CoTM Thesis - Hussein Adem

Hawassa University
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all I want to thank GOD for helping me to complete my study.
Then I would like to express my gratitude and deep appreciation to my advisor, Dr. Ephrem
Girma, for his valuable comment, suggestions and advice during preparing the thesis paper.
Next I would like acknowledge Madda Walabu University Engineering collage and all
construction materials laboratory assistants for their material and technical supports during my
laboratory works.
Finally I would like to thank Hawassa University and Ethiopian roads Authority for their
financial support throughout this work.
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ABSTRACT
One of the significant construction materials is that of sand or fine aggregate, which is mostly
naturally obtained by extracting it from rivers and/or river beds. Moreover, finely crushed
aggregate is also used in some parts of the country where natural sand is not available.
In this study, the determination of economical sand quarry sites for Bale Robe construction sites
has examined by studying the properties of all sands used in the town. Sands from Langano,
Asasa, and Dallo quarry sites used throughout the city. In this thesis different quality tests for
both fine aggregates and coarse aggregates are done during laboratory work. It is determined
from laboratory work that all sand samples taken from three quarry sites are not the same and all
aggregates are met criteria for making concrete.
For concrete preparation in laboratory DOE mix design method is selected as it is appropriate for
mix design for normal strength concrete. After the quantities all materials are determined samples
were casted on 15cm cube for 3, 7 and 28 days for all three aggregates. Totally 27 cube samples
are casted in single tests.
Finally the materials costs for making concrete are determined and the materials costs of 1m3 of
concrete for all three sands are determined. From this analysis it is determined that Asasa sand is
economical relative to other two sands.
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Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .............................................................................................................. i
ABSTRACT..................................................................................................................................... ii
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................... v
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ vii
List of abbreviations .................................................................................................................... viiii
1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 1
1.1. Background ....................................................................................................................... 1
1.2. Objectives of the Research ................................................................................................ 2
1.2.1. General objective ....................................................................................................... 2
1.2.2. Specific objectives ..................................................................................................... 2
1.3. Scope and limitation .......................................................................................................... 2
2. LITERATURE REIEW ............................................................................................................ 4
2.1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 4
2.1.1. General ....................................................................................................................... 4
2.1.2. Sources of fine aggregates ......................................................................................... 5
2.1.3. Types of sand ............................................................................................................. 6
2.1.4. Requirement of aggregate .......................................................................................... 9
2.1.5. Uses of Sand ............................................................................................................ 10
2.2. Fine aggregate/sand production ...................................................................................... 12
2.3. The Ethiopian context ..................................................................................................... 19
2.3.1. Fine Aggregate production ...................................................................................... 19
2.3.2. Demand vs. supply ................................................................................................... 19
2.4. Aggregate properties and tests ........................................................................................ 20
2.4.1. Grading .................................................................................................................... 20
2.4.2. Specific gravity (relative density) ............................................................................ 23
2.4.3. Absorption and surface moisture ............................................................................. 24
2.4.4. Silt Content .............................................................................................................. 25
2.5. Proportioning of Ingredients in Making Concrete .......................................................... 25
2.6. Sampling of aggregates ................................................................................................... 26
2.6.1. Definition ................................................................................................................. 26
2.6.2. Samplingmethods..................................................................................................... 26
2.6.3. Number and size of field samples ............................................................................ 27
2.6.4. Sample containers .................................................................................................... 27
2.7. Other materials in concrete ............................................................................................. 28
2.7.1. Portland cement ....................................................................................................... 28
2.7.2. Water ........................................................................................................................ 30
2.8. Properties of Concrete ..................................................................................................... 32
2.8.1. Workability .............................................................................................................. 32
2.8.2. Strength of concrete ................................................................................................. 34
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2.9. Economy in concrete ....................................................................................................... 35

2.9.1. Minimizing Concrete Costs ..................................................................................... 35
2.9.2. Maximizing Strength ............................................................................................... 36
2.9.3. Factors that affect the cost of aggregate .................................................................. 37
3. MATERIALS AND METHODS ........................................................................................... 38
3.1. Methodology ................................................................................................................... 38
4. DATA ANALYSIS, RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ........................................................ 39
4.1. Tests for aggregates......................................................................................................... 39
4.1.1. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 39
4.1.2. Particle size analysis ................................................................................................ 40
4.1.3. Specific gravity and water absorption of aggregates ............................................... 44
4.1.4. Moisture content of aggregates ................................................................................ 47
4.1.5. Silt Content .............................................................................................................. 49
4.2. Tests for Cement ............................................................................................................. 50
4.2.1. Normal consistency of Hydraulic cement ................................................................ 50
4.2.2. Setting time of hydraulic cement ............................................................................. 51
4.3. Mix Design ...................................................................................................................... 52
4.4. Tests for concrete ............................................................................................................ 60
4.4.1. Slump test ................................................................................................................ 60
4.4.2. Test for Compressive Strengths of Concrete ........................................................... 61
4.5. Costs of materials for making concrete ........................................................................... 64
4.5.1. Sands ........................................................................................................................ 64
5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................. 67
5.1. Conclusions ..................................................................................................................... 67
5.2. Recommendations ........................................................................................................... 68
REFERANCE ................................................................................................................................ 69
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List of Tables
Table 1: Top 15 producers of sand and gravel in the world. ........................................................ 12

Table 2 : Fine aggregate grading limits. ....................................................................................... 21
Table 3 : Grading requirements for coarse aggregate .................................................................. 21
Table 4 : Minimum sample sizes of different size of aggregate ..................................................... 27
Table 5: Approximate oxide composition limits of Portland cement. ............................................ 29
Table 6 : Limits of permissible impurities in water. ...................................................................... 31
Table 7 : Test results of Fine aggregate grading for sand of Langano quarry site ...................... 41
Table 8 : Test results of Fine aggregate grading for sand of Dallo quarry site ........................... 41
Table 9 : Test results of Fine aggregate grading for sand of Asasa quarry site ........................... 42
Table 10 : comparison of cumulative passing values of sands with upper and lower limits......... 43
Table 11 : Particle size distribution of 20mm nominal maximum size aggregate ......................... 44
Table 12 : Test results for computation of Specific gravity & absorption of Coarse aggregate ... 45
Table 13 : Specific gravity of different resources .......................................................................... 45
Table 14 : Test results for computation of Specific gravity & absorption of Fine aggregates ..... 46
Table 15 : Test results for the computation of moisture content of coarse aggregate from shanaka
quarry site. ..................................................................................................................................... 48
Table 16 : Test results for the computation of silt content of fine aggregates .............................. 50
Table 17 : Test results for computation of consistency of cement ................................................. 51
Table 18 : Test results for setting time of cement .......................................................................... 52
Table 19 : Approximate compressive strengths (N/mm2) of concrete mixes made with a free-
water/cement ratio of 0.5 ............................................................................................................... 54
Table 20 : Approximate free-water contents (kg/m3) required to give various levels of workability
....................................................................................................................................................... 56
Table 21 : Mass (nearest to 5kg) of materials in 1m3 mixes for different sands........................... 59
Table 22 : Mass of materials in 0.01m3 mixes for different sands ................................................ 60
Table 23 : test result for the concrete made from different sands. ................................................ 61
Table 24 : Computation of Compressive Strength for Concrete made from Asasa sand . ............ 62
Table 25 : Computation of Compressive Strength for Concrete made from Dallo sand............... 63
Table 26 : Computation of Compressive Strength for Concrete made from langano sand........... 63
Table 27 : Cost of construction sands in bale robe as of 2011. .................................................... 65
Table 28 : costs of different sands in 1m3 concrete mixes. ............................................................ 65
Table 29: materials cost of1m3concretemade from different sands…………..……….……………..66
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List of Figures
Figure 1 (a) A typical drying plant; (b) Sand dewatering tower; and (c) Grading machine. ....... 14
Figure 2 Sand drying alternatives; (a) rotating drum; (b) fluidized bed dryer. ............................ 15
Figure 3Sand Transportation alternatives; (a) Truck; (b) Rail; and (c) waterways. .................... 17
Figure 4 Relationship between standard deviation and characteristic strength ........................... 53
Figure 5 Relationship between compressive strength and free-water/cement ratio ..................... 55
Figure 6 Estimated wet density of fully compacted concrete ...................................................... 57
Figure 7 Recommended proportions of fine aggregate according to percentage passing a 600 μm
sieve .............................................................................................................................................. 58
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List of abbreviations
AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
ACI American Concrete Institute
ASTM American Society for Testing Materials
BS British standard
C25 concrete having 25Mpa compressive strength
DOE department of environment of british
EIA environmental impact assessment
FM fineness modulus
Ib pound
Kg kilogram
RCC reinforced concrete construction
SSD saturated surface dry
USGS united states geological survey
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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background
Mining plays an important economic role in Ethiopia. The resources discovered in different
regions of the country are mainly gold, tantalum, phosphorus, iron, salt, potash, soda ash,
gemstones, coal, geothermal and natural gas, apart from many industrial and construction
materials.
One of the significant construction materials is that of sand or fine aggregate, which is mostly
naturally obtained by extracting it from rivers and/or river beds. Moreover, finely crushed
aggregate is also used in some parts of the country where natural sand is not available.
Sand production in Ethiopia is done by making use of Artisanal miners. The method employed
does not make use of machineries, but rather only simple equipment like hand shovels. The
production method of sand in Ethiopia is so primitive that the sand produced is prone to a greater
degree of non-uniformity and contamination by deleterious substances.(Denamo, 2005)
Moreover, there is no quality check and standardization of the products. He further stated that due
to the primitive production process, there is wastage of materials.
Concrete is a product obtained artificially by hardening of the mixture of: binding material
(cement), fine aggregate (sand), coarse aggregate (gravel), admixtures in some cases, and water,
in predetermined proportions. Since concrete is made from different materials which form
different parts, it is known as a composite material. The cement and water form a paste that
hardens and bonds the aggregates together.
In earlier days, a number of researches have focused towards the development of better
compressive strengths of concrete. However, huge financial losses have been witnessed in
Ethiopia because of the fact that high strength concrete may not economical as material selection
is basically focus on obtaining high strength concrete but not obtaining economical concrete.
Researches undertaken in the country have been consulted and it was found out that recent study
has been carried out on comparing the different properties of concrete prepared from various
cements produced in Ethiopia. The study compares the compressive strengths of different
concrete samples prepared from the various cements by conducting laboratory tests.
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Not much research work on selecting economical sand quarry site for construction projects based
on physical laboratory test and other parameters like mining cost, delivery cost etc. has been
carried out in Ethiopia.
Therefore, in this study selected sand quarry sites used in Bale Robe construction projects will be
studied in detail based on physical laboratory test and by considering other parameters like
mining cost, delivery cost etc.
1.2. Objectives of the Research
1.2.1. General objective

The general objective of this study is to determine the most economical sand quarry site for
making concrete mixes for construction projects in Bale Robe town.
1.2.2. Specific objectives
 To determine the properties of sands taken from selected quarry sites for construction
projects in Bale Robe town.
 To develop C-25 trial mixes and determine the most economical mix using sand from
selected quarry sites for construction projects in Bale Robe town.
 To determine economical sand quarry site based on the properties of sand, cost required
producing C-25 concrete mix, and mining, processing, and delivery costs.
1.3. Scope and limitation
 This study considered quarry sites used in Bale Robe construction projects only.
Therefore, the result of this work will not represent other sites out of Bale Robe town.
 Tap water and Dangote cement are used as these materials are widely used in the town.
This is because of to represent the result of the test with practical work.
 The effect of admixture is not considered as the use of admixture is not practical in the
study area.
 Tests performed are to come up with materials content in concrete
 Locally used coarse aggregate are used in the testto represent the result of the test with
practical work.

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 The results expected from this work are representatives of the materials used in the work.
Therefore, if other materials are used the same results may not be expected.
 The calculated materials cost of concrete are applicable in 2011 E.C.

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2. LITERATURE REIEW
2.1. Introduction
2.1.1. General
Aggregate, which is found in nature, consists of grains or fragments of rock. These materials are
mined or quarried, and they are used either in their natural state or after crushing, washing, and
sizing. Sand, gravel, and crushed stone are commonly combined with binding media to form
concrete, mortar, and asphalt. They also provide the base that underlies paved roads, railroad
ballast, surfaces on unpaved roads, and filtering material in water treatment.(Richard, 1995)
Aggregates consist of about three fourth of the volume of concrete. The property of the aggregate
greatly affects the property of the resulting concrete. An ideal aggregate would be one that is
inert; but this is not the case for most. The physical, chemical, mechanical and thermal properties
of aggregates manipulate the quality of the concrete. The use of aggregate in concrete greatly
reduces the needed amount of cement, which is important from both technical and economical
standpoints.(Popovics, 2000)
Aggregates may be broadly classified as natural or artificial, both with respect to source and to
method of preparation. Natural sands and gravels are the product of weathering and the action of
wind or water, while manufactured crushed fine aggregate and crushed stone coarse and fine
aggregate are produced by crushing natural stone. Crushing, screening, and washing may be used
to process aggregates from either sand and gravel deposits or stone quarries. Synthetic aggregates
may be either by products of an industrial process, in the case of blast-furnace slag, or products of
processes developed to manufacture aggregates with special properties, as in the case of
expanded clay, shale, or slate used for lightweight aggregates.
It has been understood from different literatures that aggregates can further be classified based on
different basis. The most commonly used classifications are based on size as coarse and fine;
mineralogy and petrography as Igneous, Metamorphic and Sedimentary; chemical composition as
Argillaceous, Siliceous and Calcareous; weight as heavy, normal and light; source as natural and
artificial; and finally based on particle size and shape. The last one is the most frequently used

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classification. Based on this classification, this thesis generally focuses only on the natural type
of fine aggregates.
On this basis, one can distinguish between fine aggregates, consisting mostly of small particles,
and coarse aggregates, consisting mostly of large particles.(Popovics, 2000)
Fine aggregates often called sand are of size not larger than 5mm and that of coarse aggregate is
with size at least 5mm.
Sand is the principal component of concrete, the critical construction material and deserves
special attention when considering the means of process control. Unlike coarse aggregate where
various types of crushers may be used to upgrade mineral quality, sand basically relies on the
same techniques to address both mineral quality and sizing. These techniques are called particle
exclusion. Whichever size the producer decides to eliminate for quality reasons, obviously, also
affects the sizing.(Langer, 2003)
Being an important component for concrete, obtaining good quality natural sand is critical. These
easily available natural resources usually accompany gravels which basically imply the deposits
may not have been laid uniformly, meaning a potential change in quality and size is possible. In
some deposits, sand found below the water table differs in fines content and quality from that
found above the water table, due to this subsurface drilling, sampling, and testing are necessary to
know to what degree and where these differences occur.(Langer, 2003)
As naturally existing material sand may not exist in a pure state i.e. some very fine particles such
as dust, silt and clay may intrude in it. In order to remove the necessary amounts of these fines
most sands are produced with wash water and water classification. The key to all rinsing and
water classifying systems is adequate delivery of water. Inadequate water supply and poor
maintenance are the two most common reasons for inconsistent sand gradations.(Langer, 2003)
2.1.2. Sources of fine aggregates
Sand is the second most widely used commodity on earth after water. Almost 80 percent of the
construction industry is made up of sand. The booming construction industry, real estates, the
buildings in which majority of government offices are, etc., all are constructed with the help of
sand.(Aksarabhyudaya, 2013)
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Generally, sand is found on the banks of rivers and beaches of seas or oceans. The rivers carry
sediments with them and due to erosion in the due course of motion rounding of boulders
happens from which small fragments are released from the parent rock and the process continues
with the newly formed fragments along with boulders. Thus, minute particles finally suspend and
are carried along with the river flow which is generally termed as sand. Whenever we are mining
the sand from these areas, there is always a ―replenishment capacity per year‖ associated with
every river or bank in a particular area. If sand is mined within this limit, then it is
environmentally sustainable- else, disasters are prone to happen.(Chandrakanth, 2009)
It is generally accepted that sand and gravel are widely distributed and abundant near existing and
past rivers and streams, in alluvial basins, and in previously glaciated areas. Regardless of the
wide distribution, these aggregates are not universally available for use. Where the locality lacks
the aggregate source, the costly alternatives of importing aggregate from outside the area or
substituting another material for aggregate is considered.
2.1.3. Types of sand
From engineering point of view, sand can be classified based on various criteria.
Types of Sand Based on Its Source
The sources of Sand can be natural or artificial.
Natural sands
The sources of natural fine aggregate are of three types.
Pit sand (Coarse sand)
This type of sand is procured from deep pits of abundant supply. It has a property of being coarse
grained which is sharp, angular and free from silts. It mostly has a reddish yellow color and
mostly employed in concreting.

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River sand
The River sands are obtained, as the name implies, from banks or beds of rivers. River sand has
the property of being fine and consists of fine rounded grains. The color of river sand is almost
white and grayish. River sand is usually available in clean condition and is used for plastering.
Sea/Marine sand
As the name implies, sea sand is taken from sea shores. It has fine rounded grains and it is light
brown in color. Sea sand is avoided for the purpose of constructing concrete structure since it
contains silt and tends to absorb moisture from the atmosphere and brings dampness.
Artificial Sand
It is an effective alternative to natural sand. It is produced by crushing either basalt rock or

granite. It is well graded and a coarse-type sand.
Types of Sand Based on sieve analysis
Based on sieve analysis sand can be divided into following three types.
Fine Sand
Sand passing through the 1.5875 mm sieve is called fine sand. We use this sand mainly for
plastering purpose.
Coarse Sand
The sand which is passing through the 3.175 mm sieve is called coarse sand. For masonry work
we mostly used this type of sand.
Gravelly Sand
The sand which is passing through the 7.62 mm sieve is called gravelly sand. We generally use
this type of sand in concrete.

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Types of Sand Based on Their Purpose of Use
Based on using purpose, sand can be classified as following
Brick Sand
This sand is obviously used for brick work. The fineness modulus of this sand should be 1.2 to
1.5 and should not contain more than 4% silt.
Plaster Sand
Obviously it is used for plastering work. The fineness modulus should not be more than 1.5 and
silt content should not be more than 4% in this type of sand.
Concrete Sand
For concreting purpose we generally use coarse sand. The fineness modulus of this sand should
be 2.5 to 3.5 and it should not contain more than 6% silt.
Types of Sand Based on Their Grain Size
Based on the grain size, sand can be classified as following
Very Fine Sand
If the grain size of the sand between 0.0625 mm to 0.125 mm it is called very fine sand.
Fine Sand
The grain size of this type of sand is between 0.125mm to 0.25mm
Medium Sand
If the grain size of the sand is between 0.25mm to 0.50mm it is the medium sand.
Coarse Sand
This type of sand has grain size 0.50mm to 1.0mm

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Very Coarse Sand
The grain size of this type of sand is between 1.0 mm and 2.0 mm.
2.1.4. Requirement of aggregate
Aggregate Contribute about 75 % by volume of concrete. Aggregate create stability from volume
change and by far cheaper than cement. Aggregate affects not only the properties of the concrete
but also its economy.
Thus, care should be given in choosing aggregate in concrete production. While choosing an
aggregate for the production of a particular concrete attention should be given, among other
things, to three important requirements:
1. Workability
Workability is the property of freshly mixed concrete or mortar that determines the ease and
homogeneity with which it can be mixed, placed, compacted, and finished.
The size and gradation of the aggregate should be such that undue labor in mixing and placing
will not be required.
2. Strength and durability.
When hardened – for which the aggregate should:
a. be stronger than the required concrete strength

b. contain no impurities which adversely affect strength and durability
c. not go into undesirable reaction with the cement
d. be resistant to weathering action
3. Economy of the mixture - meaning to say that the aggregate should be
a. available from local and easily accessible deposit or quarry
b. well graded in order to minimize paste, hence cement, requirement

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Strength of concrete depends on the strength of aggregate, cement paste, the bond between the
aggregate and the surrounding cement paste and the overall adhesion and compaction of the
concrete particles.
Aggregate strength and other prominent properties of aggregate that affect the bond between the
aggregate and the cement paste and the overall adhesion and compaction of concrete are of
paramount importance in producing strong, durable and economical concrete.(Neville, 1994)
2.1.5. Uses of Sand
Sand has been used widely in the construction industry for many hundreds of years. Even during
Roman times, sand was a useful resource, used in the production of tiles. The 1930s saw
Leighton Buzzard sand mixed with lime to make special steamed bricks at Stonehenge Bricks
Ltd. White, silica-rich, sand from Heath and Reach has also been distributed internationally to
major cement manufacturers.
More than 200 diverse uses of sand are listed today; including in the leisure and sports industry
for golf courses, football pitches and greyhound tracks. Sand is widely used in construction and
make up 30-40% of concrete.
Aggregates (Fine and Coarse) are component of composite materials such as concrete and asphalt
concrete; the aggregate serves as reinforcement to add strength to the overall composite material.
Due to the relatively high hydraulic conductivity value as compared to most soils, aggregates are
widely used in drainage applications such as foundation and trench drains, septic drain fields,
retaining wall drains, and road side edge drains.
Aggregates are also used as base material under foundations, roads, and railroads. To put it in
other words, aggregates are used as a stable foundation or road/rail base with predictable,
uniform properties (e.g. to help prevent differential settling under the road or building), or as a
low-cost extender that binds with more expensive cement or asphalt to form concrete.
Aggregates have three basic functions:
1. To provide a relatively cheap filler for the cementing material;

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2. To provide a mass of particles that are suitable for resisting the action of applied loads,
abrasion, the percolation of moisture, and the action of weather; and
3. To reduce the volume changes resulting from the setting and hardening process and from
moisture changes in the cement-water paste.
2. To provide a mass of particles that are suitable for resisting the action of applied loads,
abrasion, the percolation of moisture, and the action of weather; and
3. To reduce the volume changes resulting from the setting and hardening process and from
moisture changes in the cement-water paste.
Sand is massively used for concreting, Sand is used for preparation of mortar to bind with brick
or stone or other materials, Sand is used for preparation of mortar to plaster and pointing on the
wall and surfaces, Sand is massively used for concreting, Hydropower Work (Catchment, Dam
construction, Power house and much more), Road works, Side drain work, Seal coat work, Pre-
mix asphalt concrete work, Soling work, Pavement work, RCC pipe joining work Canal work,
Damp proof work, etc. (Praveen, 2015-2016)
Special work of sand: Sand is used for glass production, Sand is used for abrasive in sand
blasting, Filtering water, Brick manufacture plant, Sand bags are used for protection against the
flood, Sand castle building is popular activity for competition, Sand animation is a type of
performance art, Aquaria are lined by sand, instead of gravel since it will be low cost, Rail road
use sand to improve the traction of wheels on the rails, Sandy soil will be ideal soil for some
crops like watermelon, peaches and peanuts.
Sand for construction works: Different construction works require different standards of sand
for construction. Brick Works: Finest modulus of fine sand should be 1.2 to 1.5 and silt contents
should not be more than 4%. Plastering Works, Finest modulus of fine sand should not be more
than 1.5 and silt contents should not be more than 4%. Concreting Works: Coarse and should be
used with finest modulus 2.5 to 3.5 and silt contents should not be more than 4%. (Praveen,
2015-2016)

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2.2. Fine aggregate/sand production
Sand is one of the most accessible natural resource that has been used since the earliest days of
civilization mostly as a construction material.
According to USGS, the largest producer of sand and gravel in the world is the United States,
produced 26.5 million metric tons of the materials. Italy ranks second with an annual production
of over 14 million metric tons. The third place is occupied by Germany, producing 6.5 million
metric tons.(USGS, 2011)
A summary of the top fifteen producers of sand and gravel along with their production capacity is
shown in table 1.
Table 1: Top 15 producers of sand and gravel in the world (USGS, 2011)
Rank Country Production in

Thousand
Metric Tonnes
1 United States 26,500
2 Italy 14,000
3 Germany 6,500
4 United Kingdom 5,600
5 Australia 5,200
6 France 5,000
7 Spain 5,000
8 Poland 4,350
9 Japan 3,500
10 Mexico 2,800
11 South Africa 2,300
12 Finland 2,240
13 Belgium 1,800
14 Egypt 1,750
15 India 1,700

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The production of fine aggregate starts with the exploration process where locating a suitable
resource near the area is done. Once the exploration is done, it is followed by the mining process
where the actual extraction of the material takes place. To enhance the quality of the extracted
fine aggregate, it is further processed through washing, drying, sorting, and storing. This is
followed by transportation to the final destination. Delivering to the final destination is not an end
to the production process. A reclamation program is required where maintenance to the
interrupted land takes place. A detailed description of each step is discussed below.
Exploration
A mining project begins once knowhow on the extent and value of the mineral ore deposit has
been accomplished. Information on the location and value of the mineral ore deposit is obtained
during the exploration phase. This phase includes surveys, field studies, and drilling test
boreholes and other exploratory excavations. (James, 2003)
The exploratory phase may involve clearing of wide areas of vegetation, to allow the entry of
heavy vehicles mounted with drilling rigs. Many countries require a separate EIA for the
exploratory phase of a mining project because the impacts of this phase can be intense and further
phases of mining may not follow if exploration fails to find sufficient quantities of mineral ore
deposits.
Mining
Mining is the actual removal of the material from the source. Before any actual mining is done at
a site, overburden which is mainly composed of silt, loam, clay, or combinations of the three is
removed from the top of the sand formation with the help of scrapers or tracked excavators and
off-road haul trucks.
Once the overburden has been removed, the sand is mined out either by open pit excavation or by
dredging. Open pit excavation is carried out with power shovels, draglines, front end loaders, and
bucket wheel excavators. Depending upon the geological formation, blasting may be used to
loosen the sand deposit followed by the crushing process to reduce the size. Mining by dredging
involves mounting the equipment on boats or barges and removing the fine aggregate and gravel
from the bottom of the water body by suction or bucket-type dredges. (EPA, 2005)

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Having obtained the mined mineral, the material may be directly used without further processing,
taken directly to the washing process, stockpiled on site for later processing, or transported to a
processing plant.(Schaff, 2012)
Although significant amounts of sand and gravel are used without processing, most sand and
gravel are processed prior to use. Therefore, the materials are transported to the processing plant
by suction pump, earth mover, barge, truck, belt conveyors, or other means.
Processing
Sand must be of uniform size and shape. To achieve this uniformity, the sand is run through a
processing plant. The processing of sand and gravel involves the use of different combinations of
washers, driers, screens, and classifiers to segregate particle sizes; crushers to reduce oversized
material; and storage and loading facilities. A picture representation of a typical drying machine
used to dry the sand, a sand dewatering tower and grading machine are shown in Figure 1
Figure 1 (a) A typical drying plant; (b) Sand dewatering tower; and (c) Grading
machine.(Yasmin, 2014)

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Washing
The purpose of washing sand is to free it from fine particles, clay and organic impurities.
Washing is done by spraying the sand with water as it is carried over a vibrating screen. The fine
particles are washed off the sand and the coarse particles are carried along the screen by the
vibration. Some processing operations also use what is known as an up flow clarifier to wash the
sand. An up flow clarifier is essentially a tank where water and sand are continuously directed
into the tank. The water washes the sand and the overflow water along with the fines flow over
the tank while the washed sand falls by gravity to the bottom of the tank and is sent for further
processing.(Schaff, 2012)
Modern quarries use attrition scrubbers which remove silt and gravel from the sand particles
using the abrasive power of water and hydro-cyclone systems, which in turn use pressurized
water jets to float the fine grains of sand away from the coarse grains. Solid particles that are
separated from the finer sand particles are allowed to settle in silt lagoons.
Drying
Prior to sand being sized and stored as a final product, it typically goes through a drying process
to reduce the moisture content. Once the sand has been washed, it is then sent to a surge pile
where much of the water adhering to the sand particles infiltrates back into the ground. From the
surge pile, the sand is sent to the dryer and screening operation. As shown in Figure 2 the sand
may be dried by feeding it into a large rotating drum with a hot air blast or making use of
fluidized bed dryer.
Figure 2 Sand drying alternatives; (a) rotating drum; (b) fluidized bed dryer.(Yasmin, 2014)

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Once the sand is dried, it is cooled and may be further sorted by screening. The dried sand is then
fed by conveyors to storage bins or directly to a screen house via conveyors.
Sorting and Screening
After the sand passes through the drying phase, it is graded to produce the grain size needed for a
particular purpose. Vibrating screens are used to screen the sand; these can be changed to
produce the different grain sizes.
The screens separate the oversize material from the smaller, marketable sizes. Oversize material
may be used for erosion control, reclamation, or other uses, or it may be directed to a crusher for
size reduction, to produce crushed aggregate, or to produce manufactured sands. Following
crushing, the material is returned to the screening operation for sizing.
In modern processing plants, different grain sizes can be selected. The graded sand is then
conveyed to storage silos or on to a bagging shed. The whole operation is controlled from a
central diagnostic desk, controlling flow and storage. The sand is tested several times at various
stages of the process to ensure that it conforms to the specifications of that particular grade of
sand.
Once washed, dried, graded and tested; the sand is stored in piles or bagged ready for
transportation. In the case of the bagged sands, the correct weight of sand is deposited into each
polythene sack, which is sealed and sprayed with a batch number, date and grade and moved to
the waiting lorries.
Transporting
Transportation of sand from the time it is mined, processed, and eventually delivered to the
location where it is going to be used can take many mediums depending upon the location of the
mine, the processing facility and the destination where the sand will ultimately be used.
Transportation is a key element of the supply process and a large part of the delivered price.
Within the mine, the sand may be transported by front-end loaders, large open-topped off-road
trucks, or dump trucks.

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Vehicular traffic on local roads will have an impact on the service life and condition of the roads.
The degree of road deterioration will depend on the amount of traffic, the type of vehicles, and
the design of the road. Rail (Figure 3b) currently seems to be the preferred method of transporting
sand from the mine or from the processing plant to the location of final use.
Similarly, aggregates can be transported using the network of inland waterways (Figure 3 (c)).
Although this is a much less common form of transportation, it can provide a very useful means
of connecting isolated deposits to established processing plants.
Non-road methods of transporting supplies of aggregate are therefore very important. However,
due to the flexibility of road transportation (and the relative inflexibility of rail and water
transportation), the product is often ultimately delivered to its final point of sale by truck (Figure
3 (a)).
Figure 3Sand Transportation alternatives; (a) Truck; (b) Rail; and (c) waterways.(Yasmin,
2014)

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Reclamation
When active mining ceases, mine facilities and the site are reclaimed and closed. The goal of
mine site reclamation and closure should always be to return the site to a condition that most
resembles the pre-mining condition. Therefore, the EIA for every proposed mining project must
include a detailed discussion of the mine Reclamation and Closure Plan offered by the mining
body.
Mine reclamation is the process of restoring land that has been mined to a natural or
economically usable state. Although the process of mine reclamation occurs once mining is
completed; the preparation and planning of mine reclamation activities occur prior to a mine
being permitted or started. Mine reclamation creates useful landscapes that meet a variety of
goals ranging from the restoration of productive ecosystems to the creation of industrial and
municipal resources. Modern mine reclamation minimizes and mitigates the environmental
effects of mining.
The goal of reclamation is to return the land to a beneficial use. By planning reclamation before
the aggregate is extracted, it can be mined with how the quarry will look when it is reclaimed.
This can make it easier to turn quarries into scenic, lake-front property, wildlife parks, golf
courses, office parks and the many other items a quarry can eventually become. Parts of the mine
can be reclaimed while continuing on-going mining operations in some instances.
Throughout the world, to overcome the problems associated with mining, attempt is being made
to reclaim mining sites to a beneficial use. For instance, in the United States, where mining is the
core in the country, different reclamation programs have been applicable.
In South Africa, which is the number one sand and gravel producer in Africa, the applicant when
applying for mining site permit must lodge a financial provision for the purposes of rehabilitation
of the site once mining is completed. Moreover, there are additional obligations on an applicant
to submit an environmental management programme or environmental management plan. It is
once the license provider proves that the applicant has made financial provision for the
rehabilitation or management of negative environmental aspects; and when it is proved that the

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applicant has the capacity to rehabilitate and manage negative impacts on the environment that
permit is given.
2.3. The Ethiopian context
2.3.1. Fine Aggregate production
The production of fine aggregate in Ethiopia is mainly by the process of extracting from river
beds. Crushed aggregates are also being used in some parts of the country to serve as sand when
there is a scarcity or unavailability of natural sand.
Due to over flow of rivers and inaccessibility to the site, natural sand obtained from river sands
are difficult to produce during the wet season. (Denamo, 2005)
The sand production sites found in Ethiopia are not mechanized but rather make use of the
traditional method where the local people of the area are the producers and transportation is done
by donkeys that have a maximum carrying capacity of 70kg or 0.05m3 per trip. The donkeys
transport it to a place where vehicles have access. Sand is then loaded to vehicles manually and
transported to the actual site or to construction material suppliers which is then directly used for
the intended purpose.(Denamo, 2005)
Fine aggregates (sand), is unconsolidated and highly variable mixtures of different constituents.
The construction industry utilizes sand mainly from streambeds, which are commonly derived
from quartzo-feldspathic basement rocks, sandy marine sediments and alluvial deposits. It has
been learnt that the fine aggregate production process in Ethiopia is so old fashioned that it is
prone to non-uniformity in gradation, susceptible to contamination by deleterious substances;
there is no room for quality check, there is no standardization, there is no consistent supply from
a specific area.
2.3.2. Demand vs. supply
Construction aggregate prices are expected to increase in the future due to the rising cost of fuel
used in the production and transportation processes. The rise in fuel cost is expected to affect the
delivery prices of construction sand and gravel. These price increases are expected to be more

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noticeable in and near cities because as nearby resources are used up, more aggregates will have
to be transported from distant resources.
2.4. Aggregate properties and tests
2.4.1. Grading
Grading refers to the distribution of particle sizes present in an aggregate. The grading is
determined in accordance with ASTMC136, ―Sieve or Screen Analysis of Fine and Coarse
Aggregates.‖A sample of the aggregate is shaken through a series of wire-cloth sieves with square
openings, nested one above the other in order of size, with the sieve having the largest openings on
top, the one having the smallest openings at the bottom, and a pan underneath to catch material
passing the finest sieve.
An aggregate, for concrete making, is any hard, inert material composed of fragments in a wide
gradational range of sizes, which is mixed with a cementing material and water to form concrete.
Aggregates should be clean, sound, tough, durable and uniform in quality. They should also be
free of soft, friable, thin or laminated fragments and deleterious substances like alkali, oil, coal,
humus or other organic matter. Aggregates may be classified in two groups: (1) natural materials
such as sand, gravel, crushed stone, and pumice; and (2) artificial materials, produced by
crushing blast furnace slag or burning and crushing clays or shale. The second group includes
most of the light weight aggregates. Aggregates make up 65 to 75% of the volume of concrete.
Therefore the quality of concrete produced is very much influenced by the properties of its
aggregates. Aggregate grain size distribution or gradation is one among those properties and
should be given due consideration.(Abebe, 2002)
According to the Ethiopian Standard coarse aggregates are those between 75 and 4.75 mm in
size. Gravel, crushed rock and blast furnace slag are generally used as aggregates.
Sieve Analysis is a procedure for the determination of the particle size distribution of aggregates
using a series of square or round openings starting with the largest. It is used to determine the
grading or aggregates and the fineness modulus, an index to the fineness and coarseness and
uniformity of aggregates. It is after this analysis is carried out that aggregates are described as

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well graded, poorly graded, uniformly graded, gap graded, etc. Each of the above aggregate
categories has close association with a range of quality of concrete produced using the
aggregate.(Abebe, 2002)
The quality of fine aggregate used in concrete has a bearing effect on the quality of the final
output. Therefore, standards have been set in order to help obtain the desired concrete quality.
Fine aggregate grading limits and grading requirements for coarse aggregate are described in
Table 2 and Table 3 respectively.
Table 2: Fine aggregate grading limits.
Sieve size Percentage passing

9.50mm (3/8 in.) 100
4.75mm (No. 4) 95 – 100
2.36mm (No. 8) 80 – 100
1.18mm (No. 16) 50 – 85
600mm (No. 30) 25 – 60
300μm (No. 50) 5 – 30 (AASHTO 10 – 30)
150μm (No. 100) 0 – 10 (AASHTO 2 – 10)
Table 3 : Grading requirements for coarse aggregate
Nominal size of Percentage passing through test sieves having square openings
aggregate(mm) 75mm 63mm 37.5mm 19mm 13.2mm 9.5mm 4.75mm
38–5 100 – 95–100 30–70 – 10–35 0–5
19–5 – – 100 95–100 – 25–55 0–10
13–5 – – – 100 90–100 40–85 0–10
Fineness modulus: using the sieve analysis results, a numerical index called the fineness modulus
(FM) is often computed. The FM is the sum of the total percentages coarser than each of a
specified series of sieves, divided by 100.
The coarser the aggregate, the higher the FM. For fine aggregate used in concrete, the FM
generally ranges from 2.3 to 3.1 as called for in ASTM C 33, but in some cases, fine sands are

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used with an FM less than 2.0 (for example, some Florida deposits) and in other cases, a coarser
fine aggregate with an FM higher that 3.1 (for example, some western coarse sands or
manufactured fine aggregate that is used in concrete with a finer natural sand).
Although the FM is most commonly computed for fine aggregates, the FM of coarse aggregate
is needed for some proportioning methods. It is calculated in the same manner, while taking care
to exclude sieves that are not specified in the definition (for example, 25.0 and 12.5mm
[land1/2in.] sieves) and to include all of the specified finer sieves.
Maximum size and nominal maximum size (ASTM definitions):In specifications for aggregates,
the smallest sieve opening through which the entire amount of aggregate is required to pass is
called the maximum size. The smallest sieve opening through which the entire amount of
aggregate is permitted to pass is called the nominal maximum size.
Significance of aggregate grading: There are several reasons for specifying both grading limits
and maximum aggregate size. Aggregates having a smooth grading curve and neither a
deficiency nor excess of any one particle size generally produce mixtures with fewer voids
between particles. Because cement costs more than aggregate and the cement paste requirement
for concrete increases with increasing void content of the combined aggregates, it is desirable
to keep the void content as low as possible. If there is not enough fine aggregate to fill the voids
between coarse aggregate particles, the space must be filled with cement paste. Such under-
sanded mixtures also tend to be harsh and difficult to finish. On the other hand, aggregate
combinations with excessive amounts of fine aggregate or excessively fine sands may produce
uneconomical concretes because of the larger surface area of finer particles, which requires
additional cement.
Permissible variations in grading : many specifications permit a relatively wide range of grading
for both fine and coarseaggregates.ASTMC33,forexample,statesthatfine aggregate failing to meet
the sieve analysis requirements may be accepted if it is demonstrated that concrete made with the
fine aggregate under consideration will have relevant properties at least equal to those of similar
concrete containing a fine aggregate that conforms to the specification requirements and that is
selected from a source having an acceptable performance record in similar concrete
construction. Once a specific grading is selected, close control should be exercised to minimize

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variation. If wide variations in coarse aggregate grading occur on a given project, it may be
necessary to adjust mixture proportions to produce workable concrete.
As the fineness modulus of the fine aggregate decreases (aggregate becomes finer), a lower
percentage of sand in the total aggregate will be required or the amount of coarse aggregate that
may be used increases. It is often more economical to maintain uniformity in producing and
handling aggregates than to adjust proportions for variations in grading.
2.4.2. Specific gravity (relative density)

Definition: the specific gravity of an aggregate is the mass of the aggregate in air divided by the
mass of an equal volume of water. An aggregate with a specific gravity of 2.50 would thus be two
and one-half times as heavy as water. Each aggregate particle is made up of solid matter and voids
that may or may not contain water. Because the aggregate mass varies with its moisture content,
specific gravity is determined at fixed moisture content. Four moisture conditions are defined for
aggregates depending on the amount of water held in the pores or on the surface of the particles.
1. Damp or wet: Aggregate in which the pores connected to the surface are filled with water and
with free water also on the surface.
2. Saturated surface-dry: Aggregate in which the pores connected to the surface are filled with
water but with no free water on the surface.
3. Air-dry: Aggregate that has a dry surface but contains some water in the pores.
4. Oven-dry: Aggregate that contains no water in the pores or on the surface.
The volume of the aggregate particle is usually assumed to be the volume of solid matter and
internal pores. Two different values of specific gravity may be calculated depending on whether
the mass used is an oven-dry or a saturated surface- dry mass. Bulk specific gravity is the oven-
dry mass divided by the mass of a volume of water equal to the SSD aggregate volume; while
SSD bulk specific gravity is the saturated surface-dry mass divided by the mass of a volume of
water equal to the SSD aggregate volume. Most normal weight aggregates
haveabulkspecificgravitySSDbetween2.4and2.9.
Significance of specific gravity: The specific gravity of an aggregate is used in mixture

proportioning calculations to find the absolute volume that a given mass of material will occupy

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in the mixture. Absolute volume of an aggregate refers to the space occupied by the aggregate
particles alone; that is, the volume of solid matter and internal aggregate pores, excluding the
voids between particles.
2.4.3. Absorption and surface moisture
Mixing water and water-cementitious material ratio: The mixing water in a batch of concrete is
all the water present in the concrete, with the exception of absorbed water within aggregate
particles. Mixing water is the sum of the masses of free or surface moisture on the fine and coarse
aggregate and the mass of water added separately, such as through a water meter or weigh
batcher at the plant or through a truck mixer water system or added to the mixer in some other
way. Mixing water is the water in freshly mixed sand-cement grout, mortar, or concrete exclusive
of any previously absorbed by the aggregate.The w/cm is the mass ratio of mixing water to
cementitious material. In the paste, this ratio was frequently expressed in gallons of water per sack
of cement (usually Portland cement). Today, most specifying agencies express required quantities
of cementitious material (Portland cement or blended cement plus any separately batched
supplementary cementitious materials) and water in kg or lb, and w/cm as a decimal fraction by
mass, kg of water divided by kg of cementitious material, or lb of water divided by lb of
cementitious material.
Absorption and total moisture content: to calculate the mixing water content of concrete, the
absorption of the aggregates and their total moisture contents must be known. Absorption is
computed as a percentage by subtracting the oven-dry mass from the saturated surface-dry mass,
dividing by the oven-dry mass, and multiplying by 100. In concrete technology, aggregate
moisture is expressed as a percent of the dry weight of the aggregate. Absorption is a measure of
the total pore volume accessible to water, and is usually calculated using the results from a
specific gravity determination.
Total moisture content is measured in accordance with ASTM C 566, ―Total Moisture Content of
Aggregate by Drying, ‖by measuring the mass of a sample of the aggregate representative of the
moisture content in the supply being tested, drying the sample, and obtaining the mass again.
Surface moisture content: Surface or free moisture content of an aggregate can be determined by
subtracting the absorption from the total moisture content. If an aggregate is air-dry (surface is

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dry but pores are partially filled with water),the total moisture content is less than the absorption
and the surface moisture content has a negative value. This means that the aggregate will absorb
water when mixed in concrete. This can cause unexpectedly rapid slump loss in the concrete if a
significant amount of water is absorbed into the aggregate. For aggregates with unusually high
absorption that are batched in an unusually dry state, water equal to the amount absorbed should be
added to maintain the intended w/cm and consistency.
2.4.4. Silt Content
Sand which is a product of natural or artificial disintegration of rocks and minerals is obtained
from glacial, river, lake, marine, residual and wind-blown deposits. These deposits however do
not only provide sand but also contain other materials such as dust, loam and clay that are finer
than sand. The presence of such materials in sand used to make concrete or mortar decreases the
bond between the materials to be bound together and hence the strength of the mixture. The finer
particles do not only decrease the strength but also the quality of the mixture produced resulting
in fast deterioration. Therefore it is necessary that one make a test on the silt content and checks
against permissible limits.
A simple test which can be made on site to give a guide to the amount of silt in natural sand is the
„field settling‟ test. This test is based on the fact that large heavy particle will settle rapidly in
water while small light particle will settle most slowly. This test is only fit for normal sand and
should not be used for crushed rock sands.
The British and American standards limit the clay and silt content not to be more than 3% of the
total weight of the fine aggregate. Unlike these standard limits the Ethiopian standard gives more
allowance by about 3% more. According to the Ethiopian standard it is recommended to wash the
sand or reject it if the silt content exceeds a value of 6 %. (Abebe, 2002)
2.5. Proportioning of Ingredients in Making Concrete
The key in achieving a strong, durable concrete rests in the careful proportioning and mixing of
the ingredients. A concrete mixture that does not have enough paste to fill all the voids between
the aggregates will be difficult to place and will produce rough, honeycombed surfaces and

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porous concrete. A mixture with an excess of cement paste will be easy to place and will produce
a smooth surface; however, the resulting concrete is likely to shrink more and be uneconomical.
2.6. Sampling of aggregates

There are different methods of mix designing such as: Arbitrary proportion, fineness modulus
method, and maximum density method, high strength concrete mix design, mix design based on
flexural strength,ACI Committee 211 method, DOE method, and mix design for pumpable
concrete. Out of the above methods, some of them are not very widely used these days because of
some difficulties or drawbacks in the procedures for arriving at the satisfactory proportions.ACI
committee 211 method and DOE methods are commonly used.
There are different methods of mix designing such as: Arbitrary proportion, fineness modulus
method, and maximum density method, high strength concrete mix design, mix design based on
flexural strength, ACI Committee 211 method, DOE method, and mix design for pump able
concrete. Out of the above methods, some of them are not very widely used these days because of
some difficulties or drawbacks in the procedures for arriving at the satisfactory proportions. ACI
committee 211 method and DOE methods are commonly used. (Shetty, 2008)
2.6.1. Definition
A sample is a small portion of a larger volume or group of materials such as a stockpile, batch,
carload, or truckload about which information is wanted. Sampling is the process of obtaining
samples. The properties of the sample are considered to represent the properties of the largerunit
from which it is taken.
2.6.2. Sampling methods
Samples should preferably be taken from conveyor belts or flowing aggregate streams, but may
also be taken from stockpiles.
Sampling from stock piles should be used when the sampling is done for the purpose of
determining aggregate properties that may depend on the grading of the sample. When samples
must be obtained from a stockpile, it is necessary to design a sampling plan for the specific case
under consideration.

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2.6.3. Number and size of field samples
The required number of field samples depends on the importance and variability of the
properties to be measured.
The required size of field samples must be based on the type and number of tests to which the
material is to be subjected. Minimum sample size varies with nominal maximum size of the
aggregate is given in Table 4 below.
Table 4 : Minimum sample sizes of different size of aggregate
Size of samples
Nominal maximum Approximate minimum mass of field
size of aggregates samples, kg (lb)
Fine aggregate
2.36 mm (No. 8) 10 (25)
4.75 mm (No. 4) 10 (25)
Coarse aggregate
9.5 mm (3/8 in.) 10 (25)
12.5 mm (1/2 in.) 15 (35)
19.0 mm (3/4 in.) 25 (55)
25.0 mm (1 in.) 50 (110)
37.5 mm (1-1/2 in.) 75 (165)
50 mm (2 in.) 100 (220)
63 mm (2-1/2 in.) 125 (275)
75 mm (3 in.) 150 (330)
90 mm (3-1/2 in.) 175 (385)
2.6.4. Sample containers

If samples are to be shipped to a laboratory for testing, the container should be clean, as even
small amounts of some materials (such as those that adhere to sugar or fertilizer sacks) may
represent serious contamination. Also, the container should be tightly sealed to prevent loss of
fine sand external contamination. The sample should be identified clearly, inside and outside the
container, along within formation giving the date of sampling, the kind of aggregate sampled, the

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quantity represented by the sample, the location and other conditions of sampling, the specifying
authority or reason for test, and the kind of test desired.
2.7. Other materials in concrete
2.7.1. Portland cement

Cement in general can be described as a material with adhesive and cohesive prosperities which
make it capable of bonding mineral fragments into a hard continuous compact mass(Nevielle,
1985)
Though there are various types of cements used for concrete production, Portland cement is the
one which is commonly used in Ethiopia for concrete production.
Portland cement is one of the Hydraulic cements which are capable of setting and hardening
under water.
The principal raw materials used in the manufacture of cement are:-
1. Argillaceous or silicates of alumina in the form of clays and shales.

2. Calcareous, or calcium carbonate, in the form of limestone and.(Abebe, 2002)
Chemical composition of Portland cement
The major constituents of raw materials used in Portland cement production; mainly, lime, silica,
alumina and iron oxide compounds interact with one another in the kiln to form a series of more
complex products, Which are usually regarded as the major constituents of cement. These are the
tricalcium silicate (C3S), Dicalcium silicate (C2S), tricalcium aluminate (C3A) and tetracalcium
alumino ferite or iron compound (C4AF). Table 5below gives approximate oxide composition
limits of Portland cement.(Nevielle, 1985)

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Table 5: Approximate oxide composition limits of Portland cement.(Nevielle, 1985)
Oxide Content in percent

CaO 60 -67
SiO2 17-25
Al2O3 3-8
Fe2O3 0.5 - 6
MgO 0.1 - 4.0
A1kalis 0.2 - 1.3
SO3 1-3
Hydration of cement
Hydration is the reaction in which cement becomes a bonding agent takes place in a water cement
paste or the process in which in the presence of water, the silicates and aluminate compounds of
cement form products of hydration, which in time produce a firm and hard mass.(Nevielle, 1985)
Hydration is fast during the first few minutes of mixing and decreases continuously with time.
Because of reduction in rate of hydration even after a long time there remains an appreciated
amount of unhydrated cement. Hence there is hydration at any time after hardening of concrete
though it is at a very lower rate.(Nevielle, 1985)
The various compounds of cements mentioned previously has different rate of hydration, the rate
of hydrations of C4AF is higher than the three major compounds of cement. C3A has higher rate
than C3S and C2S; and C3S has higher rate of hydration than C2S.(Nevielle, 1985)
The hydration products of the major cement compounds, C3S and C2S, gives calcium silicate
hydrates which is commonly designated as C-S-H. This hydrate product determines the basic
physical properties of concrete such as setting and strength gain.(Nevielle, 1985)
The hydration of C3A cement is fast and violent in comparison to the other cement compounds
and it leads to immediate stiffening of the paste, known as flash set. To prevent this from
happening gypsum is used which reacts with C3A and forms in soluble calcium sulphoaluminate
by protecting the direct reaction of water and C3A.(Nevielle, 1985)

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The presence of C3A in cement is undesirable, it contributes little or nothing to the strength of
cement at early ages, and when hardened cement paste is attacked by sulphates, expansion due to
the formation of calcium sulphoaluminates from C3A may result in a disruption of the hardened
paste. However, C3A & C4AF acts as a flux and thus reduces the temperature of burning of
clinker and facilitates the combination of lime & silica, hence they are useful in the production of
cement.(Nevielle, 1985)
As per the Ethiopian standard, the percentage by mass of SO3 in port land cement is limited to
3% if the C3A content is limited to 8% or less and to 3.5%.when C3A exceeds 8 percent.
However; its content in Portland pozzolana cement is 3 percent which is independent of the C3A
content.(Standard, 1990)
2.7.2. Water
Water is the most important and least expensive ingredient of concrete. A part of mixing water is
used in the hydration of cement to form the binding matrix.
The remaining serves as a lubricant between fine and coarse aggregate and makes concrete
workable.
Cement requires around 30% of its weight of water for hydration. But concrete containing water
in this proportion will be very harsh and difficult to place.
Hence additional water is required for workability. However; if this additional water is present in
excess, will pose a problem. Therefore it must be kept to the minimum. The problems associated
with too much water in the mix are, reduction in strength, formation of laitance on surfaces of
concrete through bleeding. The excess water may also leak through the joints of the formwork
and make the concrete honeycombed.(Gambhir, 2002)
Quality of mixing water
The water used for mixing and curing of concrete should be free of materials that significantly
affect concrete quality like rate of hardening, strength and durability of concrete, or which
promote efflorescence or the rusting of steel reinforcement. Potable water is generally considered
satisfactory for mixing concrete. In the case of doubt about the suitability of water particularly

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inremote areas, where water is derived from sources of normally utilized for domestic purpose,
water should be tested.(Gambhir, 2002)
Impurities in water which affect concrete Properties
The effects of impurities present in mixing water are mainly expressed in terms of the difference
of the setting times and strength of cement mixes containing impure mixing water as compared to
clean fresh water or distilled water. The effluents from sewerage works, gas works, and from
paint, textile, sugar and fertilizer industry are harmful to concrete. Tests show that water
containing excessive amounts of dissolved salts reduces compressive strength by 10 to 30 percent
of that obtained using fresh water.(Gambhir, 2002)
Deleterious substances which affect both the fresh and hardened quality of concrete that could
possibly be found in impure water like silt, clay, acids, alkalis, algae, inorganic salts and sugars
should be within the permissible limits so that concrete quality shouldn‘t be adversely affected.
Generally, the PH value of water which is suitable for concrete construction has to be in the range
of 6 to 8. The water which is fit for drinking purposes is fit for concrete production. Table 6
shows the limits set for impurities in mixing water.
Table 6: Limits of permissible impurities in water (Gambhir, 2002)
Type of impurities Permissible Permissible percentage of

solids by weight of water
Organic 0.02
Inorganic 0.3
Sulphates 0.05
Alkali chlorides For plain concrete 0.2
For reinforced concrete 0.1
Curing Water
The water which is satisfactory for mixing purpose can also be used for curing. Curing water
should not produce any objectionable stain or unsightly deposit on the surface. Iron and organic
matter in the water are chiefly responsible for staining or discoloration and especially when

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concrete is subjected to prolonged wetting, even a very low concentration of these can cause
staining.(Gambhir, 2002)
2.8. Properties of Concrete
Properties of concrete are classified in to two: fresh concrete properties and hardened concrete
properties. Those are workability, durability, compressive strength, tensile strength and etc. The
focus point of this research is to assess the compressive strength.
2.8.1. Workability
Different scholars in the field of concrete define workability in different ways. In this part some
of the definitions of workability defined by different people and organizations will be discussed.
 Workability can be defined as the amount of useful internal work necessary to produce
full compaction.(Glanville, 1947).
 The ASTM C125 defines workability as property determining the effort required to
manipulate a freshly mixed quality of concrete with minimum loss of homogeneity.
 The ACI 116R-90 is that property of freshly mixed concrete or mortar which determines
the ease and homogeneity with which it can be mixed, placed, consolidated and finished.
 The ease of placing, consolidating, and finishing freshly mixed concrete and the degree to
which it resists segregation is called workability. Concrete should be workable but the
ingredients should not separate during transport and handling. The degree of workability
required for proper placement of concrete is controlled by the placement method, type of
consolidation, and type of concrete. Different types of placements require different levels
of workability.(Kosmatka, 2002)
Factor affecting workability of concrete
a. Water content
The amount of water mixed with the concrete determines the strength of the hardened paste. The
use of too much mixing water will thin or dilute the fresh cement paste and weaken its cementing
properties when hard. Consequently, it will be readily seen that the strength and quality of
concrete depend primarily upon the quality and quantity of water mixed with the cement. The

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relation between the amounts of water and cement used in a mixture is called the water-cement
ratio.
The higher the water content per cubic meter of concrete, the higher will be the fluidity of
concrete, which is one of the important factors affecting workability. The main factor is water
content of the mix, expressed in kilograms of water per cubic meter of concrete.
This indicates that the amount of water added to the concrete mix will affect the workability and
the final output of the concrete compressive strength. This is therefore; care should be taken
during preparation of a concrete mix.
b. Grading, shape, size and surface texture of aggregates
The particle shape and surface texture of an aggregate influence the properties of freshly mixed
concrete more than the properties of hardened concrete. Rough-textured, angular, elongated
particle‘s require more water to produce workable concrete than do smooth, rounded, compact
aggregates. Hence, aggregate particles that are angular require more cement to maintain the same
water cement ratio. However, with satisfactory gradation, both crushed and non-crushed
aggregates (of the same rock types) generally give essentially the same strength for the same
cement factor. Angular or poorly graded aggregates can be more difficult to pump.
c. Entrained air
Entrained air improves the workability of concrete. It is particularly effective in lean (low cement
content) mixes that otherwise might be harsh and difficult to work.
Workability of mixes with angular and poorly graded aggregates is similarly improved. Because
of improved workability with entrained air, water and sand content can be reduced significantly.
A volume of air-entrained concrete requires less water than an equal volume of non-air-entrained
concrete of the same consistency and maximum size aggregate.
Freshly mixed concrete containing entrained air is cohesive, looks and feels fatty or workable,
and can usually be handled with ease; on the other hand, high air contents can make a mixture
sticky and more difficult to finish. Entrained air also reduces segregation and bleeding in freshly
mixed and placed concrete.

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2.8.2. Strength of concrete
Strength is defined as the ability of a material to resist stress without failure. The strength of
concrete is commonly considered to be its most valuable property. It usually gives an overall
picture of the quality of a concrete because strength is directly related to the structure of the
hydrated cement paste. Moreover, the strength of concrete is almost invariably a vital element in
structural design and is specified for compliance purposes.(Glanville, 1947)
Compressive strength is considered to be the most important mechanical property of concrete. In

most structural applications, concrete is employed primarily to resist compressive stresses.
Compressive strength is generally used as a measure of the overall quality of a concrete.
Factors Affecting Concrete Strength
a. Quality of Water
Water is an important ingredient of concrete. Part of mixing water is utilized in the hydration of
cement and the balance of water is required for imparting workability to concrete. Thus the
quantity and quality of water is required to be looked into very carefully. The strength and
durability of concrete is reduced due to the presence of chemical impurities in water. Most of the
specifications recommended the use of potable water for making concrete.
Neville A. M. specified that, drinking water may be unsuitable as mixing water when the water
contains a high concentration of sodium or potassium which leads to danger of alkali-aggregate
reaction. While the use of potable water is generally safe, water not fit for drinking may also be
satisfactorily used in making concrete. As a rule, any water with pH of 6.0 to 8.0 which does not
taste saline or brackish is suitable for use. Color and odor do not necessarily mean that,
deleterious substances are present in water. Natural waters that are slightly acidic are harmless,
but water containing organic acids may adversely affect the strength of concrete.
Therefore, the quality of water used for concrete making should be given due attention to
maintain service life of the structural member of building and concrete pavement.

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b. Effects of aggregate type, size, and content on concrete strength
Aggregates contribute the significant proportion of strength possessed by concrete due to its
higher modulus of elasticity as compared to the cement paste.
Fine and coarse aggregates make about 70% by volume of concrete production. The quality of
concrete is strongly influenced by aggregate‘s physical and mechanical properties as well as
chemical composition of the parent aggregate making material.
Aggregate type has effect on the compressive strength of normal concrete. Highest compressive
strength was achieved from concrete containing crushed quartzite, followed by concrete
containing river gravel. Concrete containing crushed granite shows the least strength
development at all ages.(Mansur, 2016)
2.9. Economy in concrete
2.9.1. Minimizing Concrete Costs
The most expensive ingredient in concrete is the cement, so minimizing concrete costs means
minimizing the amount of cement.
Ideally, each piece of fine or coarse aggregate should be totally surrounded by cement paste and
all the voids between aggregate particles should be filled in. The former depends on the specific
surface of the aggregate and the latter depends on the void content of the aggregate.
Specific surface is surface area per unit volume. In general, specific surface increases with:
1. decreasing particle size (because surface area varies with the square of particle size while
volume varies with the cube of particle size),
2. increasing aggregate angularity (a sphere uses the least surface area to enclose a given
volume),
3. increasing surface roughness (a rough surface texture wastes a lot of surface area while
covering the same volume as a smooth surface)
Therefore, using large, round aggregate such as river gravel minimize the amount of cement
needed. Unfortunately, there are limits on the amount by which you can reduce the surface area

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because low surface are a typically means low strength. The weak point in most concrete is the
strength of the cement-aggregate bond. By increasing the surface area available for bonding, you
increase the amount of load you can apply to the concrete before exceeding the bond strength.
That‘s why mortar is stronger than concrete. Eliminating the coarse aggregate, can increase the
specific surface of the aggregate and increase the area of the bonding interface. That leaves void
content as the next path to reduce cement content. There are actually two void contents. The void
content of the coarse aggregate determines the amount of mortar (sand + cement paste) per unit
volume of concrete. While the void content of the fine aggregate determines the amount of
cement paste needed per unit volume of mortar. Each depends on the gradation of the aggregate
and the angularity of the aggregate. a random assemblage of angular aggregate generally has a
higher void content than a random assemblage of rounded aggregate.
Just as there are limitations on the amount by which you can reduce surface area before adversely
affecting strength, there are limitations on the amount by which you can decrease void content
before adversely affecting workability.
You need enough mortar to push the coarse aggregate particles apart so they‘ll slide past each
other more easily and you need enough cement paste to push the sand particles apart so they‘ll
slide past each other more easily.
2.9.2. Maximizing Strength
In normal concrete, the aggregate is far stronger than the cement paste, so the strength of the
cement paste controls the strength of the concrete. Believe it or not, the strength of the cement
paste is determined almost entirely by the volume of air entrained in the paste.
Once ingredients are chosen (gravel, sand, cement, admixtures, etc.), the two things that most
influence the amount of air in the mix are the water/cement ratio and the degree of consolidation
of the fresh concrete.
Theoretically, different number of w/c ratio is required for complete hydration of the cement
based on the strength required. If the w/c ratio is greater than the number, not all of the water is
consumed during hydration. The excess water (called un reacted water) eventually evaporates,
leaving behind microscopic air voids. The result is a relatively porous cement paste that has less

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internal strength and less bond strength. If the w/c ratio is less than the number, some of the
cement remains unhydrated and acts, instead, like extremely fine aggregate. The cement that does
hydrate is just as strong as when the w/c ratio is the number and, providing you have enough
cement paste to go around, the leftover cement particles create a denser aggregate gradation and
more surface area for cement bonding, resulting in increased strength.
The increased strength produced by low w/c ratios may not be fully realized if the mix cannot be
properly consolidated. Initially, there are lots of air voids between the cement, sand, and gravel
particles. If enough water is added, almost all of that air is displaced by the water, leaving very
little air in the mix. At low w/c ratios, though, some of the air remains trapped in the mix because
there‘s just not enough water to displace all of the air. The remaining air must be forced out of
the concrete by enticing the concrete to consolidate under its own weight. On the job site, this is
often done using vibrators. In the laboratory, hand compaction (rodding) is not nearly as good as
vibration at forcing the trapped air out of the mix, so laboratory beams and cylinders can have a
higher air content than concrete placed in the field.
2.9.3. Factors that affect the cost of aggregate

There are three important criteria that should be applied in the selection of economical
aggregates. First, the material selected as aggregate should facilitate the workability of fresh
concrete. This is because the size and gradation of the aggregate has impact on the workability of
fresh concrete. Second, the strength and durability of aggregates should be taken into account
during the selection process. In other words, aggregates should not contain impurities, and it
should resist weathering process. Lastly, the selection of aggregates should be economical. When
aggregates are selected from local and easily accessible quarry, the cost is substantially reduced.
It has to be, however, well graded in order to minimize paste. Aggregates provide relatively
cheap filler and it is advisable to use as much aggregates as possible in a given amount of paste
will bind together. This enables to cut down unnecessary costs incurred for cement. In addition to
being relatively cheap fillers, the aggregates reduce the change in volume resulting from the
setting and hardening process and from moisture change in the paste(Admasu, 2015)

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3. MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1. Methodology
To attain the stated objectives, the research basically focuses on laboratory investigations of
concrete samples prepared from each sand source. The specimens are prepared in such a way that
virtually everything other than the sand is kept identical for all the samples. This includes the
types of coarse aggregates, cement and water to be used in the preparation of the mixes, the
condition of the aggregates prior to mixing, the mix proportions, duration of mixing the
ingredients, compaction effort during casting and the subsequent curing conditions. Also to keep
the external conditions during mixing and casting the same, the activities were conducted at
specific time of the day every day.
The British DOE method was used in determining the mix proportions after all the required
parameters have been obtained a priori. Normal (C-25) strength concretes were selected and trial
mixes were prepared. Trial mixes were conducted in such a way that if the compressive tests
were satisfied by at least one type of sand, the same cement content will be used for all the other
mixes and their subsequent compressive strengths reported alongside. In preparing the trial
mixes, it was attempted to avoid the use of admixtures and Normal tap water was used for all the
mixes of course. All this is done to emulate the practice in the field as much as practicable, so
that the results could closely signify what the actual practice yields.
Subsequent curing was carried out in a curing tank for 28 days to avoid minor discrepancies from
the shortening of the curing period. The specimens are then kept inside the laboratory till the tests
are conducted.
The specimens are prepared by considering weather condition. This is because of the mining and
transportation cost was different at rainy and dry weather condition.
All Physical tests of the materials and compressive strength tests were carried out in Madda
Walabu University, construction materials laboratory.
Parallel to preparing the specimens and conducting the laboratory tests, background study was
also conducted in the form of literature reviews so as to correlate the expected results with their
actual physical significance. In view of this, a number of textbooks and researches conducted in
related areas have been reviewed. In addition to this all quarry sites are visited and necessary data
are collected.

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4. DATA ANALYSIS, RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1. Tests for aggregates
4.1.1. Introduction
Concrete is basically a mixture of two components: aggregates and paste. The paste, comprised
of cement and water, binds the aggregates (usually sand and gravel or crushed stone) into a
rocklike mass as the paste hardens because of the chemical reaction of the cement and
Supplementary cementations materials and chemical admixtures may also be included in the
paste. Aggregates are generally divided into two groups: fine and course aggregates. Fine
aggregates consist of natural or manufactured sand with particle sizes ranging up to 9.5 mm (3⁄8
in.); coarse aggregates are particles retained on the 4.75 mm (No. 16) sieve. The maximum size
of coarse aggregate is typically 19 mm or 25 mm (3⁄4 in. or 1 in.). An intermediate-sized
aggregate, around 9.5 mm (3⁄8 in.), is sometimes added to improve the overall aggregate
gradation. The paste is composed of cementations materials, water, and entrapped air or
purposely entrained air. The paste constitutes about 25% to 40% of the total volume of concrete.
The absolute volume of cement is usually between 7% and 15% and the water between 14% and
21%. The range of air content in air-entrained concrete is from 4% to 8% of the volume. Since
aggregates make up about 60% to 75% of the total volume of concrete, their selection is
important. Aggregates should consist of particles with adequate strength and resistance to
exposure conditions and should not contain materials that will cause deterioration of the concrete.
A continuous gradation of aggregate particle sizes is desirable for efficient use of the paste. The
quality of the concrete depends upon the quality of the paste and aggregate, and the bond between
the two. In properly made concrete, each and every particle of aggregate is completely coated
with paste and all of the spaces between aggregate particles are completely filled with paste. For
any particular set of materials and conditions of curing, the quality of hardened concrete is
strongly influenced by the amount of water used in relation to the amount of cement.
Unnecessarily high water contents dilute the cement paste (the glue of concrete).
The less water used, the better the quality of the concrete-provided the mixture can be
consolidated properly.

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4.1.2. Particle size analysis
Sieve Analysis is a procedure for the determination of the particle size distribution of aggregates
using a series of square or round openings stating with the largest. It is used to determine the
grading or aggregate and the fineness modulus, an index to the fineness and coarseness and
uniformity of aggregates. It is after this analysis is carried out that aggregates are described as
well graded, poorly graded, uniformly graded, gap graded, etc. each of the above aggregate
categories has close association with a range of quality of concrete produced using the aggregate.
(Abebe, 2002)
Sieve analysis tests are done to determine the particle size distribution of coarse and fine
aggregates. The particle size distribution of aggregates has a significant role in the amount of
cement paste required in concrete mixes. Densely graded aggregates have lower voids and
require less volume of cement paste. Economy can be achieved by using densely graded
aggregates than openly graded aggregates. The particle size analysis results of fine aggregates are
used in deciding the amount of coarse and fine aggregates to be used in concrete mixes. For
example, DOE uses the percentage of fine aggregates that passes through 600μm sieve to
determine the amount of fine aggregate to be used in concrete mixes. ACI uses the fineness
modulus of fine aggregates to determine the amount of coarse aggregate in a concrete mix.
Fine aggregate particle size analysis
To determine particle size distribution for fine aggregate, 2kg of fine aggregate is taken and
quartered. Then the weight empty sieves are recorded and put the pan on the sieve shaker and put
the other sieves into the pan according to increasing opening size. Then 500gm of quartered
aggregate is placed on the top sieve and shake for 2 min by using sieve shaker. Finally, the
weight of aggregate retained on each sieve is recorded to determine fineness modulus.
In this research, sands taken from Langano, Dallo, and Asasa quarry sites are examined and
particle size distributions are determined as follows. The test result for Langano, Dallo, and
Asasa are summarized in table 7, 8 and 9 respectively.

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Table 7: Test results of Fine aggregate grading for sand of Langano quarry site
sieve Weight Weight of Weight of Percentage Cumulative Cumulative

size of Sieve + sand sand Retained percentage passing (%)
(mm) sieve(gm.) retained(gm.) retained(gm.) (%) retained (%)
9.5 0 0 0 0 100
4.75 451.5 456.125 4.63 0.92 0.92 99.08
2.36 392.1 410.7 18.6 3.72 4.64 95.36
1.18 373.5 454.275 80.78 16.14 20.78 79.22
0.6 315.7 492.4 176.7 35.30 56.08 43.92
0.3 282.3 416.225 133.93 26.75 82.83 17.17
0.15 265.5 324.15 58.65 11.72 94.55 5.45
pan 371.7 399 27.3 5.45 100 0
sum 500.58 259.8
Table 8: Test results of Fine aggregate grading for sand of Dallo quarry site

9.5 0 0 0 100
4.75 451.5 503.3 12.95 2.59 2.59 97.41
2.36 392.1 435.2 10.78 2.16 4.75 95.25
1.18 373.5 518 36.13 7.24 11.99 88.01
600 315.7 1050.6 183.73 36.80 48.79 51.21
300 282.3 919.3 159.25 31.90 80.69 19.31
150 265.5 533.8 67.075 13.43 94.12 5.88
pan 371.7 489.1 29.35 5.88 100 0
Sum 499.25 242.93

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Table 9: Test results of Fine aggregate grading for sand of Asasa quarry site

9.5 0 0 0 0 100
4.75 451.5 463.25 11.75 2.35 2.35 97.65
2.36 392.1 436.5 44.4 8.89 11.24 88.76
1.18 373.5 521.3 147.8 29.59 40.83 59.17
600 315.7 417.375 101.675 20.36 61.19 38.81
300 282.3 389.275 106.975 21.42 82.61 17.39
150 265.5 313.525 48.025 9.61 92.22 7.78
pan 371.7 410.575 38.875 7.78 100 0
Sum 499.5 290.44
Calculations
Weight of sand retained (gm.) =Weight of Sieve + sand retained (gm.) - Weight Of sieve (gm.)
Percentage Retained (%) =
Cumulative percentage retained (%) =∑
Cumulative passing (%) =100- Cumulative percentage retained (%)
Fineness modulus =∑ /100
Now the values of cumulative passing are compared with the lower and the upper limit of
standard as shown in table 10.

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Table 10: comparison of cumulative passing values of sands with upper and lower limits.
Sieve size Langano Dallo Asasa Lower limit Upper limit

(mm)
9.5 100 100 100 100 100
4.75 97.65 97.41 97.65 95 100
2.36 88.76 95.25 88.76 80 100
1.18 59.17 88.01 59.17 55 85
600 38.81 51.21 38.81 25 60
300 17.40 19.31 17.39 5 30
150 7.79 5.88 7.78 0 10
pan 0 0 0
FM 2.6 2.43 2.9 2.3 3.1
The values in column 2, 3 and 4 are compared to the values in columns 5 and 6 to check whether
the fine aggregate satisfies the specification requirements. The aggregate under consideration
totally falls within the limits of the specification which implies it can be used for concrete
construction if the AASHTO standard is used as acceptance criteria. AASHTO M6 specifies a
fineness modulus value between 2.3 and 3.1 for acceptance of the material.
Particle size analysis for coarse Aggregate
The particle size analysis was conducted by following the procedures in ASTM C 136. A 20mm
nominal maximum size coarse aggregate is selected and the particle size distribution test is done
to check whether the material satisfies the grading requirements stipulated in ASTM C 33 for size
number 57. 20 kg of sample is taken and quartered. Then from quartered sample 20 kg of sample
is taken and put on sieves and shaked about 2min. finally record the weight of aggregate retained
on each sieve.
In this research, crushed coarse aggregate with 20mm nominal maximum size taken from
Shanaka quarry site is examined and particle size distributions are determined as shown in table
11.

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Table 11: Particle size distribution of 20mm nominal maximum size aggregate
Sieve size Weight Percentage Cumulative Cumulative lower Upper

(mm) Retained (gm) Retained (%) Coarser (%) Passing (%) limit limit
37.5 0 0.0 0.0 100.0 100 100

19 67.1 3.36 3.36 96.64 95 100
9.5 921.6 46.08 49.44 50.56 25 55
4.75 975.2 48.76 98.2 0.2 0 10
Pan 36.1 1.8 100
Total 2000 100 251.6
The grading of the aggregate (column 5) totally falls between the limits of specification provided
by ASTM C 33(columns 6 and 7) which shows the aggregate is of good quality if the ASTM
standards are referred.
4.1.3. Specific gravity and water absorption of aggregates
Absorption is the process by which water is drawn into and tends to fill the permeable pores in a
porous solid body.
The specific gravity of a substance is the ratio between the weight of the substance that of the
same volume of water. This definition assumes that the substance is solid throughout.
Aggregates, however, aggregates have pores that are both permeable and impermeable; whose
structure (size, number, and continuity pattern) affects water absorption, permeability, and
specific gravity of the aggregates.
To determine specific gravity of aggregate, approximately 5kg of the aggregate is selected, by

using a sample splitter or by quartering from the sample. And all material passing No.4 (4.75mm)
are rejected. After the dusts are removed by washing, the sample is dried at a temperature of
1050C and cooled at room temperature for 1 to 3 hours and immersed in water for 24 hours. After
that the sample is removed from water dried by using absorbent clothes until all visible films of
water are removed and Weigh the sample in the saturated-surface-dry condition and record
(B).Immediately place the saturated-surface-dry sample in the sample container and determine its
weight in water at room temperature(C). finally, dry the sample to constant weight at a

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temperature of 11 0±5°C, cool in air at room temperature 1 to 3hrs, and weigh (A). Table 12
summarizes test results for computation of Specific gravity & absorption of Coarse aggregate
Table 12: Test results for computation of Specific gravity & absorption of Coarse aggregate
Condition of aggregate Mass(g)

A = weight of oven-dry sample in air, 5000
B = weight of saturated – surface – dry sample in air 5078.7
C = weight of saturated sample in water 3227.58
Calculations
Bulk specific gravity= = 2.7
Bulk Specific Gravity (Saturated surface dry basis)
Apparent Specific Gravity
In the computation of quantities for concrete mixes it is the specific gravity of saturated surface
dry aggregates that is always used. The specific gravity of few types rocks are given table 13.
Table 13: Specific gravity of different resources
Rock group Average Range

Basalt 2.8 2.7 – 2.9
Granite 2.69 2.6 – 2.7
Lime stone/firm/ 2.66 2.5 – 2.8
Quartz 2.62 2.6 –2.7
Source: Property of concrete Navel, 1994
The rock used for fine aggregate is basalt. As it can be seen from the test result, the rock has
lower density when compared with the average value.
Absorption Capacity
The absorption capacity is measure of the porosity of an aggregate.

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Absorption Capacity
The test results in table 14 are used to calculate Bulk specific gravity, Bulk Specific gravity
(Saturated-Surface-Dry Basis) and Absorption.
Table 14: Test results for computation of Specific gravity & absorption of Fine aggregates
Langano Asasa Dallo

weight of pycnometer(W) 403g 403g 403g
volume of flask/container(V) 1000ml 1000ml 1000ml
volume of water added to pycnometer (Va) 782ml 788ml 805ml
weight of oven dry sample in air(A) 497.5g 496.3g 493.2g
Calculations
B=0.9976V+W
Bulk specific gravity=
Bulk Specific gravity (Saturated-Surface-Dry Basis) =
Absorption ( ) = *100
Langano sand
C 0.9976*782+500+403 1683.12g
B=0.9976*1000+403=1400.6g
Bulk specific gravity= 497.5/ (1400.6+500-1683.12) =2.29
Bulk Specific gravity (Saturated-Surface-Dry Basis) =500/ (1400.6+500-1683.12) =2.31
Absorption (%) = (500-497.5)/497.5*100%=0.5%

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Asasa sand
C=0.9976*788+500+403=1689.11g
B=0.9976*1000+403=1400.6g
Absorption (%) = (500-496.3)/496.3*100%=0.75%
Dallo sand
C=0.9976*805+500+403=1706.07g
B=0.9976*1000+403=1400.6g
Absorption (%) = (500-463.2)/493.2*100%=1.38%
In the computation of quantities for concrete mixes it is the specific gravity of saturated surface
dry aggregates that is always used.
4.1.4. Moisture content of aggregates
It is well known that water – cement ratio affects the workability and strength of concrete
specimens. A design water – cement ratio is usually specified based on the assumption that
aggregates are inert (neither absorb nor give water to the mixture). But in most cases aggregates
from different sources do not comply with this i.e. wet aggregate give water to the mix and drier
aggregates (with those below saturation level moisture content) take water from the mix
affecting, in both cases, the design water – cement ratio and therefore workability and strength of
the mix. In order to correct for these discrepancies, the moisture content of aggregates has to be

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determined. (Abebe, 2002). Table 15 shows Test results for the computation of moisture content
of coarse aggregate from shanaka quarry site.
Table 15: Test results for the computation of moisture content of coarse aggregate from
shanaka quarry site.
Aggregate condition Weight(g)

Original sample(A) 2000
Oven dry sample(B) 1974.24
Calculation:
Table: Test results for the computation of moisture content of fine aggregates
Aggregate condition Weight(g)

Langano Asasa Dallo
Original sample(A) 500 500 500
Oven dry sample(B) 497.72 496.35 494.73
Calculations:
Langano sand
Asasa sand
Dallo sand

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4.1.5. Silt Content
Sand is a product of natural or artificial disintegration of rocks and minerals. Sand is obtained
from river, lake, marine, residual and wind-blown (very fine sand) deposits. These deposits,
however, do not provide sand. They often contain other materials such as dust, loam and clay that
are finer than sand. The presence of such materials in sand used to make concrete or mortar
decreases the bond between the materials to be bound together and hence the strength of the
mixture. The finer particles do not only decrease the strength but also the quality of the mixture
produced resulting in fast deterioration. Therefore it is necessary that one make a test on the silt
content and checks against permissible limits.
The material in fine aggregates which is finer than 75μm is generally regarded as silt. The
presence of silt in sand which is used to make concrete has severe impact on the quality of the
resulting product. Mainly, it affects the workability and therefore, water-cement ratio of the mix
and it is also responsible for eventual concrete cracking.
A simple test which can be made on site to give a guide to the amount of silt in natural sand is the
‗field settling‘ test. This test should not be used for crushed rock sands.
According the Ethiopian standard it is recommended to wash the sand or reject if the silt content
exceeds a value of 6 %.(Abebe, 2002)
In laboratory, Silt content of the sand to be used in the mix was determined using the following
steps.30ml of sand is poured to the cylinder or jar having a capacity of greater than 100ml. Then
about ¾ of cylinder capacities of water is added and shake about minutes. After that the cylinder
left for an hour and the silt allowed settling on the layer of the sand. Finally the measurement of
separate layer formed on the washed sand is taken. Table 16 shows Test results for the
computation of silt content of fine aggregates

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Table 16: Test results for the computation of silt content of fine aggregates
Langano sand Asasa sand Dallo sand

Amount sand added to clean water(A) 30ml 30ml 30ml
Amount of clean sand deposited below water(B) 28.7 28.4 29.0
Calculations:
Silt content =
Langano sand =
Asasa sand=
Dallo sand=
All sand samples complied with Ethiopian standards and therefore can used without washing.
4.2. Tests for Cement
Portland cements are hydraulic cements composed primarily of hydraulic calcium silicates.
Hydraulic cements set and harden by reacting chemically with water. During this reaction, called
hydration, cement combines with water to form a stone like mass, called paste. When the paste
(cement and water) is added to aggregates (sand and gravel, crushed stone, or other granular
material) it acts as an adhesive and binds the aggregates together to form concrete, the world‘s
most versatile and most widely used construction material.
4.2.1. Normal consistency of Hydraulic cement
This test is carried out to determine the amount of water required to prepare a standard cement
paste.
Cement is a finally ground powder of chemically combined argillaceous materials (silica,

alumina) and calcareous materials (lime) with iron oxide, gypsum and small amount of other
ingredients. When mixed with water, cement sets and hardens into a solid mass upon hydration.

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The normal consistency of cement refers to the amount of water required to make a net paste of
satisfactory workability. It is determined using vicat apparatus. This apparatus measures the
resistance of the paste to the penetration of a plunger or needle of 300gm released at the surface
of the paste.
This test is carried out to determine the amount of water required to prepare a standard cement
paste. The usual range of water-cement ratio for normal consistency is between 26% and
33%.(Abebe, 2002). Based on this the Test results for computation of consistency of cement are
summarized in table 17
Table 17: Test results for computation of consistency of cement
Sample Weight of Weight of Penetration

cement, [gm.] water added, recorded
[gm.] [mm]
1 500 165 28.2
2 500 130 6.5
3 500 150 22.5
4 500 135 6.6
5 500 140 8.4
6 500 143 9.3
4.2.2. Setting time of hydraulic cement
Cement forms a solid and hard mass when mixed with water upon hydration. This phenomenon is
known as setting of cement. The duration of cement paste requires to undergo setting is setting
time. As setting is the consequence of hydration of cement, setting time is affected by the amount
of water used to prepare cement paste, i.e. its water – cement ratio. Cement pastes with different
water – cement ratio will, generally, have different setting times. Therefore its seems confusing,
at first, which setting time to use. As a convention, it is the setting time of cement paste with
normal consistency that is referred to as the setting time of cement.
Generally there are two types of setting time to be determined in the laboratory, initial and final
setting times. The initial setting time is the duration of cement paste related to 25mm penetration

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of the vicat needle in to the paste in 30 seconds after it is released while the final setting time is
that related to zero penetration of the vicat needle into the paste.
Ethiopian standard recommends that the initial setting time for cement not to be less than 45
minutes and the final setting time not to exceed 10hrs.(Abebe, 2002). Table 18 shows Test results
for setting time of cement
Table 18: Test results for setting time of cement

Time in(minute) 30 50 70 100 125 150 175 200 125 235
Penetration in (mm) 43 40 35 32 22 15 8 3 1 0
Initial setting time, which corresponds with 25 mm penetration, is 117.5 min (using interpolation)
and it is greater than 45 min which is specified in Ethiopian standard. And the final setting time is
235 min, which is less than the maximum limit (10hr. = 600min), which is specified by Ethiopian
standard. Therefore, the cement is good to be used.
4.3. Mix Design
Mix design can be defined as the process of selecting suitable ingredients of concrete and
determining their relative proportions with the object of producing concrete of certain minimum
strength and durability as economically as possible. For this experiment, design mix is done using
DOE method.
1. Characteristic strength = 25N/mm2 at 28 days,

Proportion defectives =5 %( assumption)
2. Standard deviation: three samples will be selected in single testing. The value of
standard deviation will adopted fromFigure 4.

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Figure 4Relationship between standard deviation and characteristic strength (Marsh, 1988)
From the graph, the value of standard deviation is 8N/mm2
3. Margin for mix design

As a result of the variability of concrete in production it is necessary to design the mix to have a
mean strength greater than the specified characteristic strength by an amount termed the margin.
Thus:fm= fc+ ks
Where fm = the target mean strength
fc = the specified characteristic strength
ks= the margin, which is the product of: s = the standard deviation, and k = a constant
The constant k is derived from the mathematics of the normal distribution and increases as the
proportion of defectives is decreased (Marsh, 1988), thus: k for 10% defectives = 1.28
k for 5% defectives = 1.64
k for 2.5% defectives = 1.96
k for 1% defectives = 2.33
Therefore; Margin = ks = 1.64*8N/mm2 = 13.12N/mm2

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4. Target mean strength

fm= fc+ ks = 25Nmm2 + 13.12 N/mm2
= 38.12N/mm2
5. Aggregate type
Coarse aggregate: coarse aggregate used in the test was Crushed aggregate.
Fine aggregate: all three fine aggregates used in test was uncrushed aggregate.
6. Free-water/cement ratio
A value is obtained from Table 19 for the strength of a mix made with a free-water/cement ratio
of 0.5 according to the specified age, the strength class of the cement and the aggregate to be
used. This strength value is then plotted on Figure 5 and a curve is drawn from this point and
parallel to the printed curves until it intercepts a horizontal line passing through the ordinate
representing the target mean strength. The corresponding value for the free-water/cement ratio
can then be read from the abscissa. This should be compared with any maximum free-
water/cement ratio that may be specified and the lower of these two values used.(B K Marsh,
1988)
Table 19 : Approximate compressive strengths (N/mm2) of concrete mixes made with a
free-water/cement ratio of 0.5(Marsh, 1988)
Cement Type of coarse Compressive strengths(N/mm2)

strength class aggregate Age (days)
3 7 28 91
42.5 Uncrushed 22 30 42 49
Crushed 27 36 49 56
52.5 Uncrushed 29 37 48 54
Crushed 34 43 55 61

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Figure 5Relationship between compressive strength and free-water/cement ratio (Marsh,

1988)
From the table, the value corresponding to given aggregate criteria and concrete age is 49N/mm2
Using this value and plotting curve from this point and parallel to the printed curves until it
intercepts a horizontal line passing through the ordinate representing the target mean strength of
38.12N/mm2 on Figure 5. Using this value the corresponding value for the free-water/cement
ratio is 0.57.
7. Choice of slump
For normal strength concrete, slump of 10-30mm is adopted.

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8. Maximum aggregate size

In this research, 20mm maximum aggregate size is used throughout the work.
9. Free water content

Free water content will determined from table 20 by taking in to consideration slump and
maximum aggregate size.
Table 20 : Approximate free-water contents (kg/m3) required to give various levels of

workability
Slump(mm) 0-10 10-30 30-60 60-180

Vebe time(s) >12 6-12 3-6 0-3
Max aggregate size(mm) Type of
aggregate
10 Uncrushed 150 180 205 225
Crushed 180 205 230 250
20 Uncrushed 135 160 180 195
Crushed 170 190 210 225
30 Uncrushed 115 140 160 175
Crushed 155 175 190 205
Note that when coarse and fine aggregates of different types are used, the free-water content is
estimated by the expression:
W = 2⁄3Wf+ 1⁄3Wc
Where:
Wf =free-water content appropriate to type of fine aggregate and

Wc =free-water content appropriate to type of coarse aggregate.(B K Marsh, 1988)
In this research crushed coarse aggregate and uncrushed fine aggregate are used to cast the
sample.
From the above table, the values of free water content with respect to aggregate type and selected
slump to be 160kg/m3 and 190 kg/m3 for fine and coarse aggregate respectively.

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Therefore; W=2/3*160kg/m3+1/3*190kg/m3= 170kg/m3
10. Determination of cement content

The cement content is determined from calculation:
Cement content = = =298kg/m3
11. Relative density of aggregate (SSD)=2.74(obtained from test result)

12. Concrete density
Concrete density can be determined from Figure6 by considering relative density and free water
content.
Figure 6Estimated wet density of fully compacted concrete (Marsh, 1988)

From the above figure, the value of wet density of concrete to be 2460 kg/m3

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13. Total aggregate content

Total aggregate content (saturated and surface-dry) = D — C — W
Where D = the wet density of concrete (kg/m3)
C = the cement content (kg/m3)
W = the free-water content (kg/m3)
Therefore, Total aggregate content = 2460kg/m3-298kg/m3-170kg/m3= 1992kg/m3
14. Grading of fine aggregate

From sieve analysis the values of Percentage passing 600 μm sieves are, 38.8%, 51.21% and
43.92% for Asasa, Dallo and Langano sands respectively.
Figure 7Recommended proportions of fine aggregate according to percentage passing a 600

μm sieve(B K Marsh, 1988)
Using Figure 7, the values fine aggregate percentage is determined to be approximately 39%,
34% and 37% for Asasa, Dallo and Langano sands respectively.

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15. Fine aggregate content

From step 13 it is determined that total aggregate content to be 2032kg/m3
Therefore, fine aggregate content for;
Asasa sand=0.39*1992kg/m3= 776.88kg/m3
Dallo sand=0.34*1992kg/m3=677.28kg/m3
Langano sand=0.37*1992kg/m3=737.04kg/m3
16. Coarse aggregate content.

The values of coarse aggregate content for different sand mixes are determined to be;
Asasa sand=1992kg/m3-776.88kg/m3= 1215.12kg/m3
Dallo sand=1992kg/m3-677.28kg/m3=1314.72kg/m3
Langano sand=1992kg/m3-737.04kg/m3=1254.96kg/m3
Now the mass (nearest to 5kg) of materials in 1m3 mixes for different sands are summarized in
table 21.
Table 21 : Mass (nearest to 5kg) of materials in 1m3 mixes for different sands
Sand used Fine Coarse Cement Water

in the mix aggregate aggregate
Asasa 775 1215 300 170
Dallo 675 1315 300 170
Langano 735 1255 300 170
For mix preparation in the laboratory, a box having 15x15x15= 3375cm3 for mold and three
molds are prepared at single test. Therefore, 3375cm3x3=0.01m3 of mix is prepared in single test
and the quantities of materials (in kg) in 0.01m3 are summarized in table 22.

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Table 22 : Mass of materials in 0.01m3 mixes for different sands
Sand used Fine Coarse Cement Water

in the mix aggregate aggregate
Asasa 7.75 12.15 3.00 1.70
Dallo 6.75 13.15 3.00 1.70
Langano 7.35 12.55 3.00 1.70
4.4.Tests for concrete
4.4.1. Slump test
A concrete mix, either produced at a ready mix plant or on site, must be made of the right amount
of cement, aggregates and water to make the concrete workable enough for easy compaction and
placing and strong enough for good performance in resisting stresses after hardening. If the mix
is too dry, then its compaction will be too difficult and if it is too wet, then the concrete is likely
to be weak.
During mixing the mix might vary without the change very noticeable at first. For instance, a
load of aggregate may be wetter or drier than what is expected or there may be variations in the
amount of water added to the mix. These all necessitate a check on the workability and strength
of concrete after producing.
Slump test is the simplest test for workability and is most widely used on construction sites. In
the slump test, the distance that a cone full of concrete slumps down is measured when the cone
is lifted from around the concrete. The slump can vary from nil on dry mixes to complete
collapse on very wet ones. One drawback with this test is that it is not helpful for very dry mixes.
(Abebe, 2002)
To measure the concrete slump, the concrete is filled into the cone having 300mm height in three
layer having 100mm depth each and rodding each layer 25 times. Then excess concrete is
removed using steel float. Very carefully the cone is lifted straight up, turned over and put down
on the base plate next to the mound of concrete. As soon as the cone is lifted the concrete will
slump to some extent. Finally the tamping rod is rested across the top of the empty inverted cone
so that it reaches over the slumped concrete and using the ruler the distance from the underside of

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the rod to the highest point of the concrete will be measured to the nearest 5mm. That will be the
slump. Table 23 shows test result for the concrete made from different sands.
Table 23: test result for the concrete made from different sands.
Concrete made from Measured slump height Slump nearest to 5mm

Langano 23mm 25mm
Asasa 28mm 30mm
Dallo 26mm 25mm
All slump gained after the mix are in assumed interval. Therefore, casting of concrete will be
proceeding.
4.4.2. Test for Compressive Strengths of Concrete
The major goal of concrete structures is carrying loads coming to them. These loads may be of
dead, live, earthquake, wind or snow types or their combinations. The concrete produced,
therefore, must not fail under the actions of any of such loads. The most common test for
hardened concrete involves taking a sample of fresh concrete and putting it into special cube
molds so that, when hard, the cubes can be tested to failure in a special machine in order to
measure the strength of the concrete. The results obtained from compression tests on hardened
concrete cubes are used to check that its strength is above the minimum specified and to assess
the control exercised over the production of concrete. The strength of concrete specimen is
affected by factors like water-cement ratio, degree of compaction and curing temperature. Care to
be taken, therefore, in preparing samples for testing. As water-cement ratio goes up above a
certain level the strength will decrease accordingly. Compaction reduces the amount of entrapped
air and therefore increases the strength of concrete (for each 1% of air entrapped there will be a 5
to 6% loss of strength). Curing temperature affects the hydration of cement and hence the
duration of strength gain (cubes kept at about 1 0°C will have their 7-day strength reduced by
30% and their 28-day strength by 15%). This calls for proper cure of test cubes at a
recommended temperature of about 20°C.(Abebe, 2002)
To measure compressive strength of concrete, the same concrete mix for which workability is
determined will be Filled in to the cubical mold and vibrated in order to remove air bubbles for
about 30 sec. then the surface is Smoothed and excess concrete on the cubes molds is remove by
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using spatula, and mixing date is registered at the top of the concrete. After 24hrs, the concrete is
removed from the mold and cured in water till the required date. Finally, the concrete specimens
are loaded to failure at 3, 7 and 28 days of age (table 24, 25 and 26 respectively) by using testing
machine and the failure loads are recorded and the stresses at failure are calculated by dividing
the failure loads by the respective contact areas with the load (the compressive strength) .
Table 24 : Computation of Compressive Strength for Concrete made from Asasa sand.
No. Test Dimensions(cm) Weight Volume Failure Comp. Unit

age (gm.) (cm3) load Strength weight
(days) L W H (KN) (MPa) (gm./cm3)
1 14.9 15 14.9 8258.8 3330.15 307.31 13.75 2.48

2 3 15 15.1 14.9 8268.4 3374.85 290.83 12.84 2.45
3 15 14.8 15.1 8279.9 3352.2 266.84 12.02 2.47
Mean 288.33 12.87
1 15.2 15 14.8 8267.3 3374.4 670.78 29.42 2.45
2 7 14.9 15.1 14.9 8146.2 3352.35 624.57 27.76 2.43
3 14.9 15 15.2 8289.2 3397.2 632.95 28.32 2.44
Mean 642.77 28.50
1 15.1 14.8 15 8112.3 3352.2 751.56 33.63 2.42
2 28 15.2 14.9 15 8187.3 3397.2 808.99 35.72 2.41
3 14.8 15 15.1 8078.8 3352.2 788.77 35.53 2.41
Mean 783.11 34.96

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Table 25 : Computation of Compressive Strength for Concrete made from Dallo sand.
Test Dimensions(cm) Weight Failure Unit

No. Volume Comp.
age (gm.) load weight
L W H
1 14.8 15.2 14.9 8258.8 3351.9 262.30 11.66 2.53
2 3 15.1 15.1 14.9 8268.4 3397.35 283.64 12.44 2.49
3 14.9 14.8 15.1 8279.9 3329.85 265.07 12.02 2.50
Mean 270.34 12.04
1 14.8 15.1 14.8 8267.3 3307.5 566.07 25.33 2.49
2 7 14.9 15.1 14.9 8146.2 3352.35 555.50 24.69 2.50
3 14.9 15 15.2 8289.2 3397.2 609.71 27.28 2.46
Mean 577.09 25.77
1 15.1 14.8 15 8112.3 3352.2 705.08 31.55 2.45
2 28 15.2 14.9 15 8187.3 3397.2 735.38 32.47 2.46
3 14.9 14.9 15.1 8078.8 3352.35 707.10 31.85 2.44
Mean 715.85 31.96
Table 26 : Computation of Compressive Strength for Concrete made from langano sand.
Dimensions(cm) Failure Comp. Unit

Test Weight Volume
load strength weight
No age (gm.) (cm3)
(kN) (Mpa) (gm./cm3)
. (days)
L W H
1 3 14.9 15.2 15 8218.2 3397.2 277.44 12.25 2.42
2 15.1 14.8 15 8198.3 3352.2 282.70 12.65 2.45
3 15 14.8 15.1 8235.7 3352.2 265.07 11.94 2.46
Mean 275.07 12.28
1 7 15 15.1 14.8 8209.5 3352.2 561.27 24.78 2.45
2 14.9 15.1 14.9 8176.3 3352.35 546.50 24.29 2.44
3 14.9 15 15.2 8214.8 3397.2 603.00 26.98 2.42
Mean 570.26 25.35
1 28 15.1 14.8 15 8156.7 3352.2 707.98 31.68 2.43
2 15.2 14.9 15 8120.2 3397.2 723.15 31.93 2.39
3 14.8 15.1 15.2 8115.4 3396.9 712.23 31.87 2.39
Mean 714.46 31.83

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4.5.Costs of materials for making concrete
The cost of concrete will be determined by the cost of constituent materials.
4.5.1. Sands
Sand is one of the vital construction materials. Therefore the cost sands have directly affects the
cost of concrete. The cost of sand varies from place to place and time to time. There are different
factors that affect the cost of construction sand. Among these factors the time of quarrying,
distance of quarry, access roads available for quarry sites and quality of construction sands are
the main factors.in this research, sands used in bale robe construction sites are studied in detail.
Langano sand
This sand used in many cities in central parts of Ethiopia. It is good quality sand selected for
different construction. The cost of this sand is increasing rapidly in bale robe from time to time
due to increasing demands and the distance of quarry site the town.
Asasa sand
The quarry of this sand found in west Arsi Zone of Oromia Asasa Woreda. This quarry has good
access for transport. But this sand contains some impurities which are large in size. As a result
the volume pure sand obtained after impurity removal is lower than other sand with the same
volume quarried. This sand has good quality and gradation.
Dallo sand
The quarry of this sand found in bale zone of Oromia, Dallo Menna Woreda. This quarry has no
good access for transport. As a result the cost of this sand is getting high during rainy season.
This sand has high unit weight when compared to other sands.
The highest and lowest costs of one truck of sands observed in 2011 are summarized in the
following table.

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Table 27: Cost of construction sands in bale robe as of 2011 E.C.
Sands Truck Lowest cost Highest cost Lowest cost Highest cost
capacity(m3) (birr/truck) (birr/truck) (birr/m3) (birr/m3)
Langano 14 12500 14000 892.86 1000
Asasa 11 7000 9000 636.36 818.18
Dallo 14 10300 13500 735.7 964.29
Based on table 27 and mix design result the cost of construction sands in 1m3 concrete will be
determined and summarized in table 28.
Table 28 : costs of different sands in 1m3 concrete mixes.
Sands Lowest Highest Mass of Unit Volume Lowest Highest

cost cost sand in weight of sand in cost in cost in
(birr/m3) (birr/m3) 1m3 of (kg/m3) 1m3 of 1m3 of 1m3 of
concrete concrete concrete concrete
Langano 892.86 1000 735 kg 2310 0.318 284.1 318
Asasa 636.36 818.18 775 kg 2360 0.328 208.73 268.36
Dallo 735.7 964.29 675 kg 2570 0.263 193.23 253.27
The average cost of 1m3 of coarse aggregate can be determined as 15000birr/14m3
= 1071.83birr/m3.
The 1m3 of coarse aggregate = 2740kg = 1071.83 birr. Therefore the cost of fine aggregate in
1m3 concrete will be calculated as;
Langano sand = 1255kg*1071.83birr/2740kg = 491birr
Asasa sand = 1215kg*1071.83birr/2700kg = 475birr
Dallo sand = 1315kg*1071.83birr/2700kg = 514birr
The cost of cement in 1m3 of concrete = 300kg*2.85birr/kg = 855birr
Then the material costs of 1m3 concrete made from different sands can be summarized in table
29.

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Table 29 : materials costs of 1m3 concrete made from different sands.
Materials Langano Asasa Dallo

Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max.
cost cost cost cost cost cost
Sand 284.1 318 208.7 268.4 193.2 253.3
Coarse aggregate 491 491 475 475 514 514
Cement 855 855 855 855 855 855
Total 1630.1 1664 1538.7 1598.4 1562.2 1622.3
From the above calculations it can be concluded that concrete made from Asasa sand has lower
cost than concretes made from other two sands. This implies that it is better to use Asasa sand for
concrete in Bale robe construction sites.

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5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1.Conclusions
 The particle size distribution is not the same for three sands. From particle size analysis
the values of fineness modulus of Dallo, Langano and Asasa sands are 2.43, 2.6 and 2.9
respectively. This indicates that Dallo sand is Finer and Asasa sand is coarser than other
sands. Therefore, Dallo sand needs more coarse aggregate and Asasa sand needs less
coarse aggregates for concrete preparation.
 Absorption capacity is influenced by particle size. Small particle size has high moisture
holding capacity. That is why Dallo sand has high moisture content.
 The workability of concrete is influenced by the properties and the amount of sand in the
mix. That is why the slump of all concrete prepared from sands used in the tests are not
the same.
 The proportion of aggregates in the concrete is determined based on particle sizes. Fine
sands have lower proportion of fine aggregate than coarse sand. That is why dallo sand
has lower proportion than asasa sand with the same cement and water content.
 When using DOE mix design without restricting concrete content the quantity of cement
and that water will not affected by the properties of both fine and coarse aggregates. But
the amount of cement and water is affected by the desired strength. But water/cement
ratio is controlled by workability of concrete, type and size of aggregate.
 The cost of concrete is affected by aggregate size. For small size fine aggregate, low
proportion of fine aggregate is needed and for large size fine aggregate, high proportion of
fine aggregate is needed. Therefore, if the cost of fine aggregate is greater than that coarse
aggregate of the same volume, small size fine aggregate is more economical but if the
cost of coarse aggregate is higher than the cost fine aggregate large particle size aggregate
economical.

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5.2.Recommendations
 This research has done on existing sand quarry sites. All these quarry sites are far from
robe town. This makes it is coasty to prepare concrete relative to other cities in the
country. Therefore it is better to investigate other nearby sand quarry sites. The city
municipality has to work on this.
 As it can be seen from this work the cement content in concrete can be reduced if mix
design is properly done. This will reduce the concrete cost significantly. Therefore it is
better if every construction sites are supervised by professional.
 In this work, only some basic study has done due to some limitation. If other works are
done, it is the supportive of this work and enough results are obtained and this will change
the construction industry of the country significantly.

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REFERANCE
Abebe, D. (2002). Construction Materials Laboratory Manual. Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa
University Printing Press.
Admasu, T. (2015, November). Handling of aggregates in the Ethiopian construction industries.

Addis Ababa.
Aksarabhyudaya (2013). Sand mining,environmental concerns,political ramifications and

cascading effect on construction industry.
Marsh, B. P. (1988). Design of normal concrete mixes.
Chandrakanth (2009). Negative externalities due to Sand mining in India.
Chandrakanth M.G., H. A. (2009). Negative externalities due to Sand mining in India.
Denamo, A. (2005). Handling of Concrete Making Materials in the Ethiopian Construction

Industry, M.Sc. thesis, AAU, FOT. Addis Ababa.
EPA, U. (2005). http://www.epa.gov/ttnchie1/ap42/ch11/final/c11s19-1.pdf. (Retrieved on 9 19,

2018)
Gambhir, M. (2002). Concrete Technology 2nd edition. MC Grawhill Book.
Glanville, W. (1947). The gading of aggregates and workability of concrete. London.
James. (2003). http://www.elaw.org/files/mining-eia-guidebook. (Retrieved on ……)
Kosmatka (2002). Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures. Portland Cement Association.
Langer, W. (2003). A general overview of the technology of In-stream mining of sand and gravel
resources, associated potential environmental impacts, and methods to control potential
impacts. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey. .
Shetty (2008). Concrete Technology Theory and Practice.
Mansur, S. (2016). Evaluation of uniformity of concrete on selected building construction site in

Addis Ababa. Ms.C thesis.
Nevielle, A. (1985). Properties of Concrete.Oxford University Press.
Neville, A. (1994). Properties of concrete Oxford University Press.

Hawassa University
Popovics, S. (2000). Concrete Materials, Properties, Specifications and Testing- Second Edition.
Noyes publications.
Richard. (1995). http://www.epa.gov.Retrieved on November 18, 2018.
Praveen. (2015-2016). Strength Properties of Self Compacting Concrete With Steel Fibers, . Civil
Engineering International Journal.
Schaff, N. (2012). Silica Sand Mining in Wisconsin, Wisconsin Department of Natural

Resources, Madison, .
Shetty. (2008). Concrete Technology, Theory and Practice Noyes publications.Standard, E.

(1990). Cement and Cement Product (ESC. D5. 201).
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Yasmin, Y. (2014). Fine Aggregate production and its environmental impact.

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Hawassa University

First of all I want to thank GOD for helping me to complete my study.

CoTM department Page i

CoTM department Page ii

CoTM department Page iii

2.9. Economy in concrete ....................................................................................................... 35

CoTM department Page iv

Table 1: Top 15 producers of sand and gravel in the world. ........................................................ 12

CoTM department Page v

CoTM department Page vi

AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials

ACI American Concrete Institute

ASTM American Society for Testing Materials

C25 concrete having 25Mpa compressive strength

DOE department of environment of british

EIA environmental impact assessment

RCC reinforced concrete construction

SSD saturated surface dry

USGS united states geological survey

CoTM department Page vii

CoTM department Page viii

CoTM department Page 1

1.2. Objectives of the Research

1.2.1. General objective

1.2.2. Specific objectives

1.3. Scope and limitation

CoTM department Page 2

CoTM department Page 3

CoTM department Page 4

2.1.2. Sources of fine aggregates

2.1.3. Types of sand

Types of Sand Based on Its Source

The sources of Sand can be natural or artificial.

The sources of natural fine aggregate are of three types.

Pit sand (Coarse sand)

CoTM department Page 6

It is an effective alternative to natural sand. It is produced by crushing either basalt rock or

Types of Sand Based on sieve analysis

CoTM department Page 7

Types of Sand Based on Their Purpose of Use

Based on using purpose, sand can be classified as following

Types of Sand Based on Their Grain Size

Based on the grain size, sand can be classified as following

Very Fine Sand

The grain size of this type of sand is between 0.125mm to 0.25mm

This type of sand has grain size 0.50mm to 1.0mm

CoTM department Page 8

Very Coarse Sand

2.1.4. Requirement of aggregate

2. Strength and durability.

When hardened – for which the aggregate should:

a. be stronger than the required concrete strength

CoTM department Page 9

2.1.5. Uses of Sand

Aggregates have three basic functions:

1. To provide a relatively cheap filler for the cementing material;

CoTM department Page 10