CHAPTER 1

FOOD COMPONENTS

Definition of Terms:
Soluble - Able to dissolved, especially in water.
Diet - The kinds of food that a person, animal, or community habitually eats.
Intake - An amount of food, air, or another substance taken into the body.
Digest - Breakdown of food in the alimentary canal into substance that can be absorbed and
used by the body.

Objectives:

 The student will understand the most common food components in fisheries product

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrate (𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 ) is a substance composed of carbon; hydrogen and oxygen. It supplies
the body with the energy it needs to function. In fact the central nervous system, including the brain and
nerve cells, relies exclusively on glucose and other simple carbohydrates for energy. Protein and fat can
be burned for energy by other cells, but the body uses carbohydrate first in part, because it is the most
efficient energy source. If there is not enough carbohydrate for energy, the body can burn either fat or
protein, but this is not desirable. When fat is burned for energy without any carbohydrate present the
process is incomplete and results in the production of ketone bodies, which start to accumulate in the
blood. An excessive level of Ketone bodies can cause the blood to become too acidic (called ketosis).
Ketosis can cause dehydration and eventually leads to a fatal coma. About 100 grams of carbohydrate is
needed daily to spare protein from being burned for fuel to prevent ketosis, and to provide glucose to the
central nervous system. This amount represents what you minimally need, not what is desirable.
If is found almost exclusively in plant foods, such as fruits, vegetables, peas and beans. Milk and
milk products are the only food derived from animals that contain significant amount of carbohydrates.
Carbohydrates also forms the structural component of cell walls of plants and tissues and organs of
animals.

Three Classifications of Carbohydrate

1. Monosaccharides - are the building blocks of carbohydrate, and the simplest form of sugar.

Most important monosaccharides

a. Glucose
Glucose is also known as blood sugar/dextrose. Glucose require no digestion, it can be injected
directly to the body. It is the most widely distributed sugar found mostly in the plants and in the blood of
animals. Normally human blood contains about 100 mg of glucose per 100 ml.
It is crystalline solid and is soluble in water. It is used as a primary source of energy by cells. Diseases,
hormone imbalance, diet, physical activities and other factors change the glucose concentration in the
blood. If a person has high concentration of blood glucose, the person is hyperglycemic. Diabetes is one
of the most frequent causes of hyperglycemia. Diabetes is an incurable condition in which the body is
unable to properly regulate the blood glucose concentration because of an inability to produce the
hormone insulin. Hypoglycemia is exactly the opposite of hyperglycemia blood glucose concentration are
usually less than 50 mg/ 100 ml. Symptoms of hypoglycemia is treated by regulating the dietary intake of
carbohydrates.

b. Fructose
It is the sweetest of all sugars. Fructose is known as fruit sugar because the sweetness of many fruits
is due to the presence of fructose. The liver can convert fructose to glucose. Fructose is sometimes used
as a source of substitute to the diabetics or other people who want to reduce their sucrose intake. Since
fructose is sweeter then sucrose, less fructose is needed to sweeten food, which results in decreased
calorie and sugar intake. It has same food value as glucose. The liver converts fructose to glucose.
c. Galactose
Galactose is found as constituent of lactose, the sugar and milk. Galactose is not normally found in
nature in large quantities and it is less sweet than glucose. It is also occurs a part of complex molecules in
pectin, gums, mucilage and agar-agar. In the animal body galactose is found in the brain and nervous
tissue in the form of glycolipids but they are not found in the general circulation of the blood.
Liver converts galactose to glucose. Galactosemia is a genetic disease in which one of the required
enzymes to convert to glucose is absent. If not treated, infants who suffer from galactosemia become
mentally retarded.

2. Disaccharides - are a group of compound sugars composed of two monosaccharides

linked together through a glycosidic bond with the loss of water.

Most important disaccharides

a. Maltose
It is known as malt sugar because of its use in alcohol production. Through the process called
fermentation; this sugar is converted to ethanol by yeast cells in the absence of oxygen. In nature, it is
found as a constituent of starch and glycogen. Maltose is hydrolyzed into two molecules by the enzyme
maltase, which is found in the intestinal juice.
 Glucose + Glucose= Maltose

b. Lactose
Lactose is sometimes referred to as milk sugar.
 Glucose+ Galactose= Lactose
It is the least soluble and the least sweet of the sugars. Lactose is found in cow’s milk which is about
4%. In the animal body lactose is synthesized in the mammary gland. It composes about 7 to 8% in human
milk. With a few minor exceptions, lactose is the only sugar in the milk and does not occur elsewhere.
Lactose is an essential food in the diet of an infant to furnish galactose needed for the formation of
galactolipids or cerebrosides present in the brain and nerve tissues. Lactose digests more slowly than
sucrose and maltose. It is the least fermentable of the sugar and for that reason is an ideal component of
milk. Lactose solution is not fermented by ordinary yeast. However, the lactose in milk undergoes lactic
acid fermentation when milk sours or when treated with certain wild yeast cultures like in the making of
yogurt. If milk contained glucose in place of lactose it would not keep so well and would ferment rapidly
in the stomach, causing digestive disturbance in infants.
Lactose intolerance is a condition where a person has the inability to digest right amount of lactose in
the body. Lactase is an enzyme that hydrolyzes lactose.

c. Sucrose
Sucrose is commonly called sugarcane or table sugar.
 Glucose + Fructose = Sucrose
Sucrose can be found in sugarcanes, sugar beets and maple sugar. Sucrose is very widely distribute in
nature and is universally used, highly soluble in water over a wide temperature range and excellent
preservative. It is used in sweetening food, in making candies, cakes and other types of sweet.

3. Polysaccharides - are sugar complex carbohydrates with high molecular weight,

composed of many monosaccharide units combined through the loss of molecule of water.

Most Important Polysaccharides:

a. Starch
Starch is sometimes called amylum the most important form of carbohydrates in the diet. It is a major
form of food storage in plants. Sources of starch are cereals, grains, beans, and peas and tubers such as
potatoes. Green fruits such as apples and bananas contain much just like starch, wheat, bread, and pasta.
Starch occurs in plants in the form of granule.
b. Dextrin
The dextrin is a group of glucose polysaccharides which are intermediate products in the hydrolysis
of starch to maltose. It is soluble in water. Dextrin is also added to give smoothness to the product.

c. Glycogen
Glycogen is also known as animal starch. It is a glucose polysaccharide found in animal tissue and it is
the storage of polysaccharide of animals.
The liver and muscles are the major depots of glycogen. The sweetness of liver is because of glycogen.
There is some evidence that extensive exercise and high carbohydrate diet can increase the reserves of
glycogen in the muscles and thus may help marathoners work their muscles somewhat longer and harder
than others. But for most of us carbohydrate leads to increase deposits of fats.
Glycogen can also be found in oyster and scallops. Because of high content of glycogen in the liver
and oysters, they are usually restricted in the diets of diabetics. The glycogen in the liver is used up rapidly
in emotional reactions like fear and anger and in excessive exercise.

d. Cellulose/Dietary Fiber
It is found in the cell walls and woody fibers of all plants, where it forms the skeletal structure.
Cellulose is composed of glucose; it has no value as a food for man, because humans do not have the
enzyme to digest cellulose. Unlike herbivorous animals, like horses, carabaos, cow and sheep have
fermenters in their intestines which are capable of hydrolyzing cellulose into monosaccharide. Hence,
herbivorous animals are able to obtain caloric food value from cellulose.
They are important carbohydrates for several reasons; soluble dietary fibers like pectin gum and
mucilage pass undigested through the small intestine and are degraded into fatty acids and gases by the
large intestine. The fatty acids produced in this way can either be used as a fuel for the large intestine or
be absorbed into the blood stream. Therefore dietary fiber is essential for proper intestinal health.
In general, the consumption of soluble and insoluble fiber makes the elimination of waste much
easier. Since dietary fiber is both indigestible and an attractant of water, stools become large and soft as
a result, feces can be expelled with less pressure. Besides the prevention of intestinal disease, diets high
in fiber have other benefits. High fiber intake reduces the risks of developing obesity by increasing the
bulk of meal with our yielding much energy. An expanded stomach leads to satisfaction despite the fact
that the calorie intake has decreased.
Diabetics can be also benefit from consuming a regular amount of dietary fiber. Once in the intestine,
it slows the absorption of glucose to prevent a sudden increase in blood glucose levels. A relatively high
intake of fiber will also decrease the absorption of cholesterol, a compound that is thought to contribute
to atherosclerosis or scarring the arteries.
Furthermore, dietary fiber intake help prevent colon cancer by diluting potential carcinogens through
increased water retention, binding carcinogens to the fiber itself and speed-up the passage of food
through the intestinal tract so that cancer-causing agents have less time to act. Higher fiber (high
cellulose) vegetable food are the healthiest choices for human nutrition and intake of these food is
associated with lowered incidences of hypertension, cancer, arthritis, diabetes, etc. Sources include
lettuce, broccoli, banana, squash, cereals, grains, tomatoes, potatoes, rice, citrus fruits, vegetables and
many others.

Protein

Proteins are essential nutrients because they are sources of the amino acids used by the body to
build new proteins. There are 20 amino acids commonly found in cellular proteins. Plants with chemical
energy and a source of nitrogen. Thus plants do not require these compounds as nutrients. Animals
however, can synthesized only about half of these 20 amino acids and must acquire the rest in their food.
Those amino acid cannot be synthesized are called essential amino acids.
An average-sized adult needs a minimum of 60 grams of protein per day. However, the need for
protein includes quality as well as quantity, for humans must derive 8 essential amino acids from the
protein they eat. If one or more of these essential amino acids are lacking in the diet, protein deficiency
results.
Amino acids are the building blocks of protein. They are used by the body for building and
maintaining body tissues and part of DNA which controls the genetic code. The greatest amount of protein
is needed when the body is building new tissues rapidly, much as during pregnancy or infancy. Additional
protein is also needed when body protein is either lost or destroyed in burns, surgery or infections. Worn-
out cells are replaced throughout the body after certain periods of time. The RDA for protein a healthy
adults is 0.36 grams of protein per pound of body weight. Eating too little protein can slow down the
protein rebuilding and repairing process and weaken the immune system.
Protein deficiency disease is called kwashiorkor. Kwashiorkor is characterized by retarded growth
and development with muscles wasting, weakness, edema (swelling of the body tissues), listlessness, flaky
skin, and a loss of color hair.
Energy-deficient disease, called marasmus, occurs during starvation. The term marasmus means
“to waste away”. The disease is characterized by gross underweight, no fat storage, and wasting of
muscle. There is no edema, as seen in kwashiorkor and growth is stunned.

The 20 Amino Acids

Arginine Methionine Alanine Glutamate

Histidine Phenylalanine Asparagine Glycine
Isoleucine Threonine Aspartic acid Praline
Leucine Tryptophan Cysteine Serine
Lysine Valine Glutamic acid Tyrosine

Protein Functions

1. Catalytic function
Nearly all the reactions that take place in living organisms are catalyzed by proteins functioning
enzymes. Without this catalytic proteins, biological reactions would take place too slowly to support
life.

2. Structural function
In the animal kingdom, structural materials other than the inorganic components of the skeleton
are composed of protein. Collagen, a fiber like protein, is responsible for the mechanical strength of
skin and bone. Keratin, the chief constituent of hair, skin, and fingernails, is another example.

3. Storage function
Some proteins provide a way to store small molecules or ions. Ovalbumin, for example is a stored
form of amino acids which is used by embryos developing in bird eggs. Casein, a milk protein, and
gliadin in wheat seeds are also stored forms of protein intended to nourish animals and plants,
respectively. Ferritin, a liver protein, attaches to iron ions and forms a storage complex in humans
and other animals.

4. Protective function- Antibodies

Are tremendously important proteins that protect the body from disease. These highly specific
proteins combine with and help destroy viruses, bacteria and other foreign substances that get into
the blood or tissues of the body. Blood clotting, another protective process, is carried out by the
proteins thrombin and fibrinogen. Without this process, even small wounds would result in life
threatening bleeding.

5. Regulatory function
Numerous body processes are regulated by hormones, many of which are proteins. Examples
include growth hormone, which regulates the rate of young animals, and thyrotropin, which
stimulates the activity of the thyroid gland.

6. Nerve impulse transmission

Some proteins behave as receptors of small molecules that pass between gaps separating nerve
cells. In this way, they transmit nerve impulses from one nerve to another. Rhodopsin, a protein found
in the rod cells of the retina, functions this way in the vision process.
 7. Motion function
Every time we climb stairs, push a button, or blink an eye we use muscles that have proteins as
their major components. The proteins actin and myosin are particularly important in processes
involving movement. They are long filament proteins which slide along each other during muscle
contraction.

8. Transport function
Numerous small molecules and ions are transported effectively through the body only after
binding to proteins. For example fatty acids are carried between fat tissue and other tissues or organs
by serum albumin, a blood protein. Hemoglobin, a well-known example, carries oxygen from the lungs
to other body tissues, and transferrin is a carrier of iron in blood plasma.

FATS OR LIPIDS

Lipids are biological compounds that are waxy or oily that is insoluble in water and soluble in fat
solvents such as alcohol, ether, acetone, etc. These characteristics of lipids and related compounds are
due to the predominance of long hydrocarbon chains or rings consisting mainly of hydrogen and carbon.
The electrons in hydrocarbons are evenly distributed resulting to hydrocarbons with no polarity and do
not interact with water. Thus, lipids are non- polar and hydrophobic.
Many lipids are formed from molecules called fatty acids. Fatty acids contains a long chain with a
carboxyl group (COOH) attached to the end. Fatty acids can be saturated or unsaturated. Saturated fatty
acids have single bonds and contains maximum number of hydrogen per carbon. Unsaturated fatty acids
have double bonds and with fewer hydrogen in the molecule. A fatty acid with two or three double bonds
is called polyunsaturated. Saturated fats are solid at room temperature and accumulate as fat storage.

Major Roles of Biological Lipids

1. They serve as structural components of biological membranes.

2. They provide energy reserve, predominantly in the form of triacylglycerol’s.
3. Both lipids and lipid derivatives serve as vitamins and hormones.
4. Lipophilic bile acids aid in lipid solubility.

Some Examples of Fatty Acids

Number Common
of Common IUPAC Name Chemical Formula Location or
Carbon Name Use
Atom
1 Formic acid Methanoic acid HCOOH Insert sting
3 Propionic acid Propionic acid 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝐻2 COOH
4 Butyric acid Butanoic acid 𝐶𝐻3 (𝐶𝐻2 ) 2 COOH Butter
5 Valeric acid Pentanoic acid 𝐶𝐻3 (𝐶𝐻2 ) 3 COOH
6 Caproic acid Hexanoic acid 𝐶𝐻3 (𝐶𝐻2 ) 4 COOH
7 Enanthic acid Heptanoic acid 𝐶𝐻3 (𝐶𝐻2 ) 5 COOH
8 Capric acid Octonic acid 𝐶𝐻3 (𝐶𝐻2 ) 6 COOH
9 Pelargonic acid Nonamic acid 𝐶𝐻3 (𝐶𝐻2 ) 7 COOH
10 Capric acid Decanoic acid 𝐶𝐻3 (𝐶𝐻2 ) 8 COOH
12 Lauric acid Dodecanoic acid 𝐶𝐻3 (𝐶𝐻2 ) 10 COOH Coconut oil
16 Palmitic acid Hexadecanoic acid 𝐶𝐻3 (𝐶𝐻2 ) 14 COOH Palm oil
18 Stearic acid Octadenoic acid 𝐶𝐻3 (𝐶𝐻2 ) 16 COOH Animal Fat

Classification of Fats

1. Cholesterol
A yellowish, fatlike substance produced mostly in the liver and in lesser amounts in the intestines and
specialized cells throughout the body. Cholesterol is necessary for the production of sex hormones,
synthesis of Vitamin D, and is a vital part of the production of cell membranes and nerve coatings. The
body actually produces enough cholesterol on its own, without additional food intake, so cholesterol-free
diet is not hazardous to your health. Excesses of cholesterol cause the formation of plaque which attaches
itself to arterial pathways and causes clogs in the blood flow leading the heart attacks.

2. LDLs:
The acronym represents low-density lipoprotein. The liver breaks down fats into “bad” LDLs and its
“good”, HDLs. It carries cholesterol to cell membranes for production and repair, and also to the
production center for sexual hormones. But, it’s also the target enemy as bad cholesterol, which clogs
arteries and causes heart attacks due to poor blood flow. When the body has enough cholesterol for its
needs, it refuses to accept any more, and lets it ride in the bloodstream. It eventually attaches itself to
the walls of blood vessels, causing plaque deposits. Carrots, alfalfa sprouts, and oatmeal have been shown
to be good eliminators of those nasty LDLs.

3. HDLs
An acronym for high-density lipoproteins these are good cholesterol, which carry away LDLs through
the blood to be eliminated via the liver. HDLs can be increased by diet, weight control, exercise, and not
smoking.

4. Triglycerides
These fats are measurable in the bloodstream by special tests which help physicians judge your fat
consumption. Levels in excess of 190 milligrams for women and 400 milligrams for men indicate a need
for invention to avoid heart disease.

5. Saturated Fats
Intake of saturated fats should be strictly limited, as these are most associated with the increase of
cholesterol levels and the cause of some forms of cancer. They raise triglycerides, and particularly LDLs.
This type of fat comes from animal sources and is in a solid state when at room temperature; with the
exception of tropical oils such as coconut oil and palm oil, which comes from plants and are semisolid at
room temperature. Cut consumption to under ten percent of your total calories, choosing lean meats and
skinless white meat of poultry. Portion size should be roughly the size of a deck of cards. Sources of
saturated fats are butter, lard, some margarine, and vegetable shortening.

6. Unsaturated Fats
This category is further broken down into monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats, which come
primarily from the plants. The oils are liquid at room temperature and contain varying percentages of both
sub-types which will be explained further in their own definitions below.

7. Polyunsaturated Fats
Although considered relatively healthy, some studies have shown that diets high in polyunsaturated
fats can cause some forms of cancer and gallstone. Yet it is the body’s primary source of linoleic acid, and
is needed by the body for the formation of cells and normal functioning of the nervous system. Products
high in polyunsaturated fats have actually been shown to reduce blood cholesterol levels. However, it’s
important to avoid those which have been hydrogenated. Polyunsaturated fats are derived from plants.
Sources are safflower, corn and sunflower oils; nuts and seeds.

8. Omega-3 Oils
This classification of polyunsaturated fats is the most highly-discovered health find in recent years.
It’s found in some land plants and in marine plant life called phytoplankton. Sea life feeds on the plankton,
causing the Omega-3 to reside in the tissues of all sea creatures in varying levels. Recent studies have
shown Omega-3 to be especially beneficial in lowering the “bad cholesterol” (LDL) and triglyceride levels
in coronary artery disease patients. They also inhibit production of plaque deposits in arteries; limit
fibrinogen which reduces clotting, and prevent strokes and high blood pressure; contain anti-
inflammatory properties helpful in the treatment of arthritis and related disease; and inhibit the growth
of tumors.
Omega-3 diets have been prescribed for women during high risk pregnancies, since it not only reduces
blood pressure, but also inhibits the formation of blood clots in the placenta which could lead to
miscarriage. If you increase intake of Omega-3 fatty acids and do not reduce saturated fat intake
cholesterol levels will slightly increase. Sources are sardines, herring, mackerel, bluefish, tuna, salmon and
gem fish. It is also found in lean meat, plant foods such as cereal grains, seeds, nuts, legumes, dark green
leafy vegetables, figs and peanut oil including soybean, canola, linseeds and walnut.

9. Monounsaturated Fats
These fats have been shown to reduce LDL’s but have relatively no effect on HDLs; except for olive
oils which can increase the beneficial HDLs. Although olive oil is an excellent substitute for saturated fats,
it is still high in calories. Sources are olive oil, canola oil, peanut oil, avocadoes, almonds, cashews, and
peanuts.

ENZYMES
Enzymes are the most specialized type of proteins. They are very important substance because
they control the chemical reactions that happen in our bodies. They are known as biological catalysts
(substances which speed up reactions but which do not get used up themselves). There are thousands of
different enzymes, each of which has a very specific function. Without enzymes, living things could not
have evolved into such complex organisms. Enzymes are soluble in water, glycerol and dilute alcohol. In
solution, they are colloidal in nature. It is estimated that a given cell could contain a thousand different
enzymes.
Enzymes deliver nutrient, carry away toxic wastes, digest food, purify the blood, deliver hormones
by feeding and fortifying the endocrine system, balance cholesterol and triglyceride levels, feed the brain
and cause no harm to the body. All of these factors contribute to the strength of the immune system.
Enzymes names usually end in “ase”

There are two main types of enzymes:

a. Intracellular enzymes which control reactions that occur inside cells.
b. Extracellular enzymes which could control reactions that occur outside cells (for example,
digestive enzymes work outside cell in the gut).

DIGESTIVE ENZYMES

Organ Enzyme Action

Mouth Ptyalin Converts starch and glycogen to maltose
Stomach Gastrin Stimulate HCL secretion
Pepsin Converts protein to peptides
Peptidase Converts protein to peptides

Small Intestines Sucrase Converts sucrose to glucose

Amylase Converts starch and glycogen to maltose
Nuclease Converts Nucleic Acids
Maltase Converts maltose to glucose
Pancreas Trypsin/chymotrypsin Converts protein to peptides
Carboxy Converts peptides to amino acids
Peptidase
Lipase Converts emulsified fats to fatty acids and glycerol
Converts Nuvleic acids
Nuclease

Discoloration of Fruits and Vegetables

We are all familiar with the way apples, bananas, pears, eggplant, avocados and raw potatoes
quickly turn brown when they sliced or bitten into. The discoloration is partly the work of an enzyme
known as polyphenoloxidase, which oxidizes phenolic compounds in the tissue and changes then to
brown-colored products. Enzymatic discoloration can be prevented or slowed by several methods.
Immersing the cut pieces in cold water limits the enzyme’s access to oxygen and slows the browning.
Chilling the food will slow the enzyme action; even better, boiling temperatures will destroy it. Thus,
mashed potatoes retain a pleasing white color.
VITAMINS
Vitamins are organic nutrients found in foods that are essential in small quantities for growth,
normal functioning of our bodies, vitality and general well-being.
Most vitamins are obtained through food. There are some that are also produced by bacteria in
the intestine and are absorbed into the body. Absence of a vitamins stunts growth and leads to a specific
deficiency. There is no perfect food that contain all vitamins in just the right amounts. The best way to
assure an adequate intake of vitamins is by eating a balanced diet.

Classification of Vitamins

1. Fat soluble vitamins

 Include Vitamin A, D, E and K
 Stored in the body as fat and in some body organs like liver
 Dissolve in lipids
 Stored in tissues
 May be toxic in excess
2. Water-soluble vitamins
 Include C and eight B vitamins
 Dissolve in water so cooking and washing may leach them out
 Easily absorbed and excreted
 Not stored extensively in tissues(except 𝐵12 )
 Seldom reach toxic levels

Importance Deficiency Symptoms

Vitamin A Necessary for growth and repair of body tissues; Many result in night blindness;
(Beta Carotene) helps maintain smooth, soft disease-free skin; helps increased susceptibility to
protect the mucous membranes of the mouth, nose, infections; rough, dry, scaly skin;
throat and lungs, thereby reducing susceptibility to loss of smell and appetite;
inflections; protects against air pollutants; frequent fatigue; lack of tearing;
counteracts night-blindness and weak eyesight; aids defective teeth growth.
in bone and teeth formation. Current medical
research shows that the food rich in Beta Carotene
will help reduce the risk of lung cancer and certain
oral cancers. Unlike Vitamin A from fish liver oil, Beta
Carotene is non-toxic.
Vitamin B Plays a key role in the body’s metabolic cycle for May lead to the loss of
(Thiamine) generating energy; aids in the digestion of appetite; weakness and feeling of
carbohydrates; essential for the normal functioning tiredness; paralysis and nervous
of the nervous system, muscle and heart stabilizes irritability; insomnia; loss of
the appetite; promote growth and good muscle weight; vague aches and pains;
tone. mental depression and
constipation heart and gastro
intestinal problems.
Vitamin 𝑩𝟐 Necessary for carbohydrate, fat and protein May result in itching and
(Riboflavin) metabolism; aids in the formation of antibodies and burning eyes; cracks and sore in
red blood cells; maintains cell respiration; necessary the mouth and lips; bloodshot
for the maintenance of good vision, skin, nails, and eyes; purplish tongue; dermatitis;
hair, alleviates eye fatigue; promotes general health retarded growth; digestive
disturbances; trembling,
sluggishness; oily skin.
Vitamin 𝑩𝟔 Necessary for the synthesis and breakdown of May result in nervousness,
(Pyridoxine) amino acids, the building blocks of protein; aids in insomnia, skin eruptions, loss of
fat and carbohydrate metabolism; aids in the muscular control, anemia, mouth
formation of antibodies; maintains the central disorders, muscular weakness,
nervous system; aids in the removal of excess fluid arm and leg cramps, loss of hair,
of premenstrual women; promotes healthy skin;
 reduces muscle spasms, leg cramps, hand slow learning and water
numbness, nausea, and stiffness of hands; helps retention.
maintain a proper balance of sodium and
phosphorus in the body.
Vitamin 𝑩𝟏𝟐 Helps in the formation and regeneration of red May lead to pernicious anemia,
(Cobalamin) blood cells, thus helping prevent anemia; necessary poor appetite, growth failure in
for carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism; children, tiredness brain damage,
maintains a healthy nervous system; promotes nervousness, neuritis,
growth in children; increases energy; needed for degeneration of spinal cord,
Calcium absorption. depression, lack of balance.
Niacinamide Improves circulation and reduces the cholesterol May result in pellagra,
(Niacin-Vitamin level in the blood; maintains the nervous system; gastrointestinal disturbance,
B) helps metabolize protein, sugar and fat; reduces nervousness, headaches, fatigue,
high blood pressure; increase energy through mental depression, vague aches
proper utilization of food: prevents pellagra; helps and pains, irritability, loss of
maintain a healthy skin, tongue and digestive appetite, insomnia, skin
system. disorders, muscular weakness,
indigestion, bad breath, cancer
sores.
Pantothenic Participates in the release of energy form May lead to painful and
Acid carbohydrates, fats and proteins, aids in the burning feet, skin abnormalities,
utilizations of vitamins; improves the body’s retarded growth, dizzy spells,
resistance to stress; helps in cell building and the digestive disturbance, vomiting
development of the central nervous system; helps restlessness, stomach stress,
the adrenal glands, fights infections by building muscle cramps.
antibodies.
Biotin Aids in the utilization of protein, folic acid, May lead to extreme
pantothenic acid, and vitamin 𝐵12 promote healthy exhaustion, drowsiness, muscle
hair. pain, loss of appetite, depression,
grayish skin color.
Folic acid Necessary for DNA and RNA synthesis, which is May result in gastrointestinal
essential for the growth and reproduction of all body disorders anemia 𝐵12 deficiency,
cells; essential t the formation of red blood cells by premature gray hair.
its action on the bone marrow; aids in amino acid
metabolism.
Vitamin C ( Essential for healthy teeth and bones; helps heal Many lead to soft and bleeding
ascorbic acid) wounds , scars, tissue, and fractures; prevent scurvy; gums, swollen or painful joints,
builds resistance to infection aids in the prevention slow- healing wounds and
and treatment of the common cold; gives the fractures bruising, nosebleeds,
strength to blood vessels; aids in the absorption of tooth decay, loss of appetite,
iron. It is required for the synthesis of collagen, the muscular, weakness, skin
intercellular ‘cement’ which holds tissues together. hemorrhages, capillary weakness,
It is also one of the major antioxidant nutrients. It anemia, and Impaired digestion.
prevent the conversion of nitrates ( from tobacco
smoke, smog, bacon, luncheon meats, and some
vegetables) into cancer causing substances
Vitamin D Improves absorption and utilization of calcium and May lead to rickets, tooth decay,
phosphorous; required for bone and teeth softening of bones improper
formation; maintains stable nervous system and healing of fractures, lack of vigor,
normal heart action. muscular weakness, inadequate
of absorption of calcium,
retention of phosphorous in the
kidneys.
Vitamin E Major antioxidants nutrient; retard cellular aging May lead to a rapture of red
due to oxidation; supplies oxygen to the blood which blood cells, loss of reproductive
is then carried to the heart and other organs; thus powers, lack of sexual vitality,
alleviating fatigue; aids in bringing nourishment to abnormal fat deposits in muscles,
cells; strengthens the capillary walls and prevents
 the red blood cells from destructive poison; degenerative changes in the heart
prevents and dissolve blood clots; has also been and other muscles; dry skin.
used by doctors in helping prevent sterility,
muscular dystrophy, calcium deposits in blood walls
and heart condition.

Vitamin K
This vitamin is necessary mainly for the coagulation of blood. It aids in forming prothrombin, an
enzyme needed to produce fibrin for blood clotting. The large intestine serves several important
functions. It absorbs water-about 6 liters (1.6 gallons) daily-as well as dissolved salts from the residue
passed on by the small intestine. In addition, bacteria in the large intestine promote the breakdown of
undigested materials and make several vitamins, notable vitamin K, which the body needs for blood
clotting. The large intestine moves its remaining contents toward the rectum, which makes up the final
15 to 20 cm (6 to 8 in) of the alimentary canal. The rectum stores the feces-waste material that consist of
undigested food, digestive juices, bacteria and mucus-until elimination. Then, muscle contractions in the
in the walls of rectum push the feces toward the anus. When sphincters between the rectum and anus
relax, the feces pass out of the body.
The richest sources of vitamin K are alfalfa and fish livers, which are used in making concentrated
preparations of this vitamin. Dietary sources include all leafy green vegetables, egg yolks, soybean oil, and
liver. For a healthy adult, a normal diet and bacteria synthesis in the bowels usually are sufficient to supply
the body with vitamin K and prothrombin. Digestive disturbance may lead to defective absorption of
vitamin K and hence to mild disorders in the blood clotting.

MINERALS
Major Minerals. The major minerals are calcium, phosphorous, magnesium, sodium, potassium,
and chloride. These are the ones that are present in your body in the largest amounts.
The trace minerals iron, zinc, iodine, copper, manganese, fluoride, chromium, selenium, and
molybdenum. These are required in smaller amounts.

The character below list the roles specific minerals play in health and the food sources of each one.

RECOMMENDED
DIETARY
MINERAL FUNCTION FOOD SOURCES ALLOWANCDE
Calcium Essential for developing and Daily products, 100 mg
maintaining healthy bones and teeth. green leafy (ages 19-50)*
Assists in blood clot ting, muscle vegetables canned 1200 mg
contraction, nerve transmission. fish, tofu. (ages 51+)*
Reduces risk of osteoporosis.
Phosphorous Works with calcium to develop and Dairy products, 700 mg (age 19 +)
maintain strong bones and teeth. meat, poultry, eggs,
Enhances use of other nutrients. whole grains, nuts,
Essential for energy metabolism, DNA and, seeds,
structures and cell membranes. processed foods.
Magnesium Activates nearly 100 enzymes and Green vegetables, Men:
helps nerves and muscles function. legumes, cereal, fish, 420 mg (ages 31-70)
and whole bran. Women:
320 mg (ages 31-70)
Sodium Necessary for maintaining fluid Table salt, milk Not more than 2400
balance. Transport nutrients across processed meats to 3000mg+
cell membranes. (luncheon meats,
ham, bacon) snacks,
chips, crackers.
Potassium Maintaining fluid balance. (a Spinach, Brussels, 1600 to 2000 mg
potassium deficiency is very Sprouts, Bananas,
uncommon in healthy people but may
 result from dehydration or from using Potatoes, Orange
certain class of blood pressure juices, cantaloupe.
medications called diuretics. Diuretics
cause increased urine output and
some potassium as well.)
Chloride Necessary for maintaining normal Table Salt 750 mg
acidity in the stomach. Helps carry
carbon dioxide to the lungs.
Iron Needed for red blood cell Liver, meats, 15 mg (men)
formation. Iron deficiency may lead togreen leafy
anemia. vegetables, enriched 12 mg (women)
breads and cereals.
Zinc Essentials part of more than 100 Meat, liver, 15 mg (men)
enzymes involved in digestion, poultry, fish, oyster,
metabolism, reproduction and wound other seafood, 12 mg (women)
healing. whole grains, eggs.
Iodine Helps regulates growth and Iodized salt, salt- 150 mg
development, metabolism. Necessary water fish, dairy
for normal thyroid function. products, white
bread.
Selenium Necessary for normal growth and Whole grains, 70 mg (men)
development, use of iodine in thyroid fish, seafood, liver,
functions. May reduce the risk of meats, eggs. 55 mg (women)
certain cancers.
Copper Involved in iron metabolism, Liver sea foods, 1.5 to 3.0 mg II
nervous system function, bone health, nuts, seeds
synthesis of proteins. Play a role in
pigmentation of skin hair, eyes.
Manganese Necessary for normal development Whole grains, 2.0 to 5.0 mg II
of skeletal and connective tissues. cereals.
Involved in metabolism of
carbohydrates
Fluoride Dental health, incorporation into Most plants and Men: 4 mg (ages 19
bones and teeth. animals, fluoride- +)*
fortified toothpaste,
some water
supplies.
Chromium Normal glucose metabolism Egg yolks, whole 50 to 200 mg II
grains and pork
Molybdenum Needed for metabolism of DNA Milk, bean, 75 to 250 mg II
and RNA breads, cereals.

MINERAL TOXICITY
Mineral can also be toxic at high dose. Many trace minerals are toxic at levels only several times higher
than the recommendations:
 Single dose of copper only 4 times the recommended level can cause vomiting and disorders in
the nervous system.
 High levels of iodine can thwart the functioning of the thyroid gland.
 When overdose of zinc only a few milligrams above the RDA are taken. It causes a copper
deficiency and seems to decrease HDL levels (which increase the risk of heart disease).
 When mega doses of selenium are taken over a long span of time, it can cause diarrhea, nausea,
vomiting, hair loss and malaise.
 High levels of iron in the blood had a higher risk of heart attacks. Iron is suspected of speeding up
the clogging of arteries and producing the damage that result from heart attacks.
WATER
Most living things contain a large proportion of water. The human body is two-thirds water (60-70%
of body weight). Three fourths of the earth’s surface is covered with water. Water is the most important
liquid in the world. Water is known as a universal solvent. Used but never used up.
 Water constantly circulates throughout the world. It is synthesized by Henry Cavendish in 1781. The
formula 𝐻2 O is presented by French chemist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and the German naturalist
Alexander von Humboldt demonstrated jointly that water is consisted of two volumes of hydrogen to one
volume of oxygen. Water is essential nutrient that is involved in every function of the body.
Human tissues require 21⁄2 quarts of water a day. An egg, for example, is about 74 percent water, a
watermelon, 92 percent. A piece of lean meat, about 70 percent. Beverages such as milk, coffee, tea, and
soft drinks are mainly water. Water is used in drinking, washing, preparing meals, and removing waste. It
turns the turbines of hydroelectric plants that produce electricity for light, heat, and power for many
factories and communities. 380 billion of fresh water are used each day to irrigate cropland. The body
uses water for virtually all its functions.
Water helps transport nutrients and waste products in and out of cells. Water is necessary for
digestion, absorption, circulation and excretion and building tissues. Water is needed for utilization of the
water-soluble vitamins. It is needed for the maintenance of proper body temperature. Water serves as an
important part of lubricants, helping to cushion the joints and internal organs, keeping body tissues such
as the eyes, lung and air passages moist, and surrounding and protecting the fetus during pregnancy.