INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

(GEO 101)

Introduction to Physical Geography (Week 1b)

• Earth System Concept
• Tools in Physical Geography

PREPARED BY CHRISTIAN KWESI OWUSU

 EARTH SYSTEM CONCEPT
The Earth from an Energy and Systems Perspective
 EARTH SYSTEM CONCEPT
Four Types of Energy:
1. Strong Nuclear Force – Fission and Fusion

2. Weak Nuclear Force – Radioactivity

3. Electromagnetism – Electricity and Magnetism

4. Gravity – Otherwise known as GRAVITY

 EARTH SYSTEM CONCEPT
 Earth is a constantly evolving system with dynamic interactions between the
biosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, and geosphere that are driven by
internal and external energy processes.

 The lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere are known as Earth’s

systems

 Earth systems evolves with time, so has the nature of their interactions.

 The study of these changing interactions is known as earth systems science

 Earth’s systems are powered by a combination of solar energy and heat energy
stored within Earth that flows towards its surface
EARTH SYSTEMS CONCEPTS …cont’d
EARTH SYSTEM CONCEPT
EARTH SYSTEM:
 Collection of interdependent sub-systems, parts and units enclosed within a defined boundary
in a given environment

 A system is any ordered, interrelated set of things and their attributes, linked by flows of
energy and matter, as distinct from the surrounding environment outside the system

 Combination of sub-systems to form a complex or simple one with same function

 Earth science is the study of earth’s systems

 Each earth’s sphere is a sub-system

EARTH AS SYSTEM
 Processes operating on earth interact with each other, changes in one process, such as
earth quakes/volcanic activity/flood, results in changes in another, such as atmospheric
composition, crust disfiguring, hydrological composition etc..
EARTH SYSTEMS
EARTHCONCEPTS
SYSTEM CONCEPT
Systems Theory: Geographers use system theories as a tool to analyze earth
features.

1. Every earth’s phenomenon, event and feature assigned to a system;

2. The earth’s surface (world) is made up of different types of areas, regions, or

places having an individual significance system;

3. These parts or sub-parts are not only inter-related with each other, they also form
independent sub-systems of their own;

4. A system has an order of or sequence of functions;

5. Although each part of a system plays an individual role in the system’s operation,
no part is entirely independent of others .
EARTH SYSTEMS CONCEPTS
EARTH …cont’dCONCEPT
SYSTEM
6. A change in the operation of one part will have significant repercussions
throughout the system
• Malfunctioning of one part disturbs the balance of whole system
• Any little change leads to the various corresponding changes in the whole
system

7. Accordingly a system has some inputs and some outputs

8. There is always some stimulus (or driving force) behind the functioning of a
system

9. Systems are generally at balance or at equilibrium

10. Within macro systems there are micro systems (the sub systems)
EARTH SYSTEMS
EARTHCONCEPTS
SYSTEM CONCEPT
 System, surrounded and influenced by its environment, is described by its
boundaries, structure and purpose and expressed in its functioning.

 Systems range from simple to complex.

EARTH SYSTEMS CONCEPTS …cont’d
EARTH SYSTEM EXAMPLES
Examples: let take the atmosphere as an example.

• Continuous flow of smoke and gases from the factories and mills have greatly
increased the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere; and this increase
has disturbed the ecological balance of CO2 already present in the
atmosphere
• As a result there is decrease in the total amount of rainfall, increase in the
temperature, occurrence of acid rainfall etc., which in turn affects crop
production

Every essential features/component of a system define its basic functional

characteristics as a whole in terms of its environment, behaviour, state of existence,
information and organization. All are interrelated
(Harvey, 1967, 455-459).
EARTH SYSTEMS
EARTHINTERACTIONS…cont’d
SYSTEM EXAMPLES .. Cont’d
Interactions of Earth Systems

• The water cycle shows how water moves between reservoirs of the hydrosphere,
the atmosphere, the geosphere, and the biosphere.
• Weather and climate are influenced by transfers of water and energy among the
atmosphere, the geosphere, and the hydrosphere.
• Rocks continually change form as they move through the rock cycle. Processes such
as weathering and erosion are examples of interactions among Earth systems.
 EARTH SYSTEM CONCEPT
• Systems Theory: Geographers use systems methodology as an analytic tool.

• A system is any ordered, interrelated set of things and their attributes, linked by flows of
energy and matter, as distinct from the surrounding environment outside the system.

• Open systems: A system with inputs and outputs crossing back and forth between the
system and the surrounding environment. Earth is an open system in terms of energy-why?
Other examples are the automobile and a leaf.

• Closed systems: A system that is shut off from the surrounding environment so that it is
entirely self-contained in terms of energy and materials; Earth is a closed system in terms of
physical matter and resources.
EARTH SYSTEM ELEMENTS
EARTH SYSTEM ELEMENTS
Earth System Elements
• All the characteristics of a system are determined by the system elements,
their properties and relationships.

• These elements are common to all systems. These are the elements by which
all systems are described. The system elements are:

1. Input
2. Processor
3. Output
4. System Boundaries
EARTH SYSTEM
EARTHCHARACTERISTICS
SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS
Earth System Characteristics
• All the characteristics of a system are determined by the system elements,
their properties and relationships.

1. Basic components (e.g. earth’s system is made of geosphere, biosphere,

hydrosphere, and atmosphere components)
2. Interaction and structure (e.g. exchange of matter and energy between and
within components of the earth’s system)
3. Goal (e.g. ensuring equilibrium/balance in the earth’s system)
4. Behaviour (e.g. how does the earth’s sub-systems like wetlands respond to
disturbance from humans)
5. Life cycle of the system
Types of systems
EARTH SYSTEM TYPES
Open Systems:
• A system with inputs and outputs of energy and matter crossing back and forth between the earth
system and the surrounding environment
• Material and energy contents are variable and freely exchanges mass
• Open system is that system which interacts with its environment
• E.g. solar radiation and energy interaction

Closed Systems:
• A system that is shut off/isolated from the surrounding environment so that it is entirely self-contained in
terms of energy and materials
• Earth is a closed system in terms of energy to and from its surroundings
• Closed system is that system which does not interact with its environment. It has only controlled & well
defined input & output. Exchange of energy but negligible of mass exchange
• No transfer of mass in and outside the earths system but energy is allowed to move in and out
• E.g. 1: Cryosphere (melts and refreezes but no water is added to it,
• E.g. 2: Material cycle between lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere
EARTH SYSTEMS CONCEPTS
EARTH SYSTEM…cont’d
TYPES .. Cont’d

Figure 1: An open system showing input and

output from and to its surroundings

Figure 2: A close system showing only input and output of only

energy from surroundings
Types of systems
EARTH SYSTEM TYPES .. Cont’d
Isolated Systems
• No matter or energy enters or leaves

Natural Systems:
• All the naturally occurring systems are called as natural systems For example: Solar system,
hydrological cycle, biogeochemical cycle etc.

Artificial Systems
• All man-made systems are called artificial systems
 EARTH SYSTEM TYPES .. Cont’d
Types of Systems

a. Isolated System b. Closed System c. Open System

Types of systems … Cont’d
EARTH SYSTEM TYPES .. Cont’d
Deterministic System:
• It is a system which operates in predictable manner.
• Stepwise execution is always possible & output is sure.
• E.g. Hydrological cycle, water pollution etc.

Probabilistic System:
• It is a system which operates in unpredictable manner & degree of error is always possible.
• Also output is not sure.

• Scientists increasingly view Earth as a dynamic system (a combination of interrelated, interdependent or

interacting parts forming a collective whole or entity).
• On a macro level, the Earth system maintains its existence and functions as a whole through the interactions of
its parts, called components. At a lower level or micro level, it is helpful to think of the Earth system in terms of
four central components known as the subsystems – the hydrosphere, geosphere, atmosphere and biosphere.
EARTH SYSTEMS INTERACTIONS…cont’d
EARTH SYSTEMS CONCEPTS …cont’d
 EARTH SYSTEMS CONCEPTSCONCEPT
EARTH SYSTEM …cont’d .. Cont’d

Open System: Photosynthesis in plants create consumption of light, CO2, nutrients, and H2O and produces oxygen while at
night much of the reverse takes place.
 EARTH SYSTEMS RELATIONSHIPS AND STRUCTURE
This describes important relationships between sub-systems and humans or surroundings
and specific feedbacks (outputs) from these interactions.

System Equilibrium: A system that maintains structure and equilibrium over time. The
rates of inputs and outputs in the system are equal and the amounts of energy and matter
are constant. Gradual change of the system is defined as Dynamic equilibrium.
Examples:
• Long term climatic changes, increasing temperatures of the atmosphere and
oceans.
• Rotations of planets.

System Feedback: As a system operates, it generates outputs that influence its own
operations. These outputs function as “information” that is returned to various points in
the system via pathways called “feedback loops.”
Feedback loops can further guide system operations for necessary corrections.
• Example: In plant photosynthesis any increase or decrease in daylight or water can
cause a decrease in growth of a plant.
STRUCTURE OF SYSTEMS
EARTH SYSTEMS ON EARTHAND STRUCTURE
RELATIONSHIPS

• Structure of a system refers to the arrangement of various component parts

(elements) in it.

• This structure is composed essentially of the ‘elements’, ‘units/sub-units’ and the

‘links’ between them (Focus on the relationships).
 TOOLS USED IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

1. Maps and Map Projections

2. GIS & GPS Technology
3. Remote Sensing
4. Application of Scientific Methods
5. Geographic Models and Theories
 TOOLS USED IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Maps and Projections
• Map – a generalized view of an area, as seen from
above and reduced in size.
Cartography – map making.
 TOOLS USED IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

MAP SCALE

SMALL SCALE AND LARGE SCALE MAPS

• Small-scale map covers a larger geographic region such as the
world; whereas, a large-scale map covers a relatively small
geographic area

• Large scale map are maps that represent a relatively small

geographic unit such as tax parcels or individual land holdings and
properties with much detail.

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 TOOLS USED IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

MAP SCALE

SMALL SCALE AND LARGE SCALE MAPS

• Large scale maps show a smaller amount of area with a greater amount of detail.
The geographic extent shown on a large scale map is small.

• A large scaled map expressed as a representative scale would have a smaller

number to the right of the ratio. For example, a large scale map could have a
RF scale of 1 : 1,000. Large scale maps are typically used to show
neighborhoods, a localize area, mining sites, small towns, etc.

• Small scale maps show a larger geographic area with few details on them. The
RF scale of a small scale map would have a much larger number to the right of
the colon such as 1 : 1,000,000. Small scale maps are used to show the extent
of an entire country, province, region, or continent. 27
TOOLS USED IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

TEASER

A. SMALL SCALE

B. LARGE SCALE

C. SMALL SCALE

D. LARGE SCALE

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 TOOLS USED IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Maps Projections

• Map Projection – The process of transforming

spherical Earth to flat map using the various
projection classes.
• Earth can not be projected without distortion
of its:
Shape, area, distance, &/or direction.
 TOOLS USED IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Maps Projections
Properties Of The Spherical (Earth) Graticule

• Latitudes are parallel, evenly spaced along meridians (longitudes), &

decrease in length poleward.

• Meridians converge at the poles & decrease in length to a point at the

poles.

• Parallels & meridians intersect at 90º.

 TOOLS USED IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Maps Projections

Classes of Map
Projections
 TOOLS USED IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Remote Sensing (Definition and Types)
Remote Sensing is the science of:
• acquiring,
• processing and
• Interpreting images based on interaction between electromagnetic energy without
physical contact.

Remote sensing is the science and art of obtaining information about an object, area, or
phenomenon through the analysis of data acquired by a sensor that is not in contact with
the object area or, phenomenon under investigation.
 TOOLS USED IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Remote Sensing
 The field of remote sensing and its application is far advanced and being employed in the marine
environment.

 They can be designed to “see” wavelengths shorter than visible light (ultraviolet) and
wavelengths longer than visible light (infrared and microwave radar).

 RS help in obtaining, processing, interpreting and applying remotely-sensed data to solving real
life issues such as relating to climate change, marine productivity and physical state of the
oceans.

Types of Remote Sensing

 Active remote sensing: Active systems direct a beam of energy at a surface and analyze the
energy that is reflected back. An example is radar (radio detection and ranging) & Lidar.

 Passive remote sensing: Passive remote-sensing systems record energy radiated from a surface,
particularly visible light (like our eyes) and infrared.
 TOOLS USED IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
WHY REMOTE SENSING (Solving Real World Problems)
1. Finding and extracting oil from the sea bed

2. Finding fish at sea

3. Mapping the coastal zone

4. Monitoring floods and oil spills

5. Monitoring coastal erosion and other forms of degradation

6. Assessing damage from floods, wildfires and other natural disasters

7. Searching for and rescuing victims of natural disasters

8. Predicting crop yield

9. Making topographic maps

10 .Searching for terrorists and criminals

11. Water quality monitoring

 TOOLS USED IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Geographic Information Systems (GIS)

• GIS systems combine spatial and attribute data.

• Maps can contain multiple data layers:
– Physical features.
– Cultural features.
• Layers can be added to create composite overlay.
TOOLS USED IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

GIS Applications
 APPLICATION OF SCIENTIFIC METHODS

APPLICATION OF SCIENTIFIC METHODS

Scientific Methods: Series of organized problem-solving procedures that help
scientists conduct experiments.
STEP-BY-STEP SCIENTIFIC/GEOGRAPHIC METHODS
• Problem identification

• Formulation of hypothesis

• Data collection/observation

• Data Analysis/interpretation

• Dissemination of results
 SOME GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS
Geographic Science is –

• Location – Where are the spatial objects?

• Place – Tangible & intangible living/nonliving
characteristics.
• Central Park, N.Y.
• Region – Uniform physical characteristics.
• Colorado Plateau.
• Human-Earth Relationships – How does each impact the
other?
• Desert SW & Navajo Americans lifestyle.
• Movement – Energy exchanges, physical/human movement.
• Winds, ocean currents, human relocation.
 SOME GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS
Earth’s dimensions
 SOME GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS

Location and Time on Earth

• Latitude.
• Longitude.
• Great circles.
• Prime Meridian and standard time.
 SOME GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS

Longitudes and Latitudes (Definition & Importance

 SOME GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS

• Greenwich Mean Time – World standard (UT) time. Longitude (prime meridian)
established by International Meridian Conference, Washington, D.C., 1884.

• Universal Time Coordinated (UTC) – standardized by French in 1912, determined

by the International Bureau of Weights & Measures (Paris).

• Daylight savings time – Spring forward (lengthens daylight time), fall back.

International Date Line – IDL

West crossing – one day ahead.

East crossing – one day behind.
 SOME GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS
Prime Meridian and Standard Time
 SOME GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS

• Greenwich Mean Time – World standard (UT) time. Longitude (prime meridian)
established by International Meridian Conference, Washington, D.C., 1884.

• Universal Time Coordinated (UTC) – standardized by French in 1912, determined

by the International Bureau of Weights & Measures (Paris).

• Daylight savings time – Spring forward (lengthens daylight time), fall back.

International Date Line – IDL

West crossing – one day ahead.

East crossing – one day behind.
 SOME GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS
REGIONS:
SUB-DIVISION OF GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS OF THE WORLD
Asia
• South East Asia
• Central Asia
• Southern Asia
• Eastern Asia
• Asia-Pacific
Americas & Caribbean
• North America
• South America
• Central America
• Greater & Lesser Antilles
• Bahamas Archipelago
Europe Africa
• Sub-Saharan Africa
• Southern Africa
• Southern Africa
• Northern Africa • Northern Africa
• Western Africa • Western Africa
• Eastern Africa • Eastern Africa
• Middle/Central Africa
Oceania/Australasia
• Australia Middle East
• Arabian Peninsula
• New Zealand
• Caucasus
• Melanesia • Islamic Republic of Iran
• Polynesia • Near East
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 NEXT LECTURE
1. THE UNIVERSE IN PERSPECTIVE
2. EARTH’S PRINCIPAL MOVEMENTS & EFFECTS:
• Rotation (Effects)
• Revolution (Effects)
• Solstices Conditions
• Equinox Conditions

PREPARED BY CHRISTIAN KWESI OWUSU