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2 Bridge design

A bridge is any structure having an opening not less than 6100 mm that forms part of a
highway or that is located over or under a highway. Highway bridges imply structures which
typically consist of a slab-on-stringer configuration crossing relatively short span lengths.
The deck is usually a concrete slab which rests on a set of girders composed of one of the
following types:

 Steel rolled sections or plate girders

 Pre-stressed concrete beams
 Timber beams

The purpose of a bridge is to carry a service over an ‘obstacle’ (which may be another road or
railway, a river, a valley etc.). The designer has to ensure that bridges are both safe and
economic. A bridge crossing carrying a road or railway over another road or railway is called
a grade separator or a fly over. When they are used for carriage of water, they are called
aqueducts.

Classification of bridges
Bridges are classified severally. The broad classification and sub grouping are indicated
below;

Main classification Sub classification

Function Foot, Road, railway, Pipe line
Water conveying (aqueduct, Jetty (Port)
Material Stone, Brick, Steel, Timber, Concrete, Composite
Aluminium, Fibre
Form Slab, Beam, Arch, Truss, Suspension
Cable supported
Type of support Simply supported, Continuous, Cantilever
Position of floor/deck Deck, Through, Semi through
Usage Temporary, Permanent, Service (army)
Grade separators Road-over, Road-under (sub way),
fly over (road over road)
Movable bridges (over Bascule, Lifting, Swing
navigation channels)
Types of bridge by traffic may include;

 Highway bridge (trucks, cars)

 Pedestrian bridge (pedestrians, bicycles)
 Railway bridge (trains)
 Transit guide-way (city trains, monorail)
 Materials Fabrications
Masonry (brick, rock) Precast
Timber Cast in place
Reinforced concrete Pretensioned
Prestressed concrete Prefabricated
Iron Rivet (steel)
Steel Bolted (steel/ timber)
Composites Welded (steel)
Plastics

Planning for a bridge

The sequence of planning for bridges forming part of a new highway project will form part of
that particular project planning. But, in case of a major crossing across a large river or a
major road intersection, a more detailed planning for the particular bridge itself will be
required. Different steps involved in planning for such a bridge and for major links are:

 Study the need for the bridge

 Assess traffic requirement
 Location study
 Study of alternatives
 Short listing feasible alternatives
 Developing concept plans for alternatives including choice of form, materials, span
arrangement
 Preliminary design and costing
 Evaluation of alternatives, risk analysis and final choice
 Finding resources; detailed survey and design
 Implementation including preparation of bid documents, fixing agency, construction
and commissioning

Traffic assessment

A reliable assessment of quantum and type that will use the bridge in necessary to arrive at
the number of lanes for which it has to be designed and its geometric design parameters and
secondly to work out the benefits that will accrue to the society from the use of the bridge.
Some of this traffic would be that crossing the river already through other means. The other
major part will be the generated traffic from either side due to new economic activities and
demographic changes that will take place due to the additional mobility provided by the
crossing. Careful collection of data is necessary on existing pattern of traffic, trend of growth
and likely developments in the area of influence. Since the facility calls for heavy initial
investment and capacity cannot be increased easily in smaller stages, it is necessary to
forecast the traffic over a longer horizon period (forty to fifty years). The study should take
into account (i) composition of traffic in terms of heavy and light vehicles and speed
requirements (ii) annual growth rate (iii) and design life of the bridge.

Location of bridge

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Cross drainage works on alternative alignments of a road alignment can differ considerably
and since they tend to form 15 to 20% of the cost of the total project, it is essential to analyze
and consider the effect of all the cross drainage works on the alignment. While fixing the
horizontal alignment of the line/road, it is desirable to select a bridge site such that the
bridge/culvert is:

 On a straight reach of the stream avoiding any bends or meanders

 Clear of the confluence of any tributaries
 Confined within well-defined banks
 With the road approach on either side straight to maximum extent
 With the crossing normal to the road alignment and if skew is unavoidable, limit the
skew angle

Terminology and nomenclature

Figure below shows the components of a bridge. This structure consists of a single span. A
span is defined as a segment of bridge from support to support.

Figure 1: Principal components of a slab-on-stringer superstructure

Superstructure: this comprises all the components of a bridge above the supports. The basic
superstructure components consist of the following:

 Wearing surface – the wearing surface (course) is that portion of the deck cross
section which resists traffic wear. In some instances this is a separate layer made of

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bituminous material, while in some other cases it is an integral part of concrete deck. The
bituminous wearing course usually varies in thickness from 50 to 100 mm. The thickness,
however, can sometimes be larger due to resurfacing of the overpass roadway, which occurs
throughout the life cycle of a bridge.
 Deck - The deck is the physical extension of the roadway across the obstruction to be
bridged. The main function of the deck is to distribute loads transversely along the bridge
cross section. The deck either rests on or is integrated with a frame or other structural system
designed to distribute loads longitudinally along the length of the bridge.
 Primary members – they distribute loads longitudinally and are usually designed
principally to resist flexure and shear. In some instances, the outside or fascia primary
members possess a larger depth and may have a cover plate welded to the bottom of them to
carry heavier loads. Beam type primary members such as this are also called stringers or
girders. These stringers could be steel wide flange stringers, steel plate girders (i.e., steel
plates welded together to form an I section), pre-stressed concrete, glued laminated timber, or
some other type of beam. Rather than have the slab rest directly on the primary member, a
small fillet or haunch can be placed between the deck slab and the top flange of the stringer.
The primary function for the haunch is to adjust the geometry between the stringer and the
finished deck. It is also possible for the bridge superstructure to be formed in the shape of a
box (either rectangular or trapezoidal). Box girder bridges can be constructed out if steel or
pre-stressed concrete and are used in situations where large span lengths are required and for
horizontally curved bridges.
 Secondary members – they are bracing primary members designed to resist cross-
sectional deformation of the superstructure frame and help distribute part of the vertical load
between stringers. They are also used for the stability of the structure during construction.
Secondary members, composed of crossed frames at the top of bottom flange of a stinger, are
used to resist lateral deformation. This type of secondary member is called lateral bracing.

Substructure: consists of all elements required to support the superstructure and overpass
roadway. The basic substructure components consist of the following:

 Abutments - Abutments are earth-retaining structures which support the superstructure

and overpass roadway at the beginning and end of a bridge. Like a retaining wall, the
abutments resist the longitudinal forces of the earth underneath the overpass roadway.
 Piers - Piers are structures which support the superstructure at intermediate points
between the end supports (abutments). Like abutments, piers come in a variety of forms,
some of which are illustrated in figure 2. From an aesthetic standpoint, piers are one of the
most visible components of a highway bridge and can make the difference between a visually
pleasing and an unattractive one.
 Bearings – bearings are mechanical systems which transmit the vertical and
horizontal loads of the superstructure to the substructure, and accommodate movements
between the superstructure and the substructure. Examples of bearings are mechanical
systems made of steel rollers acting on large steel plates or rectangular pads made of
neoprene. The use and functionality of bearings vary greatly depending on the size and

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configuration of the bridge. Bearings allowing both rotation and longitudinal translation are
called expansion bearings, and those which allow rotation only are called fixed bearings.

Figure 2: Types of piers

 Pedestals – is a short column on an abutment or pier under a bearing which directly

supports a superstructure primary member. The term bridge seat is also used to refer to the
elevation at the top surface of the pedestal. Normally pedestals are designed with different
heights to obtain the required bearing elevations.
 Backwall – sometimes called the stem, is the primary component of the abutment
acting as a retaining structure at each approach.
 Wingwall – is a side wall to the abutment backwall or stem designed to assist in
confining earth behind the abutment. On many structures, wingwalls are designed quiet
conservatively, which leads to a rather large wall on many bridges.
 Footing – as bearings transfer the superstructure loads to the substructures, so in turn
do the abutment and pier footings transfer loads from the substructures to the subsoil or piles.
A footing supported by soil without piles is called a spread footing. A footing supported by
piles is known as a pile cap.
 Piles – when the soil under a footing cannot provide adequate support for the
substructures (in terms of bearing capacity, overall stability or settlement), support is
obtained through use of piles, which extend down from the footing to a stronger soil layer or
to bedrock. There are a variety of types of piles ranging from concrete, which is cast in place
(also called drilled shafts or caissons) or pre-cast, to steel H-sections driven to sound rock.
 Sheeting – in cofferdams or shallow exaction, the vertical planks which are driven
into the ground to act as temporary retaining walls permitting excavation are known as
sheeting. Steel sheet piles are one of the most common forms of sheeting in use and can even
be used as abutments for smaller structures.

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Appurtenances and site-related features: An appurtenance, in the context of this discussion,
is any part of the bridge or bridge site which is not a major structural component yet serves
some purpose in the overall functionality of the structure (e.g., guardrail). The bridge site, as
an entity, possesses many different components which, in one way or another, integrate with
the structure. The major appurtenances and site-related features are as follows:

 Embankment and slope protection – the slope that tapers from the abutment to the
underpass (embankment) is covered with a material called slope protection, which should be
both aesthetically pleasing and provide for proper drainage and erosion control. Slope
protection could be made of dry stone or even block pavement material. For water crossings,
large stones (rip rap) are usually used for foundation scour protection.
 Under-drain – in order to provide for proper drainage of a major substructure element
it is often necessary to install an under-drain, which is a drainage system made of perforated
pipe or other suitable conduit that transports runoff away from the structure and into
appropriate cannel (either natural or man-made).
 Approach – the section of overpass roadway which leads up to and away from the
bridge abutments is called the approach or approach roadway. In cross section the approach
roadway is defined by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials (AASHTO) as the “travelled way plus shoulders”. The approach roadway typically
maintains a similar cross section to that of the standard roadway. To compensate for potential
differential settlement at the approaches, a reinforced concrete slab or approach slab is
sometimes used for a given distance back from the abutment. The approach slab helps to
evenly distribute traffic loads on the soil behind the abutment, and minimizes impact to the
abutment which can result from differential settlement between the abutment and the
approach.
 Traffic barriers – it is a protective device “used to shield motorists from obstacles or
slope located along either side of roadway”. Traffic barriers can range from a guard rail made
of corrugated steel to reinforced concrete parapets. On bridges, they are usually called bridge
railings.

Miscellaneous terms: some of the basic expressions that are used in bridge engineering
include:

Vertical clearance – this is the minimum distance between the structure and the underpass,
AASHTO specifies an absolute minimum of 4.27 m and a design clearance of 4.88 m.

Load rating – an analysis of a structure to compute the maximum allowable loads that can be
carried across a bridge is called a load rating. Two ratings are usually prepared: the inventory
rating corresponds to the customary design level of capacity, while operating rating describes
the maximum permissible live load to which the structure may be subjected. Therefore,
operating rating always yields a higher load rating than inventory rating.

Dead load – permanent loads placed on a structure before the concrete slab hardens are called
dead loads. For example, in a slab-on-stringer bridge the stringers, diaphragms, connection
plates, and concrete slab itself would be considered as dead loads.

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Superimposed bead loads – are permanent loads placed on the structure after the concrete has
hardened (e.g. bridge railings, sidewalks, wearing surface, etc.).

Live loads – temporary loads placed on the structure, such as vehicles, wind, pedestrians, etc,
are called live loads.

Sheeted pit – a temporary box structure with only four sides (i.e. no to pr bottom) which can
be used as an earth support system in excavation for substructure foundations is called a
sheeted pit. The bracing elements used inside a sheeted pit to keep all four sides rigid are
called wales and struts. When this type of structure is used where the ground level is below
water, the sheeted pit is designed to be watertight and is called a cofferdam.

Span length

Span > 6 m bridge Medium span: 30-100 m

Span < 6 m culvert Long span: > 100m
Short span: 6-30 m

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