The National University of Lesotho, Department of Biology

COURSE OUTLINE AND PRACTICAL MANUAL

2020/2021
P. Chatanga @ nul_2020/2021 PreparedPage
and1compiled
of 24
by Dr. P. Chatanga
 The National University of Lesotho, Department of Biology

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................... 3
COURSE OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................. 3
COURSE OUTLINE .................................................................................................................... 5
LIST OF PRACTICALS .............................................................................................................. 7
PRACTICAL OUTLINE ............................................................................................................. 8
Practical 1................................................................................................................................... 8
Practical 2................................................................................................................................... 9
Practical 3: Mini Project......................................................................................................... 10
Practical 4................................................................................................................................. 12
Practical 5................................................................................................................................. 17
Practical 6................................................................................................................................. 18
Practical 7................................................................................................................................. 20
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 22
ASSESSMENT ............................................................................................................................ 23
INSTRUCTOR ............................................................................................................................ 23
B2601 TIME-TABLE_2020/2021 .............................................................................................. 24

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 The National University of Lesotho, Department of Biology

INTRODUCTION
Introductory Ecology (B2601) is an introductory course to the field of Ecology. The course is
introductory and exploratory in nature. Ecology is an interdisciplinary field of Biology that
involves studying interactions between organisms and their environment and determining how
these interactions affect the abundance and distribution of the organisms. Since the environment
of an organism includes both biotic and abiotic factors, these interactions occur at the level of
individuals, populations, communities and ecosystems. This course will provide an introduction
to the basic principles of ecology, and will examine relationships among organisms and their
environment from the level of the individual up through populations, communities and ecosystems.

The course begins by defining and giving the scope of ecology, introducing basic concepts and
principles in ecology and exploring the processes which determine the distribution and abundances
of individuals and populations. The course then examines interactions between organisms and the
processes involved in population growth and regulation. The question of how energy flow and how
nutrients cycle in ecosystems is also addressed, as well as the impacts of human involvement in
ecosystems. The course will culminate in exploring the terrestrial biomes of the world and
terrestrial biomes of Southern Africa.

The course helps students to develop critical thinking, ability to address ecological questions and
analyse ecological data and tools necessary to link ecological patterns/processes to current human
activities. The course is practical in nature and therefore, has laboratory/practical sessions and field
trips which are compulsory and you cannot miss a practical or fieldwork for an unjustifiable reason.
Because the course uses natural laboratory for learning, field trips to natural and/ or modified
ecosystems are essential.

COURSE OBJECTIVES

After participating in this course students should be able to:

1. Define the terms ecology and environment, and name the branches of ecology
2. Describe, explain and appreciate the levels and approaches in ecological studies and the
factors affecting the distribution and abundance of organisms
3. Describe and explain how energy flows and how nutrients cycle in ecosystems
4. Describe the major ecological associations between species and their effects
5. Explain how populations grow and are regulated
6. Appreciate the diversity and adaptations of life forms in ecosystems

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 The National University of Lesotho, Department of Biology

7. Recognise, identify and describe the main terrestrial biomes of Southern Africa and those of
the world, particularly in relation to their ecological characteristics, distribution, threats and
significance
8. Demonstrate knowledge of the basic principles of ecology that operate at different levels of
ecological organisation
9. Assess and evaluate the effect of human involvement on both local and global ecosystems
10. Identify the application of ecology to ecosystem management and participate effectively in
relevant stakeholder discussions and engagements
11. Utilise basic approaches and applications of quantitative methods for analysis and problem
solving in ecological studies
12. Apply ecological principles to solve current environmental challenges and conservation
concerns
13. Conduct field research to carry out simple ecological studies including recording numerical
data and performing simple statistical operations.
14. Prepare a full scientific write-up to report major findings of an experiment.

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 The National University of Lesotho, Department of Biology

COURSE OUTLINE

There is no major prescribed textbook although there are many relevant books and journals in the
library (a short list is provided at the end of this manual just to guide you). You are free to use
these to supplement the information that you get in class.

1.0 Definition and the scope of Ecology

1.1 Introduction to the course. What is ecology? What are the levels of ecological
organisation?
1.2 Biosphere
1.3 Plant ecology
1.4 Animal ecology
1.5 Physiological ecology
1.6 Population ecology
1.7 Ecosystem ecology
1.8 Theoretical versus applied ecology
1.9 Holism versus reductionism

2.0 Factors affecting the distribution of organisms

3.0 Population Ecology: Population growth and regulation

3.1 Population growth and population characteristics, including patterns of dispersion
3.2 Life tables and survivorship curves
3.3 Carrying capacity
3.4 Density dependence and density independence

4.0 Community Ecology: Associations between organisms (species)

4.1 Symbiosis (mutualism, commensalism and parasitism)
4.2 Amensalism
4.3 Neutralism
4.4 Protocooperation
4.5 Predation
4.6 Herbivory
4.7 Competition

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 The National University of Lesotho, Department of Biology

5.0 Energy flow

5.1 Energy flow
5.2 Food chains and food webs
5.3 Trophic structure

6.0 Biogeochemical cycles (nutrient cycles – Carbon, Nitrogen and Phosphorus)

7.0 Humans in the ecosystem

7.1 How human beings destabilise ecosystems
7.2 Fire
7.3 Deforestation
7.4 Pollution – overview of aquatic ecosystems and water pollution; land pollution and
air pollution, including global warming and climate change
7.5 Eutrophication
7.6 Soil erosion

8.0 Major terrestrial biomes of the world

8.1 Introduction to biomes, including the definition and general description
8.2 Characteristics and distribution of each biome, including climate (precipitation and
temperature), soils, organisms (plants and animals), adaptations and threats
8.2.1 Grassland
8.2.2 Forest
8.2.3 Desert
8.2.4 Dry shrubland
8.2.5 Dry woodland
8.2.6 Tundra

9.0 Major terrestrial biomes of Southern Africa

Characteristics and distribution of each biome, including climate (precipitation and
temperature), soils, organisms (plants and animals), adaptations and threats
9.1 Fynbos
9.2 Succulent karoo
9.3 Nama karoo
9.4 Grassland
9.5 Savanna
9.6 Thicket
9.7 Forest
9.8 Desert

10.0 Revision and Conclusion

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 The National University of Lesotho, Department of Biology

LIST OF PRACTICALS

 Practical 1: Evolution and diversity of life – Documentary

 Practical 2: Organisms and their habitats – Documentary

 Practical 3: Effect of density on plant growth – Mini project

 Practical 4: Counting and measuring in ecology

 Practical 5: Population dispersion

 Practical 6: Estimating population sizes: the Mark – Recapture Method

 Practical 7: Population ecology: Life Tables and survivorship curves

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 The National University of Lesotho, Department of Biology

PRACTICAL OUTLINE

Practical 1
Title: Introduction to Ecology

Introduction

Ecology is the scientific interdisciplinary study of the interactions among organisms and their
environment. It involves the study of distributions, abundances and relations of organisms and the
organisms’ interactions with their environment. It also studies the interactions that determine these
distributions and abundances (Begon et al. 2006). The environment has two main factor categories
(abiotic and biotic components) that interact. The abiotic factors include soil, water, oxygen,
salinity, pH, nutrients, temperature, light, fire etc. The biotic factors include organisms, predation,
dispersal mechanisms, competition, allelopathy, diseases and parasites etc.

Ecology is so broad that it also includes evolutionary ecology which involves studying the history
of life in both terrestrial and aquatic environments. It considers the evolutionary history of species
and the interactions between the species under consideration.

The aim of this practical is to follow the history of life and to appreciate the diversity and ecology
of organisms from a documentary entitled “Life on Earth: A Natural History” by David
Attenborough. It is approximately 150 minutes long.

Specific objectives

The specific objectives of this practical are to gain an understanding of the following from the
documentary:
(a) The history of life
(b) The diversity of life (plants and animals)
(c) How organisms interact among themselves and also with their abiotic environment
(d) The adaptations of organisms for growth, survival and reproduction

Write-up
Write the discussion section with special reference to the four main objectives of this practical.

NB. Your write-up should not exceed 2 pages.

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 The National University of Lesotho, Department of Biology

Practical 2
Title: Organisms and their Habitats

Introduction
Environment is the totality of circumstances surrounding an organism or group of organisms,
especially the combination of biotic and abiotic conditions that affect and influence the growth,
development and survival of organisms. The environment provides resources for the benefit and
sustenance of the life of all species and different organisms show different adaptations to their
environments.

The biosphere harbours an incredible variety of life (plants, animals and microorganisms). The
biosphere is a combination of all regions of the earth that supports life (is inhabited by living
things) and is subdivided into three main sub-spheres i.e. Lithosphere – the part of the biosphere
that is occupied mainly by land; the Hydrosphere – part of the biosphere which is occupied mainly
by water; and the Atmosphere – part of the biosphere above the earth’s surface that is occupied
mainly by air.

The organisms in each of these sub-spheres vary and show a variety of adaptations to that
environment for growth, survival and reproduction. Different organisms have different ways of
life that are influenced by their characteristics.

The aim of this practical is to appreciate the variety of life, interactions among organisms and their
habitats from a documentary entitled “Great Wildlife Moments” by David Attenborough. It is
approximately 110 minutes long.

Specific objectives

The specific objectives of this practical are to identify the following from the documentary:
(a) The variety of organisms and their habitats
(b) How different organisms survive in their environments

Write-up
Write the discussion section with special reference to the two main objectives of this practical.
Also, state the specific objectives of the practical after the title.
Hint: Organise your work into paragraphs, each dealing with a specific habitat.

NB. Your write-up should not exceed 2 pages.

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 The National University of Lesotho, Department of Biology

Practical 3: Mini Project

Title: Effect of Density on Plant Growth
Introduction
Competition between organisms for resources such as food, water and space is a fundamental part
of ecology. Competition is an interaction (biotic factor) that affects distribution, abundance,
survival, growth and reproduction of organisms. It can strain limited resources, cause stress among
organisms, and even lead to environmental degradation. Competitive ability of an individual can
be measured in two ways: competitive effect (ability to suppress other individuals by taking up
resources and thereby reducing the amounts available for other plants) and competitive response
(ability to avoid being suppressed by performing well even though resource levels are reduced by
the competitors). Competition is generally classified into two types: interspecific and intraspecific.
Interspecific competition occurs among members of different species. Thus, it involves
communities of living organisms. Intraspecific competition occurs among members of the same
species, thus, involving populations of living things.
Many biological processes are said to be density dependent, i.e. their rate and outcome depend on
the number of individuals in the population per unit area. Density dependence reflects intra-
specific competition in which individuals of the same species compete amongst themselves for
food, space, light or other requirements. In plants, high density can result in self-thinning. Self-
thinning is a natural process whereby numbers of individual plants per unit area decrease as the
average plant size increases over time. In this practical you will investigate the effect of intra-
specific competition for resources on the growth of a plant species by varying its population
density. The aim of this practical is to investigate the effect of population density on the
germination and subsequent growth of a plant species – maize (Zea mays).

Exercise one
Materials: wheelbarrow, maize seeds, strings, 30 cm ruler, flower pots, permanent marker, spades,
1L beakers
Methods
You are provided with maize (Zea mays) seeds and ten flower pots. You are required to put soil
into the pots until they are almost full. You will obtain the soil from a site to that will be shown to
you. The soil should be mixed thoroughly to obtain homogeneity. Sow the maize seeds at about 2
cm deep and in multiples of four in the different pots, i.e. 4 in the first pot, 8 in the second, 12 in
the third up to the tenth pot. Each of these pots will have a different number of seeds, representing
a different population density. In each pot, the seeds should be sown at equal distances from each
other. Measure the diameter of the pots (in metres) at the surface of the soil and calculate the
surface area, and use it to determine seed population density for each pot (seed density as number
of seeds per square metre). Make sure the pots are labelled clearly (date, group, pot number and
number of seeds) as they will be left to grow for six weeks while being looked after. All the potted
plants will be watered regularly. Almost the same amount of water should be used for watering
the different pots on the same days so that differences in the growth of the plants will only be due
to differences in plant densities.
NB. This practical will be running for six weeks, after which exercise two will be conducted.
During this growth period you will be taking care of your pot (watering and removing weeds) and
also doing other practicals. Therefore, you need to take note of your procedure as it will form part

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 The National University of Lesotho, Department of Biology

of your method section when you prepare the final write-up after exercise two of the practical.
Bear in your mind that lack of proper care for your pots will result in the loss of 3 marks for each
member of the group. After three weeks, record the number of seeds that have germinated in each
pot in order to calculate percentage germination.

Exercise two
NB. This practical is continuing from exercise one and should be done after six weeks from
exercise one.

Materials: strings, 30 cm ruler, cutting blade (instrument), analytical balances, plastic beakers

Methods
1. Measure the diameter (in metres) of the pots at the surface of the soil and calculate the
surface area, and use these to determine population density for each pot (seedling density
as number of seedlings per square metre).
2. Since you have calculated percentage germination already, count the number of maize (Zea
mays) seedlings in your pot and determine the number of seedlings that died after
germination in each pot in the six week period.
3. Measure the height (cm) of each seedling in your pots and record your results.
4. Harvest the seedlings by cutting them off at the surface of the soil using a cutting
instrument.
5. Determine the stem diameter (mm) of each seedling in your pot by measuring the
circumference of the stem (close to the base of the stem) using a string and a ruler.
6. Estimate the above-ground wet biomass (g) by measuring the mass of each harvested
seedling using a balance.
7. Calculate the average height (cm), average stem diameter (mm) and average above-ground
wet biomass (g) of the seedlings in each pot and put your results on the board. Use the
following template to enter your results on the board.

Pot Pot diameter Pot Number Number of Number of Mean Mean seedling Mean above-
before (m) diameter of seeds seeds that seedlings height circumference ground seedling
after (m) sown germinated harvested (cm) (mm) wet biomass (g)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

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 The National University of Lesotho, Department of Biology

8. When all the results are on the board, copy them and plot mortality (as a percentage), mean
above-ground wet biomass (g), mean stem diameter (mm) and the mean height (cm) of
seedlings against seedling density (as part of your results). Use pot “diameter after” to
calculate seedling density. Also plot percentage germination against seed density as part of
your results. All graphs, which must be drawn manually, should be line graphs showing
joined points. Do not include the table of raw data or any other table in your results.

NB. Wherever appropriate, all final answers must be given correct to two decimal places
except for pot diameter which should be given to three decimal places.

Write-up
Do the write-up in a standard format i.e. Title, Abstract, Introduction, Materials and methods,
Results, Discussion and Conclusion, and References (at least 3 references).
NB. Your write-up, including graphs and references, should not exceed 8 pages.

Practical 4
Title: Counting and measuring in ecology: Determining variability and the precision of the
mean in plant functional trait measurements

Introduction
Much of ecology consists of counting and measuring plants, animals and environmental attributes.
This is not as simple as it seems because organisms and other things do not occur in an orderly
manner. Generally, their distribution is highly variable, differing in size, composition, density,
structure and so on. Researchers may also be biased, perhaps by collecting samples from areas that
are easily accessible or from areas where the things are clumped. All of these factors introduce
some degree of variability in the data, which can be assessed by statistics. This practical will
examine some aspects of variability in some plant functional traits, and introduce you to some
simple statistical concepts. Biologists have long held an interest in the nature of functional trait
variability within and across organisms. Sieben et al. (2014) define plant functional traits as the
morphological and physiological traits that make species adapted to a specific environment. Reich
et al. (2003) define functional traits as characteristics that may notably impact the ability of an
individual to survive in a given environment while Violle et al. (2007) define them as
morphological, physiological, and phenological attributes, which impact individual fitness via
their effects on growth, reproduction and survival of a plant.

Variability
Following the collection of a sample of plants or animals, or environmental variables, a researcher
often calculates the mean (average) value of some kind by the formula:
∑𝑥
Sample mean (𝑥̅ ) = 𝑛

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 The National University of Lesotho, Department of Biology

Mean values are very useful but can be misleading and may not always tell us much about the
population and, indeed, may also hide a lot of information about the population. This can be
illustrated simply by considering a sample of five worms taken from each of two populations,
which were measured to give the following results:

Sample A: lengths (mm) – 2; 8; 10; 25; 55 (mean = 20)

Sample B: lengths (mm) – 16; 18; 20; 22; 24 (mean = 20)

Although the mean lengths of these samples were the same, it is obvious that the size distribution
was very different, sample A is more variable. This kind of variability is typical of almost all living
organisms and other things in nature, although it can be introduced by inadequacies of the sampling
method, differences between observers, and so on. It is necessary therefore to quantify variability.
This can be done by calculating variance, a measure of variability, using the equation:

∑(𝑥−𝑥̅ )2 ∑𝑥 2 – (∑𝑥)2 /𝑛
Sample variance (𝑠 2 ) = =
𝑛−1 𝑛−1

where s2 = variance, ⅀x = the sum of all the values, ⅀(x)2 = sum of all the squared values,
𝑥̅ = the mean, and n = the number of sample units. The standard deviation of the sample is the
square root of the variance (s = √s2).
These statistics give us some idea of variability of the samples. Using the example of the worms,
we can see that the standard deviation of sample A is 21.3 compared to 3.1 for sample B. This
confirms our impression that sample A is from a much more variable population than sample B.

Precision of the mean

When we calculate the mean of a sample, it is easy to assume that it is the same as the mean for
the whole population. However, this is unlikely to be the case. You can only get the true population
mean by measuring every individual of the population, which is not practical for most organisms
and situations in real life. We therefore have to determine the confidence limits that tell us where
the true population mean is most likely to be. In most cases we calculate the 95% confidence limits
(interval) and we can say that there is a 95% probability that the true population mean lies within
those confidence limits. The first step in doing this is to determine the standard error, which is
calculated by:

𝑠2
Standard error = √ 𝑛

The 95% standard limits (interval) are 1.96 times the standard error and they are therefore
expressed as: 95% confidence limits (interval) = 𝑥̅ ± 1.96 × 𝑆. 𝐸.

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Using the example of the worms again, the true mean for population A lies within the range
20±18.6869 while that for population B lies within 20±2.772. This means that there is a 95%
probability that the true population mean for A will lie between 1.31 and 38.67, while the true
mean for population B will lie between 17.23 and 22.77. [We do not usually express it this way,
though, but (lower limit, upper limit)].

In this exercise, you will measure the sample of leaves from five individuals of different tree
species from the NUL Botanical Garden with the objective of determining variability and the
precision of the mean in the samples of different sizes. Use the following procedure:
1. Divide yourselves into five groups and each group will work on a given species. [For this
exercise, you need a 30 cm ruler calibrated in mm]
2. Collect 50 mature leaves from one individual of each of the five tree species, (Leucosidea
sericea – Cheche, Celtis africana – Bolutu, Quercus robur – English oak, Quercus suber
– Cork oak, Lagerstroemia indica – pride of India)
3. Measure the greatest length, including the petiole (leafstalk) to the tip and greatest width
of the leaves. If the leaves are compound, measure the whole leaf but do not measure
leaflets. NB. The units of the measurements should be cm rounded to one decimal place.
Also use the decimal point and not the decimal comma.
4. Put your results on the board so that you can share them with others.
5. In your groups: For the length and width of the leaves of each tree species, calculate the
mean, variance, standard deviation, standard error and the 95% confidence limits and
interval (UL_LL), coefficient of variation (CV) (expressing the standard deviation as a
percentage of the mean) and relative standard error (RSE) (expressing the standard error
as a percentage of the mean) of 5, 10, 20, and 50 leaves. Using the means for each tree
species and each set of leaves, calculate the leaf length/width ratio.
6. In the same groups, calculate again the mean, variance, standard deviation, standard error
and the 95% confidence limits and interval (UL – LL), CV and RSE for the length and
width of 5, 10, 20 and 50 leaves in the ratio 1:1:1:1:1 in each case for leaves from different
species. Use the first set of consecutive leaves for each species for this calculation. Final
answers must be given correct to two decimal places. Using the means for each tree species
and each set of leaves, calculate the leaf length/width ratio.

NB. Final answers must be given correct to two decimal places. Large values of the coefficient of
variation suggest that the data are quite variable.

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Write-up

In your groups, answer the following questions:

1. Describe the Materials and Methods (Procedure) of this practical, stating the statistics that
you calculated and providing the formulae that you used. [9]
2. Using 50 leaves of a stated species of your choice and showing your working, calculate
each of the different statistics you have mentioned in question 1, e.g. how you calculate the
mean, variance, standard deviation, standard error, 95% confidence limits and interval
(upper limit minus lower limit, given by UL – LL), coefficient of variation (CV), RSE and
length to width ratio. You are free to use the statistical programmes on your scientific
calculator; I do not expect you to do it manually. You can even use a computer program,
as long as you understand what you are doing. However, you need to show the major steps
in your working. [9]
3. Copy and complete Table 1, and also provide a heading for the table. The table, which
should fit on the same page, should be font type Times New Roman, size 11 or 10. You
can also use moderate or narrow margins to make it fit on the same page. [12]
4. Discuss your results by just answering the following questions:
(a) Citing an example of 50 leaves of any of the species used in this practical and in very
simple terms, distinguish between standard deviation (SD) and standard error (SE)
as they are used in statistical analyses. [5]
(b) What happens to the standard error, precision of the mean, coefficient of variation
(CV) and relative standard error (RSE) when leaves from the same tree species are
assessed and when leaves from different species are assessed? Explain your answer.
[5]
(c) What happens to the standard error and precision of the mean as the number of leaves
increases? Explain your answer well. [4]
5. Conclude this practical by answering the following questions:
(a) What are the implications of increasing sample size on precision of the mean in
ecological assessments? [2]
(b) What are the implications of combining individuals from different populations in the
same sample during data analysis and statistical calculations when doing ecological
assessments? [2]
(c) Suggest a way of improving the implications that you mentioned in (b) above in
ecological assessments? [2]

NB. Your answers should be typed in word Times New Roman, size 12.

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Table 1:
Species Number Length Width
of leaves L/
Interval CV RSE Interval CV RSE
s2 s SE 95% CI s2 s SE 95% CI W
(UL – L L) (sd/𝑥̅ ) % (SE/𝑥̅ ) % (UL – L L) (sd/𝑥̅ ) % (SE/𝑥̅ ) %
L.L U.L L.L U.L
5
10
Leucosidea
sericea 20
50
5
10
Celtis
africana 20
50
5
10
Quercus
robur 20
50
5
10
Quercus
suber 20
50
5
10
Lagerstroemia
indica 20
50
5
All the five 10
species
20
combined
50

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Practical 5
Title: Patterns of Population Spatial Distribution (Population Dispersion)
Introduction
Dispersion is the pattern of spacing among individuals within the boundaries of the population.
The aim of this practical is to determine the dispersion pattern (spatial distribution) of Hypochaeris
radicata on a part of NUL Roma Campus.
Spatial distribution of the Hypochaeris radicata (a compositae)
Hypochaeris radicata is an alien weed that has become naturalised in Lesotho. It is quite a common
and widespread plant on the lawns of NUL Roma Campus.
You will be required to divide the place into ten squares using a 1 m x 1 m metal quadrat and use
these to determine the abundance and spatial distribution of H. radicata.
1. Using 1 m x 1 m metal quadrats, divide the place into 10 squares.
2. Divide yourselves into 10 groups for this exercise and each group will be assigned to a square.
3. Each group should count the number of individual plants of H. radicata in their square.
4. Write your results on the board and calculate the sample mean density (number of individuals
per square metre), standard deviation, standard error, the 95% confidence limits of the plants
and the index of dispersion (variance-to-mean ratio).
5. Also calculate the variance, and use the index of dispersion / variance-to-mean ratio (VMR) to
determine the type of spatial distribution pattern exhibited by these plants, i.e.
(i) if variance is less than the mean (s2 < 𝑥̅ ), the distribution is regular;
(ii) if variance equals the mean (s2 = 𝑥̅ ), the distribution is random, and
(iii) if variance is greater than the mean (s2 > 𝑥̅ ), the distribution is contagious (clumped).
𝑠2
NB. The variance/mean ratio, , is called the Index of dispersion
𝑥̅
6. Write up the exercise in a full scientific report i.e. Abstract, Introduction, Materials & Methods,
Results, Discussion, Conclusion and References (at least 3 references). In your introduction,
include information on dispersion patterns and H. radicata, starting with dispersion patterns. In
your Materials and Methods section, provide the formulae that you used, and in your Results
section, show your calculations and summarise your results in a table. As part of your
discussion, suggest some reasons why the plants are distributed in a particular way.
NB. Your write-up should not exceed 5 pages.

Important formulae:
∑𝑥
Sample mean (𝑥̅ ) = 𝑛
∑(𝑥−𝑥̅ )2 ∑𝑥 2 – (∑𝑥)2 /𝑛
Sample variance (𝑠 2 ) = =
𝑛−1 𝑛−1

2
Standard error (S.E.) = √(s ⁄𝑛)
95% confidence limits = 𝑥̅ ± 1.96 × 𝑆. 𝐸.
NB. Final answers must be given correct to 2 decimal places.
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Practical 6
Title: Estimating Population Size: The Mark – Recapture Method
Introduction

A population is a group of organisms of the same species occupying a defined area at a particular
time, sharing resources and usually isolated to some degree from other similar groups by
geography or topography e.g. trout fish in a particular lake. Individuals in a population use
common resources and their numbers are regulated by common factors (abiotic and biotic). At any
given time, every population has geographical boundaries and a population size. The boundary of
the population has to be defined and can be natural e.g. a specific island, or can be arbitrarily
defined by a researcher e.g. rats on the N.U.L. Roma Campus. Ecologists are interested in
determining the different characteristics of a given population, such as size.

Rarely is it possible to determine the population size and density by actually counting all the
individuals within the boundaries of a population. Plant attributes are easier to determine because
plants are immobile. Because of mobility, animal populations are much more difficult to work
with since they can escape the observer in various ways. Herds of large mammals such as elephants
and buffalos can be counted accurately aerially. While it is possible but not always practical to
count every single individual in a plant population, it is rarely possible for any animal population.
Instead, ecologists often use a variety of sampling techniques to estimate animal densities and total
population sizes. A good example of such sampling techniques is the mark-recapture method.

In the mark-recapture method, a sample of an animal population is captured and each individual is
marked in some way, and then released. Typical marking methods include ear tags, leg bands, dyes
or paints, and clipping of fins or toes. After sufficient time (long enough for the marked animals
to mix well with the unmarked ones) another sample is taken. By assuming that the proportion of
the marked to unmarked animals in the sample is the same as in the population as a whole, it is
possible to calculate an estimate of the population size. An estimate of the total population size
can be made using the equation:
𝒎𝒄
𝑵=
𝒓

Where N = the estimate of the total population size, m = the number of marked animals in the
population (first sample size), c = the number of individuals in the second sample (second sample
size), and r = the number of marked individuals in the second sample. This estimate of population
size is called the Lincoln index.

The variance and standard error of the estimate can be determined by the following equations:

𝑵𝟐 (𝑵 − 𝒎)(𝑵 − 𝒄)
𝑽=
𝒎𝒄(𝑵 − 𝟏)

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(𝑵 − 𝒎)(𝑵 − 𝒄)
𝑺. 𝑬. = 𝑵 √
𝒎𝒄(𝑵 − 𝟏)

Population Range (95% confidence limits) = N ± 1.96 *S.E. or (N – 1.96*S.E.) to (N + 1.96*S.E.)

The following are the assumptions for the mark-recapture method:

1. All individuals are equally catchable.

2. Capturing and marking the animals do not change their behavior or cause extra mortality.
3. The marked animals mix freely and completely with the unmarked ones.
4. The population is closed, i.e. no immigration, emigration, births nor deaths associated with
the population in the period between the first and second sampling.
5. No marks are lost or overlooked. Leg rings can be lost by birds, or arthropods may molt
and lose the mark.
NB. The first assumption is not always true since different age-classes or sexes may have different
behavioral patterns. Furthermore, an animal that has been caught once may be more vigilant with
traps. To satisfy the fourth assumption, second sampling must be done within a reasonably short
time after the first sampling.

The Migratory Locust (Locusta migratira)

The migratory locust (Locusta migratoria L.) is among the world’s most important agricultural
pests (Zhang et al. 2003). It has a worldwide distribution, occurring throughout Asia, Europe,
Africa and Australia. The species is characterised by its swarming behaviour, the ability to carry
out long-distance migration, and continuous threats to agriculture. Studies of the species have led
to an improved understanding of its basic biology and ecology (Zhang et al. 2003). The profound
migratory ability, which is presumed to lead to frequent gene flows between populations, is a
notable characteristic feature of this species (Zhang et al. 2003).

The aim of this practical is to examine the mark-recapture method, and use it to estimate the size
of a captive population of locusts (Locusta migratoria).

Estimating the size of a population of locusts

You are going to use the mark-recapture method to estimate the population size of locusts in a box.
1. Remember that these are living creatures that should be treated with respect. None of them
should be injured or damaged while being captured.
2. The class will be divided into two groups; each will work with one sample of locusts
3. Catch a sample of 30 locusts randomly from the cage and mark them on one side of the
thorax with permanent marker. Each group should use a marker of a different colour and
all marks should be on the same side of the thorax. This is because another group will use
the same insects and you need to be able to distinguish your marks from theirs. Once all
the 30 locusts are marked, return them into the cage.

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 The National University of Lesotho, Department of Biology

4. After about 45 minutes, take another sample and count the number of marked and
unmarked animals in it. Then return them to the cage.
5. Showing your working, estimate the population size (Lincoln index), variance, standard
error and the population range (95% confidence interval). You will then be told how many
locusts are in the cages in order to determine how good your estimation is.
6. Write up the exercise in standard form (i.e. title, abstract, introduction, methods and
calculations, results, discussion and conclusion, and references). If your result differs
widely from the actual population size, include in your discussion, suggestions on possible
explanation. In your Materials and Methods section, provide the formulae that you used,
and in your Results section, show your calculations.
NB. Wherever appropriate, your final numerical answers must be given correct to two
decimal places. Your write-up should not exceed 5 pages.

Practical 7
Title: Population ecology: Life tables and survivorship curves
Introduction
Life tables are used to describe and understand the population dynamics of a species. This
information is important in conservation studies (reintroduction of species), agriculture (reduction
of pest species), and human health (following epidemics). Using reintroduction of a species as an
example, life tables can indicate when a breeding population has been established.

Age specific mortality, survivorship and reproductive data for populations of plants or animals can
be summarized in a life table. Based on the method of data collection, there are two types of life
tables. Age-specific life tables (cohort life tables) are based on the fate of a real cohort. A cohort
is a group of individuals of the same species born at the same time (e.g. same breeding season).
Group members belong to the same generation and the population may be either stable or
fluctuating. Death age can be determined by considering rings, scales etc. These age-specific life
tables are known as horizontal or cohort life tables. They are also called dynamic life tables
because they follow individuals through time.

Time-specific life tables are based on an imaginary cohort. Researchers collect data and determine
age structure at a point in time. The population is assumed to be stationary. Time-specific life
tables are also known as vertical or static life tables. Static or Instantaneous life table is made by
examining the age distribution of the population at the time of census e.g. the age distribution of
the population of Brachystegia trees in one hectare of miombo woodland at the time of census.

The aim of this practical is to study the concept of cohort life tables and survivorship curves.

You are provided with data in Tables 1 and 2. You are expected to use these data to answer the
questions that follow. Answer questions (a) to (c).

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 The National University of Lesotho, Department of Biology

Table 1: Life Table for the Song Sparrow on Mandate Island, British Colambia

Age Number alive at Proportion surviving Number Mortality Probability of

Class the beginning of to the beginning of dying during during age surviving to the
(years) age class x, age class x, age class x, class x, next age class,
x nx lx dx qx sx
0-1 115
1-2 110
2-3 101
3-4 92
4-5 85
5-6 78
6-7 67
7-8 56
8-9 48
9-10 37
10-11 29
11-12 21
12-13 14
13-14 8
14-15 3
15-16 0

Table 2: Life Table for the Red Deer Hinds and fish with the proportion surviving to the beginning
of each age class
Age Class (years) Red Deer hinds Fish
0-1 1.000 1.000
1-2 0.980 0.800
2-3 0.950 0.600
3-4 0.930 0.400
4-5 0.900 0.290
5-6 0.880 0.240
6-7 0.850 0.185
7-8 0.800 0.150
8-9 0.770 0.100
9-10 0.730 0.060
10-11 0.690 0.030
11-12 0.650 0.010
12-13 0.600 0.000
13-14 0.500
14-15 0.320
15-16 0.140
16-17 0.000

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 The National University of Lesotho, Department of Biology

(a) Copy and complete Table 1, giving your answers correct to 3 decimal places, wherever
appropriate. Also state the formulae that you used for the calculations (show the
formulae only and not the calculations). [5]
(b) Using proportion surviving to the beginning of age class x, draw survivorship curves for
the Song Sparrow, Fish and Red Deer Hinds using your results from Tables 1 and 2.
NB. The three curves must be line graphs showing the points and must be drawn on the
same plane. Use the lower bound of each age class for plotting the curves. [7]
(c) In not more than one and a half pages, identify, describe and explain the shapes of all
the survivorship curves you have drawn in (b) above. [13]

REFERENCES
1. Begon M., Harper J. L., & Townsend C. R. (1990). Ecology: Individuals, Populations and
Communities, 2nd edition. Blackwell Scientific Publications. Oxford, London.
2. Begon M., Harper J. L., & Townsend C. R. (2006). Ecology: From Individuals to Ecosystems. Fourth
edition, Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Oxford, Victoria, London.
3. Campbell N. A. (1996). Biology, 4th edition. Benjamin/ Cummings Publishing Company, Inc,
California.
4. Campbell N. A., Reece J. B., Urry L. A., Cain M. L., Wasserman S. A., Minorsky P. V. and Jackson R.
B. (2008). Biology 8th Ed. Benjamin Cummings, San Franscisco. USA.
5. Goddard W, Melville S. (2001). Research Methodology: An Introduction. 2nd ed. Lansdowne,
Juta & Co. Ltd.
6. Mucina L, Rutherford MC (eds.) (2006). The vegetation of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland.
Strelitzia 19, Pretoria: South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI).
7. Schulze E. D., Beck E. & Muller-Hohenstein K. (2002). Plant Ecology. Springer-Verlag, New York.
8. Taylor D.J., Green N.P.O. & Stout G.W. (1998). Biological Science, low price edition. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge.
9. Wilson E.O. (1992). The Diversity of Life. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge.
10. Many other relevant books and journal articles

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ASSESSMENT

1/2 Assignments (10%), 5/6 Practicals (15%) plus three Tests (25%) and Exam (50%). No
makeup tests.

You should also note the following:

1. Whenever references are required, you should use the Harvard style of referencing and
use at least three references.
2. Plagiarism is NOT tolerated in this course. Originality is expected in assignments,
practicals and any other piece of work assigned; you will get zero for similar work or part
thereof. Furthermore, ‘copying and pasting information from internet or any other source
will also not be tolerated and will attract a zero mark. Any evidence of academic
malpractice (cheating and plagiarism) will result in the implementation of the university
policy on cheating and plagiarism for the students concerned. You are expected to be
acquainted with the university policy on matters of cheating and plagiarism.
3. Late submission of any piece of work (practical write-up or assignment) attracts a penalty
of 5 marks per working day.

INSTRUCTOR
Dr. P. Chatanga (Ph.D.)
Office: 214 Old Science Building

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 The National University of Lesotho, Department of Biology

B2601 TIME-TABLE_2020/2021
TIME MONDAY TUESDAY WEDNESDAY THURSDAY FRIDAY TIME

7.00 7.00

LECTURE LECTURE
8.00 8.00
MDTF 113 DTF 113

9.00 9.00

LECTURE
10.10 10.10
PRACTICAL FTF 111

11.10 GROUP B 11.10

SCI 101
12.10 12.10

1.10 1.10

2.10 2.10
PRACTICAL
3.10 3.10
GROUP A
4.10 4.10
SCI 101
5.10 5.10

TIME MONDAY TUESDAY WEDNESDAY THURSDAY FRIDAY TIME

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