Sequence of Real Numbers

Pointwise Convergence
Uniform Convergence
Properties of Uniform Convergence

Interchanging of Limit and Basic Properties of

Functions

Aye Pyone

Professor
Department of Mathematics
University of Mandalay
ayepyone2006@gmail.com
09 403711872

July 28, 2023

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 Sequence of Real Numbers
Pointwise Convergence
Uniform Convergence
Properties of Uniform Convergence

Outline

1 Sequence of Real Numbers

2 Pointwise Convergence

3 Uniform Convergence

4 Properties of Uniform Convergence

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 Sequence of Real Numbers
Pointwise Convergence
Uniform Convergence
Properties of Uniform Convergence

Introduction
a sequence is a succession of numbers whose order is
determined by a formula or a function
1,1/2,1/3,1/4,. . . ,1/n,1/(n +1),. . . is a sequence of real
numbers with nth term is 1/n
1
rewrite it by a formula an = n
let A = {a1 , a2 , . . .} and N = {1, 2, . . .}. A sequence is a
function f : N → A defined by f (n) = an
the limit is a basic idea of many important ideas
If a sequence has a finite limit then it converges.
Some results of sequences of real or complex numbers and
sequences of functions on a set are discussed in [2]
In [1], it is considered sequences of functions whose domain is
in the set of real numbers.
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 Sequence of Real Numbers
Pointwise Convergence
Uniform Convergence
Properties of Uniform Convergence

Introduction
There are two convergences of sequences, namely, pointwise
and uniform convergences
if the convergence of a sequence of functions is uniform then
each function in sequence preserves basic properties such as
continuity, order of limit, interchange of limit and integrability,
and interchange of limit and differentiability
Studying of sequences of functions on a subset of the set of
all real numbers is abstract subject
study of this case is theoretical ways
Geometrical ways provide to understand algebraic ways
illustrate sequences by geometric view
, these are illustrated by graphs. These graphs are drawn by
Maple 2020 software and online latex equation editor
software: Latex4technics
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 Sequence of Real Numbers
Pointwise Convergence
Uniform Convergence
Properties of Uniform Convergence

A sequence is real-valued function on N.

fn : N → R with values f (1), f (2), . . . called terms of the

sequence. The value of f (n) denotes the nth term of a
sequence.
fn = f (n)
n
for example, f (n) = n+1 with n ∈ N
A sequence is represented by {an }∞
n=1 or {an }

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 Sequence of Real Numbers
Pointwise Convergence
Uniform Convergence
Properties of Uniform Convergence

1.1 Definition
A sequence {an } converges to a real number L if for every ϵ, there
exists a positive integer N such that if

n ≥ N ⇒ |an − L| < ϵ.

L is called the limit of the sequence {an } and we write

limn→∞ an = L
limn→∞ an = L if there are infinitely many terms of {an } with
n ≥ N such that the absolute value of the difference of {an } and
L is less than ϵ except the finite terms of a1 , a2 , . . . , aN −1 of {an }.

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 Sequence of Real Numbers
Pointwise Convergence
Uniform Convergence
Properties of Uniform Convergence

Figure 1.1: Graph of a sequence {an }

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 Sequence of Real Numbers
Pointwise Convergence
Uniform Convergence
Properties of Uniform Convergence

n
Figure 1.2: Graph of an = n+1 for n = 1, . . . , 20
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 Sequence of Real Numbers
Pointwise Convergence
Uniform Convergence
Properties of Uniform Convergence

1.2 Example
n
We consider the sequence {an } where an = n+1 .

We pick ϵ = 0.01 Then we find N and L such that

|an − L| < 0.01 if n ≥ N .
The limit of {an } is 1 by Figure 1.2.
Thus we pick L = 1 and we have
n 1
an − L = −1 = .
n+1 n+1
1
But n+1 < 0.01 if 1 < (n + 1)0.01. Therefore, if n > 99, we have
|an − 1| < 0.01. Hence if n ≥ N , n ≥ N ≥ 100 > 99, we have
|an − 1| < 0.01 We observe that if L is different from 1, we can
show that there exists a positive integer N such that if n ≥ N
then an − L¡0.01. To illustrate this, choose L = 1.005. Then
|an − L| < 0.01 for all n ≥ 199.
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 Sequence of Real Numbers
Pointwise Convergence
Uniform Convergence
Properties of Uniform Convergence

This process is not adequate to prove the convergence of {an }

prove by using Definition 1.1.
We need to find N such that if n ≥ N then |an − 1| < ϵ To find
this N, we write
n 1
an − 1 = −1 = .
n+1 n+1

Therefore, if we pick N > (1 − ϵ)/ϵ for all n ≥ N , we have

an − 1 < ϵ

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 Sequence of Real Numbers
Pointwise Convergence
Uniform Convergence
Properties of Uniform Convergence

1.3 Definition
If for all real numbers L, {an } does not converge to L, then
diverges.

1.4 Example
The sequence {an } where an = n.

We must prove that

lim an ̸= L
n→∞

for any real number L. Let ϵ = 1. We must use the fact

an − L = n − L ≥ n − |L|.

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 Sequence of Real Numbers
Pointwise Convergence
Uniform Convergence
Properties of Uniform Convergence

1.5 Theorem
A convergent sequence of real numbers has uniquely limit.

1.6 Definition
Suppose that a function f : D → R, with D ⊂ R. Then f is
continuous at a point a ∈ D if and only if for any ϵ > 0 there exists
δ > 0 such that if x ∈ D and |x − a| < δ imply |f (x) − f (a)| < ϵ.
f is continuous on D if f is continuous at every point of D.

The main difference between these definitions and the

definition of continuous in calculus text is that D is assumed
to be an interval I.
Thus every value of I is an accumulation point of I.
If D is an interval, we reduces Definition 1.6 to the statement
that f is continuous at a if and only if
lim f (x) = f (a) = f ( lim f (x)).
x→a x→a
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Pointwise Convergence
Uniform Convergence
Properties of Uniform Convergence

lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a

means not only a is accumulation point of the domain D but

also, limx→a f (x) is finite and equals to f (a).
We recall the two results of Riemann integral without proof.
(a) Every continuous functions on is Riemann integrable.
(b) Let f : [a, b] → R be Riemann
Rx integrable and define
F : [a, b] → R by F (x) = a f (t)dt. Then if f is continuous
at x = c ∈ [a, b] then F is differentiable at x = c and
F ′ (c) = f (c).

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 Sequence of Real Numbers
Pointwise Convergence
Uniform Convergence
Properties of Uniform Convergence

2.1 Definition
Let D ⊂ R and fn : D → R for each n. A sequence of functions
{fn } converges pointwise on D to a function f , f : D → R if and
only if for each x0 ∈ D the sequence of real numbers {fn (x0 )}
converges to a real number f (x0 ).
The function f is called the pointwise limit function.

2.2 Remark

If f is the pointwise limit function for a sequence {fn } then

limn→∞ fn (x) = f (x) for all x ∈ D.
By Definition 1.1, limn→∞ fn (x) = f (x) for all x ∈ D ⇔ for
each x0 ∈ D and ϵ > 0 there exists a positive integer N such
that if n ≥ N then |fn (x) − f (x)| < ϵ.
This limit is called the pointwise limit since the integer N
depends only on the value of ϵ and location of x0 .
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 Sequence of Real Numbers
Pointwise Convergence
Uniform Convergence
Properties of Uniform Convergence

By Theorem 1.6, if a sequence of functions converges

pointwise, then the pointwise limit is unique
Pointwise convergence for a sequence of functions can be
tested visually using a vertical line test.
We draw a vertical line x = x0 for any fixed x0 ∈ D for the
sequence of functions fn .
The sequence {fn } converges pointwise if the distance
between the points (x0 , fn (x0 )) and (x0 , f (x0 )) must tend to
0 as n tends to +∞

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 Sequence of Real Numbers
Pointwise Convergence
Uniform Convergence
Properties of Uniform Convergence

2.3 Example
Consider a sequence of functions {fn } where fn : [0, 1] → R by
fn (x) = xn .

Figure 2.1: (a) Graph of fn (x) = xn for n = 1, 2, 3, 6

(b) Pointwise limit function of fn (x) = xn

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 Sequence of Real Numbers
Pointwise Convergence
Uniform Convergence
Properties of Uniform Convergence

If each of the functions fn are continuous on D, then by

Definition 1.6

lim fn (x) = fn (a) (x ∈ D).

x→a

In Example 2.3, each is continuous from Figure 2.1(a). But,

the pointwise limit function f is not continuous at (see Figure
2.1(b)).

lim lim fn (x) ̸= lim fn (1) = lim lim fn (x)

n→a n→∞ n→∞ n→∞ x→1

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 Sequence of Real Numbers
Pointwise Convergence
Uniform Convergence
Properties of Uniform Convergence

2.4Example
The pointwise limit function of a sequence {fn } where
fn : [0, 1] → R is defined by fn (x) = x/n is the zero function on
[0, 1] because
x
lim fn (x) = lim = 0.
n→∞ n→∞ n

2.5 Remark
Functions in Example 2.4 are illustrated in Figure 2.2. The
highlighted curve is the pointwise limit function f (x) = 0.
Each function fn and f are continuous, differentiable,
integrable and bounded.

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 Sequence of Real Numbers
Pointwise Convergence
Uniform Convergence
Properties of Uniform Convergence

x
Figure 2.2: Graph of fn (x) = n, n = 1, 2, 3, 4
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 Sequence of Real Numbers
Pointwise Convergence
Uniform Convergence
Properties of Uniform Convergence

In Example 2.3, N depends on ϵ and x0 . But not in Example

2.4.
discuss this case in Section 3
Finding the limit function is not always easy. Different values
of x0 in the domain D for a sequence of functions gives in
different limiting values.

2.6 Example
Let f : f : [0, 1] → R be defined by fn (x) = n2 x(1 − x2 )n for each
n. The pointwise limit function is 0 from Figure 2.3.

From Figure 2.3

Z 1 Z 1
lim fn (x)dx = +∞ and lim fn (x)dx = 0.
n→∞ 0 0 n→∞
.
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 Sequence of Real Numbers
Pointwise Convergence
Uniform Convergence
Properties of Uniform Convergence

Z 1 Z 1
lim fn (x)dx ̸= lim fn (x)dx
n→∞ 0 0 n→∞
.

Figure 2.3: Graph of fn (x) = n2 x(1 − x2 )n ,n=1,3,5,10

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 Sequence of Real Numbers
Pointwise Convergence
Uniform Convergence
Properties of Uniform Convergence

2.7 Defintion
Let fn : D → R for each n. Then the sequence {fn } diverges on
D if and only if there is a point x0 ∈ D such that the sequence
{fn (x0 ))} diverges.

2.8 Example
(i) Let fn : [0, ∞) → R be defined by fn (x) = n(see Figure 2.4(a))
diverges.
(ii) Let fn : [0, ∞) → R be defined by fn (x) = (−1)n+1 (see Figure
2.5(b)) diverges.

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 Sequence of Real Numbers
Pointwise Convergence
Uniform Convergence
Properties of Uniform Convergence

Figure 2.5: (b) Graph of

Figure 2.4: (a) Graph of fn (x) = n
fn (x) = (−1)n+1 for n = odd and
for n = 1, 3, 10, 20
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 Sequence of Real Numbers
Pointwise Convergence
Uniform Convergence
Properties of Uniform Convergence

A sequence diverges if it is unbounded or osillating.

The symbol fn (x) stands to produce of real numbers {fn (x)}
along a vertical line at x. The symbol f (xn ) stands to produc
a sequence of real numbers {f (xn )} where xn exists along
horizontal line.

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 Sequence of Real Numbers
Pointwise Convergence
Uniform Convergence
Properties of Uniform Convergence

3.1 Defintion
Let each function fn : D → R with D ⊂ R. A sequence of
functions {fn } converges uniformly to a function f where
f : D → R if for every ϵ > 0 there exists a positive integer N such
that if n ≥ N then |fn (x) − f (x)| < ϵ for all x ∈ D. Such a
function f is called the uniform limit of {fn }.

3.2 Remark
The pointwise limit must exist for the uniform limit. If the
uniform limit exists, it must be equal to the pointwise limit.
The curves of functions fn for n ≥ N exist between the two
curves of the functions f − ϵ and f + ϵ for every ϵ > 0
(seeFigure 3.1).

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 Sequence of Real Numbers
Pointwise Convergence
Uniform Convergence
Properties of Uniform Convergence

Figure 3.1: Uniform Convergence for a sequence {fn }

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 Sequence of Real Numbers
Pointwise Convergence
Uniform Convergence
Properties of Uniform Convergence

3.2 Example
x
The sequence of function fn (x) = n on [0, 1] converges uniformly
(see Figure 2.2).

3.3 Example
To determine whether the pointwise limit of the sequence {fn },
where function fn (x) = xn is uniform on the interval (i) [0, 1] (ii)
[0, 1) and (iii) [o, k) with k ∈ (0, r). We have found that the
pointwise limit function is
(
0 if 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
f (x) =
1 if x = 1

on [0, 1] converges uniformly (see Figure 2.1(b)).

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 Sequence of Real Numbers
Pointwise Convergence
Uniform Convergence
Properties of Uniform Convergence

Figure 3.2: Graph of fn (x) = xn , for n = 1, 3, 5, 6

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 Sequence of Real Numbers
Pointwise Convergence
Uniform Convergence
Properties of Uniform Convergence

3.5 Remark There are several ways to verify that a sequence of

funtions {fn } does not converge uniformly:
(a) To show that there is a sequence {fn } has no a pointwise limit
(b)To show that for the pointwise limit function f there exists
ϵ > 0 such that given any N ∈ N there exists x ∈ D and
n > N such that |fn (x) − f (x)| ≥ ϵ.
(c) To show that if f is a pointwise limit, there exists ϵ > 0
and a sequence {fn } in D such that |fn (x) − f (xn )| ≥ ϵ.
(d) To show that the sequence {fn } does not converge
uniformly to its pointwise limit if and only if the sequence
{Mn } with Mn = supx∈D |fn (x) − f (x)| does not converge
to zero
(e) To show that each function is continuous on D but the
pointwise limit function f is not continuous
(f) To show that the sequence {fn } does not satisfy the
Cauchy criterion (Theorem 3.7).
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 Sequence of Real Numbers
Pointwise Convergence
Uniform Convergence
Properties of Uniform Convergence

3.6 Example
(i) The sequence in Example 2.8(a) does not converge
uniform since {fn (x)} does not converge pointwise limit at
x = 0 by Remark 3.5(a)
(ii) The sequence of functions fn in Example 2.4 with domain
on R for each n does not converge uniformly since there is a
point n ∈ R such that |fn (n) − f (n)| = 1 by Remark 3.5(b).
(iii) By Remark 3.5(c), the sequence {fn } in Example 2.3
does not converge uniformly since there is a sequence
{xn } = {(1/2)n } in [0, 1] such that
|fn (n) − f (n)| = |(1/2) − 0| = 1/2
(iv) Since the sequence{fn } in Example 2.3 has
sup |fn (x) − f (1)| = 1,
x∈[0,1]

it does not converge uniformly by Remark 3.5(d).

(v) The sequence in Example
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 Sequence of Real Numbers
Pointwise Convergence
Uniform Convergence
Properties of Uniform Convergence

(v) The sequence {fn } in Example 2.3 does not converge

uniformly since the pointwise limit function does not
continuous on [0, 1] by Remark 3.5(e).
(vi) The sequence {fn } in Example 2.3 does not converge
uniformly since there is a positive integer N such that if
n, m ≥⇒ |xn − xm | ≥ |xn | − |xm |
by Remark 3.5(e).
3.7 Theorem (Cauchy Criterion)
Let {fn } be a sequence of functions on D with D ⊂ R . Then
{fn } converges uniformly if and only if for every ϵ > 0 there is a
positive number N such that if

n, m ≥ N ⇒ |fn (x) − fm (x)| < ϵ

for all x ∈ D.
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 Sequence of Real Numbers
Pointwise Convergence
Uniform Convergence
Properties of Uniform Convergence

4.1 Theorem
If {fn } is a sequence of continuous functions that converges
uniformly to a function f on D ⊂ R, then f is continuous on D.

Proof. To proof we must use the sequence {fn } converges

uniformly and each function fn is continuous
4.2 Theorem
If {fn } is a sequence of continuous functions that converges
uniformly to a function f on an interval [a, b] then
Z b Z b
lim fn (x)dx = lim fn (x)dx. (4.1)
n→∞ a a n→∞

Proof. To proof we must use (i) each function fn and the limit
function f is continuous (ii) continuous functions are Riemann
integrable (iii) the sequence {fn } converges uniformly
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 Sequence of Real Numbers
Pointwise Convergence
Uniform Convergence
Properties of Uniform Convergence

4.3 Theorem
If a sequence of continuous differentiable functions {fn } that
converges pointwise to a function f on an interval [a, b], and the
sequence {fn′ } converges uniformly to a function g on [a, b] , then
f is continuously differentiable and f ′ = g.

Proof. To proof we must use (i) Fundamental Theorem of

calculus (ii) Theorem 4.2, 4.1 and (iii) result of Riemann integrable

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 Sequence of Real Numbers
Pointwise Convergence
Uniform Convergence
Properties of Uniform Convergence

4.4 Theorem
Suppose that {fn } is a sequence of functions fn that are
differentiable on an interval [a, b] such that the sequence {fn (x0 )}
converges at some point x = x0 ∈ [a, b]. If the sequence {fn′ }
converges uniformly to a function g on [a, b], then {fn } must
converge uniformly to f on [a, b], where f ′ (x) = g(x).

Proof. Let ϵ > 0 be given. Since {fn (x0 )} converges and {fn′ }
converges uniformly, ∃N ∈ N ∋ if
ϵ
m, n ≥ N ⇒ |fn (x0 ) − fm (x0 )| <
2
and
ϵ
|fn′ (t) − fm
′
(t)| < , ∀t ∈ [a, b]
2(b − a)
Fixed m, n ≥ N . We use Mean Value Theorem to the function
fn − fm .Thus,for any x, y ∈ [a, b] ∃t ∈ [a, b] ∋
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Pointwise Convergence
Uniform Convergence
Properties of Uniform Convergence

ϵ
|[fn (x) − fm (x)] − [fn (y) − fm (y)]| = |fn′ (t) − fm
′
(t)|(x − y) < .
2
(4.2)
Then
|[fn (x) − fm (x)| < ϵ if m, n ≥ N.
By Cauchy criterion, {fn } converges uniformly on [a, b]. Say, f .
Thus, limn→∞ fn (x) = f (x).
Next, to prove that f is differentiable and
limn→∞ fn′ (x) = f ′ (x) for each x ∈ [a, b]. Define
fn (t) − fn (c) f (t) − f (c)
hn (t) = and h(t) =
t−c t−c
∀t ∈ [a, b] and t ̸= c. Then
lim hn (t) = h(t) and lim hn (t) = h′n (c)
n→∞ n→∞
for each t ∈ [a, b] \ {c}. Replacing x by t and y by c in (4.2) gives
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Pointwise Convergence
Uniform Convergence
Properties of Uniform Convergence

ϵ
|hn (t) − hn (c)| <
2(b − a)
for each t ∈ [a, b] \ {c}. Therefore, by Cauchy criterion, {hn }
converges uniformly to h on [a, b] \ {c}. Thus, by Theorem 4.2,

lim lim hn (t) = lim lim hn (t).

t→c n→∞ n→∞ t→c

Hence
f ′ (c) = lim h(t) = lim fn′ (c).
t→c n→∞

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Pointwise Convergence
Uniform Convergence
Properties of Uniform Convergence

THE END

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