionnaire. Consulting Psychologists Press.
Bass, B. M., Avolio, B. J., & Atwater, L. (1996). The transformational and transactional leadership of men and women.
Applied Psychology: An International Review, 45(1), 5–34. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.1996.tb00847.x
Black, L. L., & Magnuson, S. (2005). Women of spirit: Leaders in the counseling profession. Journal of Counseling &
Development, 83(3), 337–342. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6678.2005.tb00352.x
Blackburn, D. (2001). The relationship between personality attributes related to lifestyle and leadership styles.
Unpublished master’s thesis, Georgia State University.
Bono, J., & Judge, T. (2004). Personality and Transformational and Transactional Leadership: A Meta-Analysis. Journal
of Applied Psychology, 09(5), 901–910. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.89.5.901
Bradley, C. (2005). The career experiences of African American women faculty: Implications for counselor education
programs. College Student Journal, 39(3), 518–527. https://go.gale.com/ps/anonymous?id=GALE%
7CA135842838&sid=googleScholar&v=2.1&it=r&linkaccess=abs&issn=01463934&p=AONE&sw=w
Casto, C., Caldwell, C., & Salazar, C. (2005). Creating mentoring relationships between female faculty and students in
counselor education: Guidelines for potential mentees and mentors. Journal of Counseling & Development, 83(3),
331–336. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6678.2005.tb00351.x
Chang, C. Y., Minton, C. B., Dixon, A. L., Myers, J. E., & Sweeney, T. J. (Eds.). (2012). Professional counseling excellence
through leadership and advocacy. Taylor & Francis.
Chin, J. L. (2013). Diversity leadership: Influence of ethnicity, gender, and minority status. Open Journal of Leadership, 2
(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojl.2013.21001
Church, A. H., & Waclawski, J. (1998). The relationship between individual personality orientation and executive
leadership behaviour. Journal of Occupational & Organizational Psychology, 71(2), 99–125. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.
2044-8325.1998.tb00666.x
Collins, J. (2001). Level 5 leadership: The triumph of humility and fierce resolve. Harvard Business Review, 83(7), 136.
https://hbr.org/2001/01/level-5-leadership-the-triumph-of-humility-and-fierce-resolve-2
Costa, P. T., Jr., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). NEO PI-R professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment
Resources, Inc.
Costa, P. T., Jr., & McCrae, R. R. (2010). Revised NEO personality inventory (NEO-PI-R) and NEO five-factor inventory
(NEO-FFI) professional manual. Psychological Assessment.
Costa, P. T., Jr., Terracciano, A., & McCrae, R. R. (2001). Gender differences in personality traits across cultures: Robust
and surprising findings. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 81(2), 322–331. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-
3514.81.2.322
Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs. (2016). The 2016 standards. Council for
Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs.https://bit.ly/30Mn3VE
 JOURNAL OF COUNSELOR LEADERSHIP AND ADVOCACY 13

Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs. (2018). CACREP vital statistics 2017:
Results from a national survey of accredited programs. Author.
Crenshaw, K. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A black feminist critique of antidiscrimination
doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist politics. University of Chicago Legal Forum, 1(8), 139–167.
Cropsey, K., Masho, S., Shiang, R., Sikka, V., Kornstein, S. G., & Hampton, C. (2008). Why do faculty leave? Reasons for
attrition of women and minority faculty from a medical school: Four-year results. Journal of Women’s Health, 17(7),
1111–1118. https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2007.0582
Curtis, J. W. (2011). Persistent inequity: Gender and academic employment. American Association of University
Professors
Dollarhide, C. T. (2003). School counselors as program leaders: Applying leadership contexts to school counseling.
Professional School Counseling, 6(5), 304–308. https://bit.ly/30LJavx
Eagly, A. H., Johannesen-Schmidt, M., & van Engen, M. L. (2003). Transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire
leadership styles: A meta-analysis comparing women and men. Psychological Bulletin, 129(4), 569. https://doi.org/10.
1037/0033-2909.129.4.569
Eberly, M. B., Johnson, M. D., Hernandez, M., & Avolio, B. J. (2013). An integrative process model of leadership:
Examining loci, mechanisms, and event cycles. American Psychologist, 68(6), 427. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032244
Emery, C., Calvard, T. S., & Pierce, M. E. (2013). Leadership as an emergent group process: A social network study of
personality and leadership. Group Process & Intergroup Relations, 16(1), 28–45. https://doi.org/10.1177/
1368430212461835
Foldes, H. J., Duehr, E. E., & Ones, D. S. (2008). Group differences in personality: Meta-analyses comparing five
U.S. racial groups. Personnel Psychology, 61(3), 579–616. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2008.00123.x
Frey, M., Kern, R. M., Snow, J., & Curlette, W. L. (2009). Lifestyle and transformational leadership style. Journal of
Individual Psychology, 65(3), 212–240. http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/articles/46739073/lifestyle-transforma­
tional-leadership-style
Gentry, W., & Sparks, T. (2012). A convergence/divergence perspective of leadership competencies managers believe are
most important for success in organizations: A cross-cultural multilevel analysis of 40 countries. Journal of Business &
Psychology, 27(1), 15–30. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-011-9212-y
Gibson, D. M. (2016). Growing leaders: The parallels of professional identity and leadership identity development in
counselors. Journal of Counselor Leadership and Advocacy, 3(1), 31–401. https://doi.org/10.1080/2326716X.2015.
1114435
Gibson, D. M., Dollarhide, C. T., Conley, A. H., & Lowe, C. (2018). The construction and validation of the school
counseling transformational leadership inventory. Journal of Counselor Leadership and Advocacy, 5(1), 1–12. http://
doi.org/gf4b3f
Grant, A. M., Gino, F., & Hofmann, D. (2011). Reversing the extraverted leadership advantage: The role of employee
proactivity. Academy of Management Journal, 54(3), 528–550. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2011.61968043
Gutierrez, M., Castañeda, C., & Katsinas, S. G. (2002). Latino leadership in community colleges: Issues and challenges.
Community College Journal of Research, 26(4), 297–314. https://doi.org/10.1080/106689202753546457
Henfield, M. S., Washington, A. R., Rue, L. D. L., & Byrd, J. A. (2017). Black male school counselor educator contextual
explorations in leadership. Professional School Counseling, 21(1b), 2156759 × 1877359. https://doi.org/10.1177/
2156759X18773591
Hermann, M. A. (2014). The stalled gender revolution: Implications for women leaders. In W. S. Newcomb &
K. Mansfield (Eds.), Women interrupting, disrupting, and revolutionizing educational policy and practice (pp.21-40).
Information Age Publishing.
Hill, N. R., Leinbaugh, T., Bradley, C., & Hazler, R. (2005). Female counselor educators: Encouraging and discouraging
factors in academia. Journal of Counseling & Development, 83(3), 374–380. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6678.2005.
tb00358.x
Hollenbeck, J. R. (2000). A structural approach to external and internal person-team fit. Applied Psychology: An
International Review, 49(3), 534–549. https://doi.org/10.1111/1464-0597.00030
Jacob, C. J., McMaster, M., Nestel, L., Metzger, N., & Olesky, D. (2013). Collaborating with seemingly unrelated
disciplines: Connecting transformational leadership and counseling research. Journal of Creativity in Mental
Health, 8 (3), 293–304. http://doi.org/d6fk
Jandaghi, G., Matin, H. Z., & Farjami, A. (2009). Comparing transformational leadership insuccessful and unsuccessful
companies. International Journal of Social Sciences, 4(3), 211–216. https://bit.ly/2FdMwPx
John, O. P., Naumann, L. P., & Soto, C. J. (2008). Paradigm shift to the integrative big-five trait taxonomy: History,
measurement, and conceptual issues. In O. P. John, R. W. Robins, & L. A. Pervin (Eds.), Handbook of personality:
Theory and research (pp. 114–158). Guilford Press.
John, O. P., Donahue, E. M., & Kentle, R. L. (1991). The big five inventory–versions 4a and 54. University of California,
Berkeley, Institute of Personality and Social Research.
Johnson, J. L., & Hill, W. R. (2009). Personality traits and military leadership. Individual Differences Research, 7(1), 1–13.
https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2009-05473-001
14 C. LOPEZ-PERRY

Judge, T., & Bono, J. (2000). Five-factor model of personality and transformational leadership. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 85(5), 751–765. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.85.5.751
Judge, T., Bono, J., Ilies, R., & Gerhert, M. (2002). Personality and leadership. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(4),
765–780. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.87.4.765
Kaneshiro, B., Geling, O., Gellert, K., & Millar, L. (2011). The challenges of collecting data on race and ethnicity in
a diverse, multiethnic state. Hawaii Medical Journal, 70(8), 168–171.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/
PMC3158379/
Lewis, T. F. (2012). Foundations of leadership: Theory, philosophy, and research. In C. Y. Chang, C. A. Barrio Minton,
A. L. Dixon, J. E. Myers, & T. J. Sweeney (Eds.), Professional counseling excellence through leadership and advocacy
(pp. 21–40). Taylor & Francis.
Lewis, T. F., & Wester, K. L. (2004). Leadership styles and characteristics among counseling professionals: Implications
for training programs. Paper presented at the American counseling association, Kansas City, MO.
Lopez, C. J., & Mason, E. C. M. (2017). School counselors as curricular leaders: A content analysis of ASCA lesson plans.
Professional School Counseling, 21(1b), 1–12. http://doi.org/d6fn
Lowe, C., Gibson, D. M., & Carlson, R. G. (2017). Examining the relationship between school counselors’ age, years of
experience, school setting, and self-perceived Transformational leadership skills. Professional School Counseling, 21
(1b), 2156759 × 1877358. http://doi.org/d6fp
Luke, M., & Goodrich, K. M. (2010). Chi sigma iota chapter leadership and professional identity development in early
career counselors. Counselor Education and Supervision, 50(1), 56–78. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6978.2010.
tb00108.x
Maccombs, S., & Bhat, C. S. (2020). The women’s inclusive mentoring framework: Developing strong female leaders in
counselor education. Journal of Counselor Leadership and Advocacy, 7(1), 30–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/2326716X.
2020.1743795
Martin, L. S., Oades, L., & Caputi, P. (2012). What is personality change coaching and why is it important? International
Coaching Psychology Review, 7(2), 185–193. https://bit.ly/2XOdGmi
McKibben, W. B., Webber, W. B., & Wahesh, E. (2017). Exploring CSI chapter leaders’ development toward leadership
excellence. Journal of Counselor Leadership and Advocacy, 4(1), 52–65. https://doi.org/10.1080/2326716X.2017.
1282332
Mendez-Morse, S. (2000). Claiming forgotten leadership. Urban Education, 35(5), 584. https://doi.org/10.1177/
0042085900355008
Myers, J. E., Sweeney, T. J., & White, V. E. (2002). Advocacy for counseling and counselors: A professional imperative.
Journal of Counseling & Development, 80(4), 394–402. http://doi.org/fzs5sq
Ofstedal, M. B., & Weir, D. R. (2011). Recruitment and retention of minority participants in the health and retirement
study. The Gerontologist, 51(1), S8–S20. http://doi.org/fb9q8j
Ozer, D. J., & Reise, S. P. (1994). Personality assessment. Annual Review of Psychology, 45(1), 357. https://doi.org/10.
1146/annurev.ps.45.020194.002041
Ratts, M. J., & Greenleaf, A. T. (2017). Multicultural and social justice counseling competencies: A leadership framework
for professional school counselors. Professional School Counseling, 21(1b), 2156759 × 18773582. https://doi.org/10.
1177/2156759X18773582
Robbins, S. P., & Judge, T. A. (2010). Organizational behavior (14th ed.). Prentice Hall.
Saarnio, P. (2010). Big five personality traits and interpersonal functioning in female and male substance abuse
therapists. Substance Use & Misuse, 45(10), 1463–1473. https://doi.org/10.3109/10826081003749963
Sanchez-Hucles, J., & Davis, D. D. (2010). Women and women of color in leadership. American Psychologist, 65(3),
171–181. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017459
Shao, L., & Webber, S. (2006). A cross-cultural test of the ‘five-factor model of personality and transformational
leadership. Journal of Business Research, 59(8), 936–944. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2006.02.005
Shillingford, M. A., Trice-Black, S., & Butler, S. K. (2013). Wellness of minority female counselor educators. Counselor
Education and Supervision, 52(4), 255–269. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6978.2013.00041.x
Stevens, J. (2009). Applied multivariate statistics for the social sciences (5th ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Trepal, H. C., & Stinchfield, T. A. (2012). Experiences of motherhood in counselor education. Counselor Education &
Supervision, 51(2), 112–126. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6978.2012.00008.x
Valentine, D. (2011). Maintaining organization culture through leadership succession planning. Franklin Business and
Law Journal, 4(4) 130–135. http://www.franklinpublishing.net
Wahesh, E., Fulton, C. L., Shannonhouse, L. R., McKibben, W. B., & Kennedy, S. D. (2018). A content analysis of CSI
chapter efforts to promote counselor leadership development. Journal of Counselor Leadership and Advocacy, 5(1),
82–94. doi:10.1080/2326716X.2017.1422997
Wahesh, E., & Myers, J. E. (2014). Principles and practices of leadership excellence: CSI chapter presidents’ experience,
perceived competence, and rankings of importance. Journal of Counselor Leadership and Advocacy, 1(1), 83–97.
https://doi.org/10.1080/2326716X.2014.886977
Warner, R. M. (2007). Applied statistics:From bivariate through multivariate techniques. Sage Publications.
 JOURNAL OF COUNSELOR LEADERSHIP AND ADVOCACY 15

Woods, S. A., & Hampson, S. E. (2005). Measuring the big five with single items using a bipolar response scale. European
Journal of Personality, 19(5), 373–390. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.542
Zheng, L., & Zheng, Y. (2011). The relationship of masculinity and femininity to the big five personality dimensions
among a Chinese sample. Social Behavior & Personality: An International Journal, 39(4), 445–450. https://doi.org/10.
2224/sbp.2011.39.4.445