Chapter 1

Introduction to data Communication and Computer Networking

The computer communications revolution has produced several remarkable facts. There is no
fundamental difference between data processing (computers) and data communications
(transmission and switching equipment). There are no fundamental differences among data, voice,
and video communications. The distinction among single-processor computer, multiprocessor
computer, local network, metropolitan network, and long-haul network has blurred.

In data communication and Computer networking there are some terms which is define and explain
differently. For instance, data communications and networking are changing the way we do
business and the way we live. Therefore, data communications are the exchange of data between
two devices via some form of transmission medium (channels). It needs communicating devices
as hardware (physical equipment) and software (programs) for the occurrence of data
communications. On the other hand a network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes)
connected by communication links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable
of sending and/or receiving data.
Three forces are driving for evolution of data communications and networking. Such as:
❖ Growth of traffic communication
Both voice and data, has been growing at a high rate for long time such as
Voice traffic (telephone)
Internet access ( data traffic)
Video conferencing (data traffic)
❖ Development of new services
For different application of network for organization
❖ Advances in technology
seeking faster and cheaper computing and communications
Networks are more intelligent: quality of service (QoS)
Internet, Web, intranets, extranets, etc.
Pervasive computing/ubiquitous computing
In data communication its effectiveness in data transmission, is depends on four fundamental
characteristics. Such as
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Delivery: delivering data to the correct destination and data must be received by the intended
device or user.
Accuracy: delivering the data accurately and data that have been altered in transmission are
unusable
Timeliness: data should deliver in a timely manner and data delivered late are useless.
Jitter: refers to the variation in the packet arrival time to respective destination. It is different delay
in the delivery of audio or video packets to destination. For example, let us assume that video
packets are sent every 3D-ms. If some of the packets arrive with 3D-ms delay and others with 4D-
ms delay, an uneven quality in the video is the result.
1. Basic Data communication Components
A Data Communication system has five components as shown in the diagram below: e
1.1.Message: Message is the information to be communicated by the sender to the receiver.
1.2. Sender: The sender is any device that is capable of sending the data (message).
1.3. Receiver: The receiver is a device that the sender wants to communicate the data.
1.4. Transmission Medium: It is the path by which the message travels from sender to receiver.
It can be wired or wireless and many subtypes in both.
1.5.Protocol: It is an agreed upon set or rules used by the sender and receiver to communicate
data. A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communication. A Protocol is a necessity in
data communications without which the communicating entities are like two persons trying to
talk to each other in a different language without know the other language.

1.6. Historical background of data communication

Before 1970
The Internet evolved from the ARPANET, which was developed in 1969 by the Advanced
Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the U.S. Department of Defense. Before 1970s field of
computer science and data communication saw separately.

2
During 1970
Start by developing ARPANET by ARPA as internet architecture. Still ARPANET support only
for scientific research environment. The network was also applied the same packet-switching
technology and to satellite communication (SATNET). Then after in 1970, the International
Standards Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on
international standards for development of OSI model.
During 1980
In this age network widely deployed initially to support at scientific research expand to academic
and industrial environment. This development at this age support by National Science Foundation
(NSF). After 1980 two fields computer science and data communication merge together that
profoundly changed the technology.
Early 1990
It is the web invasion age which make easy to access and publish an information. Frame Relay is
a virtual-circuit wide-area network that was designed in response to demands for a new type of
WAN in the early 1990s. Today, computers come in many forms, including mobile phones and
even cars. Hosts are sometimes grouped together in a LAN. This is the typical configuration in a
corporate environment. Individual hosts and LANs are connected to an Internet service provider
(ISP) through a point of presence (POP). Now a days there are different network architecture such
as MANET, DTN, VANET, ON, Cloud computing.
Current Network
Now a days there are different network architecture are adapt different social behaviors to improve
different network architecture problems such data availability, minimizing energy consumption
etc. such as such as Adhock Social Network (ASNET), Delay tolerance Social Network (DTSN),
Vehicular Adhock Social Network ( VASNET), Opportunistic Social Network (OSN), and Sensor
networks.
Future of internet
Pervasive Computing: is the growing trend of embedding computational capability (generally in
the form of microprocessors) into everyday objects to make them effectively communicate and
perform useful tasks in a way that minimizes the end user's need to interact with computers as
computers. Pervasive computing devices are network-connected and constantly available.

3
The goal of pervasive computing is to make devices "smart,“. History of ubiquitous/pervasive
computing. Ubiquitous computing was first pioneered at the Olivetti Research Laboratory in
Cambridge England, where the Active Badge, a "clip-on computer" the size of an employee ID
card, was created, enabling the company to track the location of people in a building, as well as
the objects to which they were attached.

Information-centric networking (ICN): is an approach to evolve the Internet infrastructure

away from a host-centric paradigm, based on perpetual connectivity and the end-to-end principle,
to a network architecture in which the focal point is identified information (or content or data).
In this paradigm, connectivity may well be intermittent, end-host and in-network storage can be
capitalized upon transparently, as bits in the network and on data storage devices have exactly the
same value, mobility and multi access are the norm and anycast, multicast, and broadcast are
natively supported. Data becomes independent from location, application, storage, and means of
transportation, enabling in-network caching and replication.
2. Data Communication

Data communications deals with the transmission of signals in a reliable and efficient manner.
Topics covered include in data communication signal transmission, transmission media, signal
encoding, interfacing, data link control, and multiplexing. On the other hand the term networking
deals with the technology and architecture of the communications networks used to interconnect
communicating devices.
The purpose of communications is exchange of information between two parties.
3. Data Transmission

It is sending of binary data from source to destination as bit by bit or grouping bits together. The
transmission of binary data across a link (communication channel) can be either parallel or serial

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mode. This means parallel mode multiple bits are sent together each clock, where as in serial mode,
1 bit is sent with each clock tick.

3.1. Parallel data Transmission

It organized bits into groups of n bits each to send. Computers produce and consume data in
groups of bits as human spoken language use in the form of words rather than letters. It sends
data in n bits at a time instead of 1. It is a conceptually simple mechanism than serial. Use n
wires to send n bits at one time. Each bit has its own wire, and all n bits of one group can
transmit. Its advantage over serial transmission could be high speed.

3.1.1. Serial data Transmission

In serial data transmission signals are sent one bit at a time and travels long distances serial
transmission reduces the cost of transmission over parallel by roughly a factor of n. Telephone
wires are best example for serial data transmission.

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Generally serial transmission have two ways in time clocking as depict the figure below which
are asynchronous and synchronous data transmission.

3.1.1.1. Synchronous data Transmission

Before sending bit stream both sender and receiver have synchronize their clock time. This means
both sender and receiver use the same clock signals and no need any buffer and parity bit (start or
stop bit) which used to synchronize both sender and receiver. Which means there is no gap between
each frames during transmission. Receiver waits ready for sender and responds in real time (e.g.
phone call).

There some advantages of synchronous data transmission over asynchronous such high speed
which is more useful for high-speed applications such as the transmission of data from one
computer to another. Both parties do not use stop or start bits instead they agree on timing in the
communication. No overhead of bits because of start and stop bits and also no need buffer is
required. Examples: phone call
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3.1.1.2. Asynchronous data Transmission

Both sender and receiver no required clock signals. It sends data by grouping it as bytes and have
added parity bits (which called start and stop bit) for synchronize clock signals between sender
and receiver. There is gap between frames or group of bits (bytes) by start and stop bits. Therefore,
it needs buffer for data until synchronize both sender and receiver. In asynchronous data
transmission sender sends message into buffer, message picked up later at receivers convenience
(e.g. mailbox).

What is Signal?
In a communication system, data are propagated from one point to another by means of
electromagnetic signals. Now we consider the signal generated by the transmitter. Propagated over
a variety of media such wires like (fiber optic, twisted pair and coaxial) or wireless (space). So
signals continuously varying according to the source information. For example speech bandwidth:
100Hz to 7kHz, video bandwidth: 4MHz
Types of Signals

Digital signal: A digital signal is signal in which the signal intensity maintains a constant level for
some period of time and sequence of voltage pulses almost unlimited bandwidth. It can be
represented by digital signals, with a different voltage level for each of the two binary digits. It
used to use to represent digital data.

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Some advantage of advantages of digital signals are cheaper than analogy signaling, less
susceptible to noise also some disadvantages of digital signals suffer more from attenuation, pulses
become rounded and smaller, leads to loss of information.
Analog signal: is the simplest sort of signal is a in which the same signal pattern repeats over time
and used to represent analog data. Analog data are a function of time and occupy a limited
frequency spectrum; such data can be represented by an electromagnetic signal. However, It can
also uses to carry digital data by using MODE and CODEC devices.
Modem: modulator/demodulator converts a series of binary voltage pulses into an analog signal
by encoding the digital data onto a carrier frequency. On the other hand digital signal to carry
analog data by using CODEC.
CODEC (coder-decoder): it takes an analog signal that directly represents the voice data and
approximates that signal by a bit stream. CODEC compression decompression is similar; however
it relates to software uses, not frequency. Many of our online movies use some type of a CODEC,
video cards are also commonly using CODEC.
3.1.2. Digital data Transmission
Digital data is produced by computers, in binary form, represented as a series of ones and zeros. It
can take on only 0 and 1. Digital transmission is made of square waves with a clear beginning and
ending which send digital data using digital transmissions. It produces fewer errors, easier to detect
and correct errors, since transmitted data is binary (1s and 0s, only two distinct values) permits
higher transmission rates. e.g., Optical fiber designed for digital transmission. It also more efficient
which means possible to send more digital data through a given circuit. Also it’s more secure
which means easier to encrypt. It is simpler to integrate voice, video and data and easier to combine
them because signals made up of digital data.
3.1.3. Analog data Transmission

Analog data is produced by telephones such as sound waves, which vary continuously over time.
It can take on any value in a wide range of possibilities. Analog data transmitted in analog form
(vary continuously). Examples of analog data being sent using analog transmissions are broadcast
TV and radio
Data Type vs Transmission Type
For analog data such a voice, quite a bit of distortion can be tolerated and the data remain
intelligible. However, for digital data, cascaded amplifiers will introduce bit errors.
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Some Advantage of Digital transmission
✓ Produces fewer errors and easier to detect and correct errors, since transmitted data is
binary (1s and 0s, only two distinct values)
✓ Permits higher maximum transmission rates e.g., Optical fiber designed for digital
transmission
✓ More efficient which means possible to send more digital data through a given circuit
✓ More secure which is easier to encrypt
✓ Simpler to integrate voice, video and data and easier to combine them on the same circuit,
since signals made up of digital data
3.2. Transmission Impairments and their solution

Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect. The imperfection causes signal
impairment. This means that the signal at the beginning of the medium is not the same as the signal
at the end of the medium. What is sent is not what is received. With any communications system,
the signal that is received may differ from the signal that is transmitted, due to transmission
impairments. In transmission impairments there are causes and consequence
❖ The most significant causes for impairments include
Attenuation
distortion
Noise

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 ❖ Consequences over two types of signals are:
For analog signals: degradation of signal quality
For digital signals: bit errors
3.2.1. Attenuation

Attenuation means a loss of energy. When a signal, simple or composite, travels through a medium,
it loses some of its energy in overcoming the resistance of the medium. That is why a wire carrying
electric signals gets warm, if not hot, after a while. Some of the electrical energy in the signal is
converted to heat. This conversion of electrical energy causes loos of signal strength (attenuation).
Signal strength falls off with distance.
Depends on medium such as for guided media, the attenuation is generally exponential and thus is
typically expressed as a constant number of decibels per unit distance. Also medium for unguided
media, attenuation is a more complex function of distance and the makeup of the atmosphere. The
considerations for the transmission engineer: a received signal must have sufficient strength so
that the electronic circuitry in the receiver can detect the signal. The signal must maintain a level
sufficiently higher than noise to be received without error.
To show the loss or gain of energy the unit “decibel (dB)” is used which compute as follows
dB = 10log10P2/P1 whereas P1 - input signal and P2 - output signal
These problems are dealt by the use of amplifiers or repeaters by amplifying the signal.

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Example 1: Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium and its power is reduced to
one-half. This means that P2 is (1/2)P1. In this case, the attenuation (loss of power) can be
calculated as

So, A loss of signal is 3 dB (–3 dB) is equivalent to losing one-half the power.
Exercise 1: A signal travels through an amplifier, and its power is increased 10 times. This means
that P2 = 10P1 then compute the amplification or gain of power by amplifier.
Some solution for Attenuations
To overcome this problem, techniques are available for equalizing attenuation across a band of
frequencies. The result is to smooth out attenuation effects. Another approach is to use amplifiers
that amplify high frequencies more than lower frequencies. To compensate for this loss, amplifiers
are used to amplify the signal.

3.2.2. Distortion

Means that the signal changes its form or shape Distortion occurs in composite signals. Each
frequency component has its own propagation speed traveling through a medium. The different
components therefore arrive with different delays at the receiver. That means that the signals have
different phases at the receiver than they did at the source.

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3.2.3. Noise

Noise is another cause of impairment that affect signal transmission. Noise can caused by
electromagnetic Interference and radio frequency interference. There are several types of noise,
such as:
Thermal noise: is the random motion of electrons in a wire which creates an extra signal not
originally sent by the transmitter.
Induced noise: comes from sources such as motors and appliances from devices act are transmitter
antenna and medium as receiving antenna.
Crosstalk: is the effect of one wire on the other. It is an unwanted coupling between signal paths.
It can occur by electrical coupling between nearby twisted pairs. One wire acts as a sending
antenna and the other as the receiving antenna.
Impulse noise: is a spike (a signal with high energy in a very short time) that comes from power
lines, lightning, and so on.
Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR)
To measure the quality of a system the SNR is often used. It indicates the strength of the signal
whatever the noise power in the system. It is the ratio between two powers. It is usually given in
dB and referred to as SNRdB.
Example: The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of the noise is 1 μW; what are the values
of SNR and SNRdB?
Solution
The values of SNR and SNRdB can be calculated as follows

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Some solution for Noise
Noise can be reduce by twisting cables – effect of one signal cancels the other and shielding –
reduce interference from outside source.
4. Mode of data Transmission

❖ Simplex transmission: signals are transmitted in only one direction. E.g. Television
❖ Half duplex: signals can be transmitted in either direction, but only one way at a time. E.g.
police radio
❖ Full duplex: Both stations may transmit simultaneously. E.g. telephone
Data flows move in one direction only, (radio or
cable television broadcasts)

Data flows both ways, but only one direction at a time

(e.g., CB radio) (requires control info)

Data flows in both directions at the same time

5. Elements of data communications

Source: Generates data to be transmitted. E.g., telephones, PCs.
Transmitter: A transmitter transforms and encodes the information in such a way as to produce
electromagnetic signals that can be transmitted across some sort of transmission system.
Transmission System: It can be a single transmission line or a complex network connecting
source and destination.
Destination: Takes incoming data from the receiver
Receiver: The receiver accepts the signal from the transmission system and converts it into a form
that can be handled by the destination device.

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a. Circuit switching
Circuit switching is a network technology implemented in telecommunications network. In Circuit
switching, two network nodes establish a dedicated communications channel (circuit) through the
network before the nodes may communicate.

It is a temporary dedicated communications channel. It creating a direct physical connection

between sender and receiver. All transmitted information follows the same path. It requires call
set up to occur before information can be transferred. Drawback: connection is reserved only for
the two communicating parties, that unused bandwidth cannot be "borrowed" for any other
transmission. Example: a circuit switching network is the telephone system: such as PSTN and
ISDN.

b. Packet switching
Data is segmented into packets that each take a route independently. Each packet is given enough
information to find its own path to its intended destination. Designed to overcome circuit switching
technology limitations. More reliable and minimum latency than circuit switching. More efficient
in terms of bandwidth than circuit switching

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Examples of Packet switching WAN technologies

✓ Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM),

✓ Frame Relay, and
✓ X.25 technologies
6. Computer Network

It is a group of two or more interconnected computer systems that use common connection
protocols for sharing various resources and files. You can establish a computer network connection
using either cable or wireless media. Every network involves hardware and software that connects
computers and tools

6.1. Types of networks

Before discussing application of data communication and computer networks is better to examine
both infrastructure network and infrastructure less network.
❖ Infrastructure: types of networks that need some infrastructure such as data center, access
point, antenna and satellite, tower, microwaves.
❖ Wired network: Cellular network and Broadband network
❖ Infrastructure less: that is temporal networks no need such infrastructure
✓ Wireless (wireless sensor)
✓ Temporary network (DTN, MANET, SAN, VANET,) with currently DTSN, ASNET,
VASNET etc.
Generally types of computer networks can be categorized based on:
I. Based on geographical coverage as:
❖ Personal area networks (PANs)
❖ local area networks (LANs),
❖ metropolitan area networks (MANs), and
❖ wide area networks (WANs).
II. Based on security and access as:
❖ Peer to peer network and
❖ Client-server network

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6.1.1. What is PAN (Personal Area Network)?
PAN (Personal Area Network) is a computer network formed around a person. It generally consists
of a computer, mobile, or personal digital assistant. PAN can be used for establishing
communication among these personal devices for connecting to a digital network and the internet.
Characteristics of PAN

Below are the main characteristics of PAN:

• It is mostly personal devices network equipped within a limited area.

• Allows you to handle the interconnection of IT devices at the surrounding of a single user.
• PAN includes mobile devices, tablet, and laptop.
• It can be wirelessly connected to the internet called WPAN.
• Appliances use for PAN: cordless mice, keyboards, and Bluetooth systems.

Advantages of PAN

Here are the important pros/benefits of PAN network:

• PAN networks are relatively secure and safe

• It offers only short-range solution up to ten meters
• Strictly restricted to a small area

Disadvantages of PAN

Here are the cons/drawbacks of using PAN network:

• It may establish a bad connection to other networks at the same radio bands.
• Distance limits

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6.1.2. What is a LAN (Local Area Network)?

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a group of computer and peripheral devices which are connected
in a limited area such as school, laboratory, home, and office building. It is a widely useful network
for sharing resources like files, printers, games, and other application. The simplest type of LAN
network is to connect computers and a printer in someone’s home or office. In general, LAN will
be used as one type of transmission medium. It is a network which consists of less than 5000
interconnected devices across several buildings.

Local Area Network (LAN)

Characteristics of LAN
Here are the important characteristics of a LAN network:
• It is a private network, so an outside regulatory body never controls it.
• LAN operates at a relatively higher speed compared to other WAN systems.
• There are various kinds of media access control methods like token ring and ethernet.
Advantages of LAN
Here are the pros/benefits of LAN:
• Computer resources like hard-disks, DVD-ROM, and printers can share local area networks.
This significantly reduces the cost of hardware purchases.
• You can use the same software over the network instead of purchasing the licensed software
for each client in the network.
• Data of all network users can be stored on a single hard disk of the server computer.
• You can easily transfer data and messages over networked computers.
• It will be easy to manage data at only one place, which makes data more secure.

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 • Local Area Network offers the facility to share a single internet connection among all the
LAN users.

Disadvantages of LAN

Here are the cons/drawbacks of LAN:

• LAN will indeed save cost because of shared computer resources, but the initial cost of
installing Local Area Networks is quite high.
• The LAN admin can check personal data files of every LAN user, so it does not offer good
privacy.
• Unauthorized users can access critical data of an organization in case LAN admin is not able
to secure centralized data repository.
• Local Area Network requires a constant LAN administration as there are issues related to
software setup and hardware failures

6.1.3. What is MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)?

A Metropolitan Area Network or MAN is consisting of a computer network across an entire city,
college campus, or a small region. This type of network is large than a LAN, which is mostly
limited to a single building or site. Depending upon the type of configuration, this type of network
allows you to cover an area from several miles to tens of miles.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Characteristics of MAN

Here are important characteristics of the MAN network:

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 • It mostly covers towns and cities in a maximum 50 km range
• Mostly used medium is optical fibers, cables
• Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.

Advantages of MAN

Here are the pros/benefits of MAN network:

• It offers fast communication using high-speed carriers, like fiber optic cables.
• It provides excellent support for an extensive size network and greater access to WANs.
• The dual bus in MAN network provides support to transmit data in both directions
concurrently.
• A MAN network mostly includes some areas of a city or an entire city.
Disadvantages of MAN
Here are drawbacks/cons of using the MAN network:
• You need more cable to establish MAN connection from one place to another.
• In MAN network it is tough to make the system secure from hackers.

6.1.4. WAN Networks

Wide area networks generally cover a large geographical area, require the crossing of public rights-
of-way, and rely at least in part on circuits provided by a common carrier. Typically, a WAN
consists of a number of interconnected switching nodes. A transmission from any one device is
routed through these internal nodes to the specified destination device. These nodes (including the
boundary nodes) are not concerned with the content of the data; rather, their purpose is to provide
a switching facility that will move the data from node to node until they reach their destination.
Traditionally, WANs have been implemented using one of two technologies: circuit switching and
packet switching. More recently, frame relay and ATM networks have assumed major roles.
WAN (Wide Area Network) is another important computer network that which is spread across a
large geographical area. WAN network system could be a connection of a LAN which connects
with other LAN’s using telephone lines and radio waves. It is mostly limited to an enterprise or an
organization.

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Wide Area Network (WAN)
Characteristics of WAN

Below are the characteristics of WAN:

• The software files will be shared among all the users; therefore, all can access to the latest files.
• Any organization can form its global integrated network using WAN.

Advantages of WAN

Here are the benefits/pros of WAN:

• WAN helps you to cover a larger geographical area. Therefore, business offices situated at
longer distances can easily communicate.
• Contains devices like mobile phones, laptop, tablet, computers, gaming consoles, etc.
• WLAN connections work using radio transmitters and receivers built into client devices.

Disadvantages of WAN

Here are the drawbacks/cons of WAN network:

• The initial setup cost of investment is very high.

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• It is difficult to maintain the WAN network. You need skilled technicians and network
administrators.
• There are more errors and issues because of the wide coverage and the use of different
technologies.
• It requires more time to resolve issues because of the involvement of multiple wired and
wireless technologies.
• Offers lower security compared to other types of networks in computer.

6.2. Computer Network Architecture

6.2.1. Peer-To-Peer network
o Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the computers are linked together with equal
privilege and responsibilities for processing the data.
o Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments, usually up to 10 computers.
o Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.
o Special permissions are assigned to each computer for sharing the resources, but this can lead
to a problem if the computer with the resource is down.

Advantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:

o It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.
o If one computer stops working but, other computers will not stop working.
o It is easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages itself.

Disadvantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:

o In the case of Peer-To-Peer network, it does not contain the centralized system . Therefore,
it cannot back up the data as the data is different in different locations.
o It has a security issue as the device is managed itself.

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6.2.2. Client/Server Network
o Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end users called clients, to
access the resources such as songs, video, etc. from a central computer known as Server.
o The central controller is known as a server while all other computers in the network are
called clients.
o A server performs all the major operations such as security and network management.
o A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files, directories, printer, etc.
o All the clients communicate with each other through a server. For example, if client1 wants
to send some data to client 2, then it first sends the request to the server for the permission.
The server sends the response to the client 1 to initiate its communication with the client 2

Advantages Of Client/Server network:

o A Client/Server network contains the centralized system. Therefore we can back up the
data easily.
o A Client/Server network has a dedicated server that improves the overall performance of
the whole system.
o Security is better in Client/Server network as a single server administers the shared
resources.
o It also increases the speed of the sharing resources.

Disadvantages Of Client/Server network:

o Client/Server network is expensive as it requires the server with large memory.
o A server has a Network Operating System (NOS) to provide the resources to the clients,
but the cost of NOS is very high.

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 o It requires a dedicated network administrator to manage all the resources.

Current and Future network

Before 1970
The Internet evolved from the ARPANET, which was developed in 1969 by the Advanced
Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the U.S. Department of Defense. Before 1970s field of
computer science and data communication saw separately.
During 1970
Start by developing ARPANET by ARPA as internet architecture. Still ARPANET support only
for scientific research environment. The network was also applied the same packet-switching
technology and to satellite communication (SATNET). Then after in 1970, the International
Standards Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on
international standards for development of OSI model.
During 1980
In this age network widely deployed initially to support at scientific research expand to academic
and industrial environment. This development at this age support by National Science Foundation
(NSF). After 1980 two fields computer science and data communication merge together that
profoundly changed the technology.
Early 1990
It is the web invasion age which make easy to access and publish an information. Frame Relay is
a virtual-circuit wide-area network that was designed in response to demands for a new type of
WAN in the early 1990s. Today, computers come in many forms, including mobile phones and
even cars. Hosts are sometimes grouped together in a LAN. This is the typical configuration in a
corporate environment. Individual hosts and LANs are connected to an Internet service provider
(ISP) through a point of presence (POP). Now a days there are different network architecture such
as MANET, DTN, VANET, ON, Cloud computing.
Current Network
Now a days there are different network architecture are adapt different social behaviors to improve
different network architecture problems such data availability, minimizing energy consumption
etc. such as such as Adhock Social Network (ASNET), Delay tolerance Social Network (DTSN),

23
Vehicular Adhock Social Network ( VASNET), Opportunistic Social Network (OSN), and Sensor
networks.
Future of internet
Pervasive Computing: is the growing trend of embedding computational capability (generally in
the form of microprocessors) into everyday objects to make them effectively communicate and
perform useful tasks in a way that minimizes the end user's need to interact with computers as
computers. Pervasive computing devices are network-connected and constantly available.
The goal of pervasive computing is to make devices "smart,“. History of ubiquitous/pervasive
computing. Ubiquitous computing was first pioneered at the Olivetti Research Laboratory in
Cambridge England, where the Active Badge, a "clip-on computer" the size of an employee ID
card, was created, enabling the company to track the location of people in a building, as well as
the objects to which they were attached.

Information-centric networking (ICN): is an approach to evolve the Internet infrastructure

away from a host-centric paradigm, based on perpetual connectivity and the end-to-end principle,
to a network architecture in which the focal point is identified information (or content or data).
In this paradigm, connectivity may well be intermittent, end-host and in-network storage can be
capitalized upon transparently, as bits in the network and on data storage devices have exactly the
same value, mobility and multi access are the norm and anycast, multicast, and broadcast are
natively supported. Data becomes independent from location, application, storage, and means of
transportation, enabling in-network caching and replication.

7. Hardware components of networks (Network devices)

Network devices, or networking hardware, are physical devices that are required for
communication and interaction between hardware on a computer network.

LAN devices ❖ Bridges

❖ Hub WAN devices

❖ Switches ❖ Routers

❖ Repeaters ❖ Gateways etc.

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Special network devices ❖ Bandwidth shaper

❖ Multilayer switches ❖ CSU/DSU

❖ Load balancer

General characteristics of these devices

➢ Bandwidth sharing among active ➢ At layer of OSI model used

ports ➢ Type of address used for routing and
➢ Broadcasting issues identity
➢ Bottleneck problem ➢ Technique used for forwarding data
➢ Reliability from source to destination
➢ Utilization of VLAN

Hub 3.3Mbp
s
10Mbp 3.3Mbps
s

3.3Mbps
Switch
10Mb

10Mbps

10Mbps

Hub

Hubs connect multiple computer networking devices together. A hub also acts as a repeater in that
it amplifies signals that deteriorate after traveling long distances over connecting cables. A hub is
the simplest in the family of network connecting devices because it connects LAN components
with identical protocols. A hub can be used with both digital and analog data, provided its settings
have been configured to prepare for the formatting of the incoming data
❖ General characteristic of Hub
➢ Bandwidth sharing ➢ Bottleneck problem
➢ Broadcasting ➢ Less reliable
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 ➢ Unable to utilize for VLAN ➢ No used MAC address for
➢ Used second layer of OSI model identifying sender and receiver

Switch
Switches generally have a more intelligent role than hubs. A switch is a multiport device that
improves network efficiency. The switch maintains limited routing information about nodes in the
internal network, and it allows connections to systems like hubs or routers. Strands of LANs are
usually connected using switches. Generally, switches can read the hardware addresses of
incoming packets to transmit them to the appropriate destination.

Switch

Using switches improves network efficiency over hubs or routers because of the virtual circuit
capability. Switches also improve network security because the virtual circuits are more difficult
to examine with network monitors. You can think of a switch as a device that has some of the best
capabilities of routers and hubs combined. A switch can work at either the Data Link layer or the
Network layer of the OSI model. A multilayer switch is one that can operate at both layers, which
means that it can operate as both a switch and a router. A multilayer switch is a high-performance
device that supports the same routing protocols as routers.

General characteristic of switch ➢ No bandwidth sharing

➢ Reduce bottleneck problem
➢ Switches divide a network into
➢ Able to secured unused ports
several isolated channels
➢ Able to use for VLAN
➢ Reduce the possibility of collision
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 ➢ Used MAC address for identifying ➢ More reliable and secure
sender and receiver ➢ Operates at second and third layer if
➢ Each channel has its own network it is switch layer
capacity

Repeater
A repeater is an electronic device that amplifies the signal it receives. You can think of repeater as
a device which receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher level or higher power so that the
signal can cover longer distances, more than 100 meters for standard LAN cables. Repeaters work
on the Physical layer.

Used in 10Base-2 and 10Base-5 are restricted to segment lengths of 185 m, or 500 m, respectively.
And operates at layer 1. It simply reshapes and retimes data and then retransmits them. The repeater
function may also be thought of as regeneration.

Bridge and its general characteristics

Bridges are used to connect two or more hosts or network segments together. The basic role of
bridges in network architecture is storing and forwarding frames between the different segments
that the bridge connects. They use hardware Media Access Control (MAC) addresses for
transferring frames. By looking at the MAC address of the devices connected to each segment,
bridges can forward the data or block it from crossing. Bridges can also be used to connect two
physical LANs into a larger logical LAN.

Bridges work only at the Physical and Data Link layers of the OSI model. Bridges are used to
divide larger networks into smaller sections by sitting between two physical network segments and
managing the flow of data between the two.

Bridges are like hubs in many respects, including the fact that they connect LAN components with
identical protocols. However, bridges filter incoming data packets, known as frames, for addresses
before they are forwarded. As it filters the data packets, the bridge makes no modifications to the
format or content of the incoming data. The bridge filters and forwards frames on the network with
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the help of a dynamic bridge table. The bridge table, which is initially empty, maintains the LAN
addresses for each computer in the LAN and the addresses of each bridge interface that connects
the LAN to other LANs. Bridges, like hubs, can be either simple or multiple port.

Bridges have mostly fallen out of favor in recent years and have been replaced by switches, which
offer more functionality. In fact, switches are sometimes referred to as “multiport bridges” because
of how they operate.

Used to interconnecting two or more LAN segments at layer 2 of OSI model. Or used to separate
single LAN into two or more different independent LAN segments. A bridge is a network device
that connects multiple LANs (local area networks) together to form a larger LAN. The process of
aggregating networks is called network bridging. A bridge connects the different components so
that they appear as parts of a single network.

It would reduce internetwork traffic and thus improve network efficiency. Reduce broadcast and
used MAC address to create routing table. No bandwidth sharing and able to regenerate signal at
packet level

Router its characteristics

A router is a networking device that forwards data packets between computer networks. Routers
perform the traffic directing functions on the Internet. Data sent through the internet, such as a web
page or email, is in the form of data packets. A router is connected to two or more data lines from
different IP networks. The router is a physical or virtual internetworking device that is designed to
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receive, analyze, and forward data packets between computer networks. A router examines a
destination IP address of a given data packet, and it uses the headers and forwarding tables to
decide the best way to transfer the packets. There are some popular companies that develop routers;
such are Cisco, 3Com, HP, Juniper, D-Link, Nortel, etc.

Some important points of routers are given below:

• A router is used in LAN (Local Area Network) and WAN (Wide Area Network)
environments. For example, it is used in offices for connectivity, and you can also establish
the connection between distant networks such as from Bhopal to
• It shares information with other routers in networking.
• It uses the routing protocol to transfer the data across a network.

Router works on the third layer of the OSI model, and it is based on the IP address of a computer.
It uses protocols such as ICMP to communicate between two or more networks. It is also known
as an intelligent device as it can calculate the best route to pass the network packets from source
to the destination automatically.

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General characteristics of router

• Used for internetworking to connect LANs through WAN at layer 3

• Use IP address for identifying source and destination nodes
• It follows FIFO operation mechanism
• It assign sequence number for packet for routing according to their order
• Create routing table using IP address rather than the MAC addresses
• Used to select the best path if there is alternative path based on routing algorithms it
configured
• There is address mapping process at network layer using ARP and RARP.

Types of Routers

There are various types of routers in networking; such are given below:

1. Wireless Router: Wireless routers are used to offer Wi-Fi connectivity to laptops,
smartphones, and other devices with Wi-Fi network capabilities, and it can also provide standard
Ethernet routing for a small number of wired network systems.

Wireless routers are capable of generating a wireless signal in your home or office, and it allows
the computers to connect with routers within a range, and use the internet. If the connection is
indoors, the range of the wireless router is about 150 feet, and when the connection is outdoors,
then its range is up to 300 feet.

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Furthermore, you can make more secure wireless routers with a password or get your IP address.
Thereafter, you can log in to your router by using a user ID and password that will come with your
router.

2. Brouter: A Brouter is a combination of the bridge and a router. It allows transferring the data
between networks like a bridge. And like a router, it can also route the data within a network to
the individual systems. Thus, it combines these two functions of bridge and router by routing some
incoming data to the correct systems while transferring the other data to another network.

3. Core router: A core router is a type of router that can route the data within a network, but it
is not able to route the data between the networks. It is a computer communication system device
and the backbone of networks, as it helps to link all network devices. It is used by internet service
providers (ISPs), and it also provides various types of fast and powerful data communication
interfaces.

4. Edge router: An edge router is a lower-capacity device that is placed at the boundary of a
network. It allows an internal network to connect with the external networks. It is also called as an
access router. It uses an External BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) to provide connectivity with
remote networks over the internet.

Gateway
Gateways normally work at the Transport and Session layers of the OSI model. At the Transport
layer and above, there are numerous protocols and standards from different vendors; gateways are
used to deal with them. Gateways provide translation between networking technologies such as
Open System Interconnection (OSI) and Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP). Because of this, gateways connect two or more autonomous networks, each with its own
routing algorithms, protocols, topology, domain name service, and network administration
procedures and policies.

Gateways perform all of the functions of routers and more. In fact, a router with added translation
functionality is a gateway. The function that does the translation between different network
technologies is called a protocol converter.

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Multilayer switches: it an integrated device that has capability to be hub, switch, router bridge,
repeater etc. It works at both layer 2 and 3 of OSI model.

Load balancer: it is a device that used to share workload among different servers which works as
workhorses for network such as: Hold data, Secure data, Distribute data, Maintain backup etc.

Bandwidth shaper: a device that used to balance the bandwidth in a given network
administrations. In the bandwidth shaper administrator balance the bandwidth usability such as

Channel service unit/data service unit (CSU/DSU): used for conversion of data format between
LAN technologies and LAN technologies because LAN and WAN uses different technologies.

8. Network topology

Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are interconnected to
each other. Network topology refers to the manner in which the links and nodes of a network are
arranged to relate to each other. It is a diagram helps visualize the communicating devices, which
are modeled as nodes, and the connections between the devices. There are two types of topologies:
physical and logical topology.

8.1. Logical topology

It the way that the signals act on the network media or the way that data passes through the network
from one device to the next without regard to physical interconnection of devices. The network’s
logical topology is not necessarily similar to physical topology. It dynamically maintained and
configured

8.2. Physical topology

It is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a network. Or it is the placement of the various
components of a network and the different connectors usually represent the physical network
cables, and the nodes represents usually the physical network devices (like switches).

Bus -All networked nodes are interconnected, peer to peer, using a single, open-ended cable. Both
ends of the bus must be terminated with a terminating resistor to prevent signal bounce

❖ advantage of bus
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 ✓ Easy to implement and extend
✓ Well suited for temporary networks that must be set up in a hurry
✓ Typically the least cheapest topology to implement
✓ Failure of one station does not affect others

❖ Disadvantage of bus

✓ Difficult to administer/troubleshoot
✓ Limited cable length and number of stations
✓ A cable break can disable the entire network; no redundancy
✓ Maintenance costs may be higher in the long run
✓ Performance degrades as additional computers are added

Ring topology-started out as a simple peer-to-peer LAN topology. Each networked workstation
had two connections: one to each of its nearest neighbors. Data was transmitted unidirectionally
around the ring. Sending and receiving of data takes place by the help of TOKEN

Advantage

1) This type of network topology is very organized

2) Performance is better than that of Bus topology

3) No need for network server to control the connectivity between workstations

4) Additional components do not affect the performance of network

5) Each computer has equal access to resources

Disadvantage

1) Each packet of data must pass through all the computers between source and destination,
slower than star topology

2) If one workstation or port goes down, the entire network gets affected

3) Network is highly dependent on the wire which connects different components

33
 Star topology- Have connections to networked devices that “radiate” out form a common
point. Each networked device in star topology can access the media independently.

Advantage of star Topology

1) Compared to Bus topology it gives far much better performance

2) Easy to connect new nodes or devices

3) Centralized management. It helps in monitoring the network

4) Failure of one node or link doesn’t affect the rest of network

Disadvantage of star topology

1. If central device fails whole network goes down

2. The use of hub, a router or a switch as central device increases the overall cost of the
network
3. Performance and as well number of nodes which can be added in such topology is
depended on capacity of central device

Full mesh topology

❖ A little investigation reveals that even for modest values of n, the number of links becomes
excessive.
❖ If there are n nodes, each node requires n(n − 1)/2 links to individually interconnect to each
of the other nodes.
❖ Example 1: A network is to use a fully interconnected mesh topology to connect 10 nodes
together. Then how many links are required?
Solution:
Number of nodes, n = 10

links = n(n-1)/2 = 10(10-1)/2 = 10x9/2 = 90/2 = 45. links needed

Advantages:
❖ Minimizes the number of hops between any two network-connected machines
❖ Can be built with virtually any transmission technology

34
Disadvantages:
❖ These WANs can be fairly expensive to build
❖ A finite (although substantial) limit on the scalability of the network
9. Information Transmission media

Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the information from the sender to
the receiver. Data is transmitted through the electromagnetic signals. The main functionality of the
transmission media is to carry the information in the form of bits through LAN (Local Area
Network). The characteristics and quality of data transmission are determined by the
characteristics of medium and signal. Transmission media is of two types are wired media and
wireless media. In wired media, medium characteristics are more important whereas, in wireless
media, signal characteristics are more important. Different transmission media have different
properties such as bandwidth, delay, cost and ease of installation and maintenance.

General factors used in Media Selection such as:

➢ Type of network they used

➢ Cost of implementation
➢ Transmission distance they can transmit
with loss of signal strength
➢ Security they have
➢ Error rates they have
➢ Transmission speed

Forms of Energy: links can be categorized by the type of energy used for transmission:
✓ Electrical Energy is used on wires
✓ Radio Frequency Transmission is used for wireless
✓ Light is used for optical fibers

35
Guided transmission media
✓ Twisted pair
✓ Coaxial
✓ Fiber optic cable
9.1. Twisted pair cable:
It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other. Generally, several
such pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath. They are the most widely used
Transmission Media. Twisted Pair is of two types:
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):
UTP consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around one another. This type of cable has the
ability to block interference and does not depend on a physical shield for this purpose. The
unshielded in UTP refers to the lack of metallic shielding around the copper wires. By its very
nature, the twisted-pair design helps minimize electronic interference by providing balanced signal
transmission, making a physical shield unnecessary. It is used for telephonic applications.

Advantages:
⇢ Least expensive
⇢ Easy to install
⇢ High-speed capacity

36
 ⇢ Susceptible to external interference
⇢ Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
⇢ Short distance transmission due to attenuation
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):
This type of cable consists of a special jacket (a copper braid covering or a foil shield) to block
external interference. This is done so it can provide a greater protection from electromagnetic
interference and radio Infrequency interference, allowing it to carry data at a faster rate of speed.
It is used in fast-data-rate Ethernet and in voice and data channels of telephone lines.

Advantages:
⇢ Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP
⇢ Eliminates crosstalk
⇢ Comparatively faster
⇢ Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture
⇢ More expensive
⇢ Bulky
The eight-pin RJ45 connector is a standardized interface which often connects a computer to a
local area network (LAN). This type of connector was originally developed for telephone
communications but is now used in a range of applications. The abbreviation, RJ45, stands for
Registered Jack-45.

37
9.2. Coaxial Cable –
It has an outer plastic covering containing an insulation layer made of PVC or Teflon and 2 parallel
conductors each having a separate insulated protection cover. The coaxial cable transmits
information in two modes: Baseband mode (dedicated cable bandwidth) and Broadband mode
(cable bandwidth is split into separate ranges). Cable TVs and analog television networks widely
use Coaxial cables.

Coaxial cable connectors are used to connect cables to other devices and are specifically designed
to maintain the shielding on the cable. High-quality connectors offer reliable, long-lasting
connections.
There are two distinct connector styles; male and female. Male connectors have a protruding metal
pin in the center, whereas female connectors have a receptacle to receive that pin. Depending on
the connector size and frequency, some may be sexless and mounted flush instead of mating.

38
Types of coaxial cable
Thinnet: -refers to RJ-58 cabling
-flexible enough to facilitate routing between work-stations
-about ¼ inch thick
-connected to workstation NIC using British Naval Connecter (BNC) port connecter
- used for short distance communication
- max length of thinnet is 185 meters
Thicknet: - refers RJ-8 cabling
- about ½ inch thick
- used for long distance communication
- max length of Thicknet is 500 meters
9.3. Optical Fiber Cable –
It uses the concept of reflection of light through a core made up of glass or plastic. The core is
surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the cladding. It is used for the
transmission of large volumes of data. So, optical fibers are about the diameter of a strand of human
hair and when bundled into a fiber-optic cable, they’re capable of transmitting more data over
longer distances and faster than other mediums.
The cable can be unidirectional or bidirectional. The WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexer)
supports two modes, namely unidirectional and bidirectional mode.
❖ Generally, it has three layers:
✓ Core (v. small, 5-50 microns, ~ the size of a single hair)
✓ Cladding—used to reflects light the signal
✓ Protective: outer jacket for protecting internal core for external electromagnetic
interferences
Advantages:
✓ Increased capacity and bandwidth
✓ Lightweight
✓ Less signal attenuation
✓ Immunity to electromagnetic interference
✓ Resistance to corrosive materials

39
Disadvantages:
✓ Difficult to install and maintain
✓ High cost
✓ Fragile (breakable)
Fiber designed for:
✓ long-distance data transmission,
✓ high-performance data networking, telecommunications.
✓ Provides higher bandwidth
Fiber optic splicing
Fiber optic splicing is the process of joining two or more fibers together to avoid network
disruptions. Or It is joining of two ends of optic fibers together for different purpose such as
❑ Why splicing is needed?
❖ When you need to attach a connector to end of big tail.
❖ To rejoin fiber optic cables when accidentally broken
❖ When you need fiber cable is long enough for the required cable run.
❖ When cable becomes damaged instead of replacing the whole cable, you may need to cut
out the damaged part and join the rest back together
❑ There are two methods of fiber optic splicing, fusion splicing & mechanical splicing.
1. Mechanical Splicing:
Mechanical splices are simply alignment devices, designed to hold the two fiber ends in a precisely
aligned position thus enabling light to pass from one fiber into the other.
2. Fusion Splicing:
In fusion splicing a machine is used to precisely align the two fiber ends then the glass ends are
"fused" or "welded" together using some type of heat or electric arc.
❖ Steps for Fusion of fiber optic: There are generally five different steps
1. Stripping the fiber
❖ remove or strip the protective polymer coating around the optical fiber.
❖ This is usually done with a mechanical stripping device, similar to a pair of wire strippers.
❖ Remember to clean the stripping tools before you start the fusing process.
2. Cleaning the fiber

40
 ❖ After the fiber has been stripped of the coating, it's time to clean the bare fiber. Using a
99.9% isopropyl alcohol (IPA) and lint-free wipes will keep the glass free of any
contaminations.
3. Cleaving the fiber
❖ The cleaver nicks the fiber and pulls or flexes then cut the fiber, which makes the end-face
flat and perpendicular to the axis of the fiber.

4. Fusing the fiber

❖ After the fibers have been cleaved, fuse them together with a fusion splicer. But how to
fuse?
❖ First, you must align the ends of the fiber within the splicer.
❖ Second, properly aligned,
❖ Third, melt the fibers with an electric arc and permanently welding the ends together.
5. Protecting the fiber
❖ After the fibers have been successfully fused together, the bare fiber is protected either by
re-applying a coating or by using a splice protector.
Types of fiber optic cable
1. Multimode (about 50-micron core)
➢ Earliest fiber-optic systems and cheaper
➢ Signal spreads out over short distances (up to ~500m)
➢ Can be used over distances of up to about 1000 meters
2. Single mode (about 5-micron core)
➢ Transmits a single direct beam through the cable

41
 ➢ Signal can be sent over many miles without spreading
➢ Expensive (requires lasers; difficult to manufacture)
Unguided (Wireless transmission) media
Wireless transmission is a form of unguided media. Wireless communication involves no physical
link established between two or more devices, communicating wirelessly. Wireless signals are
spread over in the air and are received and interpreted by appropriate antennas. Generally wireless
transmission media:
❖ Data transmitted through the air ❖ Easy to setup
❖ LANs use radio waves ❖ Difficult to secure
❖ WANs use microwave signals
There is different wireless transmission medias based on frequency and wavelength and
application
❖ Radio wave ❖ Microwaves
❖ Infrared ❖ Satellite
Some characteristics of Radio waves transmission
❖ Wireless transmission of electrical waves over air
❖ Long distance wavelength
❖ But Short frequency
❖ Frequency ranges 300Hz -300GHz (ranges 3KHz-1GHz)
❖ These waves are Omni directional in nature which means that they can travel in all the
directions.
❖ They are widely used for the communication between both indoor and outdoor.
❖ Includes AM and FM radios, cellular phones, wireless LANs (IEEE 802.11) and Bluetooth
Some characteristics of Infrared waves transmission
❖ Infrared Waves are the ❖ They also use line-of-sight of
electromagnetic waves which have propagation.
frequency range between 300 GHz to ❖ Cannot pass through solid objects
400 GHz. like walls.
❖ These cannot travel along long ❖ These also not penetrate through
distances. walls.
❖ Used for short range communication.
42
❖ The most common application of the
IR waves is remote controls that are
used for TV, DVD players and stereo
system.

43