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History 2nd Sem. 2021 .
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COURSE TITLE HISTORY

COURSE CODE 2021-22
SEMESTER 2ND SEM
2nd sem. History
2|Page Bilal Book Shop Opp Govt Degree College Kupwara 9797861908
History 2nd Sem. 2021 .Bilal Book Shop Opp Govt Degree College Kupwara 9797861908
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Unit 1st
Q.:- What were the main important Chronicles of the Delhi Sultans?
Or
Zia-ud-din was a notable historian under the Sultans of Delhi. Discuss.
Ans.:- Historians depend on a variety of sources to learn about the past. The
medieval period also witnessed the first good examples of history writing which
give us a better insight into the period. A chronicle is a record of the rule of the
kings and life at the court. Most kings had court chroniclers who wrote in
detail about what happened during their reign. Most of these writings are in
Arabic, Persian and Turkish. Some important chronicles of the medieval period
are as follows:
I. Tarikh-i-Firishta:- It was written by Muhammad Kasim Firishta during

the reigns of Akbar and Jahanir, (c.late 16 th century-early 17 century).
Firishta was born in Astrabad on the Caspian Sea in 1570 CE. He
completed his history during the reign of Jahangir, sometime during
the early seventeenth century. The work was variously known as the
Tarikh-i-Firishta and the Gulshan-i-Ibrahim. In the introduction, a
resume of the history of Hindustan prior of the times of the Muslim
conquest is give, and also the victories progress of Arabs through the
east.
Tarikh-i-Firishta consists primarily of the following books.
 The kings of Ghazni and Lahore.

 The kings of Delhi.
 The kings of Dakhin-divded into 6 chapters.
 The kings of Gujarat.
 The kings of Malwa.
 The kings of Khandesh.
 The kings of Bengal and Bihar.
 The kings of Multan.
 The kings of Sind.
 The kings of Kashmir.
 The kings of Malabar.
 An account of Saints of India.
 Conclusion-An account of the climate and geography of India.
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II. Tarikh –i-Firuz Shahi:- Ziauddin Barani (1285-1357) was a Muslim
historian and political thinker who lived in Delhi Sultanate during
Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq and Firuz Shah’s reign. He was best known
for composing the Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi, a major historical work on
medieval India, which covers the period from the reign of Ghiyas-ud-
din-Balban to the first six years of reign of Firuz Shah Tughluq and the
Fatwa-i- Jahandari which details the Muslim caste system in South
Asia. The Tarikh-i- Firuz Shahi (Firuz Shah’s History 1357) was an
interpretation of the history of the Delhi Sultanate up to then-present
Firuz Shah Tughlaq. In the Tarikh –i-Firuz Shahi, Barani claims that
whatever he was written is true and his account is considered as
trustworthy by the modern scholars. But, though Barani refers many
times to the sources of information, he did not consult his
contemporary works. This resulted in the sketchy description of Ala-ud-
din Khalji’ wars in Chittor, Ranthambhor and Malwa and the Deccan
campaigns of Malik Kafur.
III. Tarikh –I Firuz Shahi-ii :-Shama Siraj Afif: The book is devoted
exclusively to the reign of Firuz Tughluq and constitutes the most
accurate and authentic contemporary account of his times. The book is
unique in sense that it also describes the life and conditions of the
people at large.
IV. Khaza’in ul Futuh of Amir Khusrau:-The Khaza’in ul Futuh was
written by Amir Khusrau who was a contemporary of the rulers of Delh
from Jalal-ud-Din Khalji to Muhammad Tughlaq. The author was
partial towards Ala-ud-din Khalji. While he praises his master very
much, he omits his faults and shortcomings. Being an eye-witness of
what he has written, his work is of very great importance. The
description of Mongol invasions and string policy adopted by him are of
great historical value. The work has been translated into English by
Prof. Habib.
Q.:- How are travelogues an important literary sources of the Delhi

Sultans?
Ans.: Some Travelers who left accounts
Tenth – eleventh centuries.
973-1048 A.D Muhammad bin ahmad Abu Raihan Al-Baruni (from

Uzbekistan) tahqiqi-Hind or Tarikh-i- Hind.
Thirteen Century.
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1254-1323 A.D Ibn Battuta from Morocco (Rehla).
Fifteenth Century.
1413-1482 Abd al Razzaq kamal al- Din Ishaq al – Samarandi 1466-1472

Afanasii Nikitich Russia.
Sixteenth Century.
1518 Duarte Barbosa, death from Portugal (Book of Duarte Barbosa).
1562 Seydi Ali Reis from Turkey.
1536- 1600 Antonio Monserrate from Spain.
1. Travelogues of Ibn Battuta:- Among the travelers, Muhammad –bin-

Abdullah-bin-Mohammad –bin-Ibrahim of Morocco who is widely known
as Ibn Battuta (1304-1377 A.D) appears pre-eminently for his travel
accounts. He isthe writer of the famous work in Arabic Tuhfat al Nuzzar
fi Gharaib al Amsar wa Adjaib al- Asfar. This work is commonly known
as Rehla of Ibn Battuta, which gives detail information of Muhammad
bin Tughlaq’s reign. He visited Bengal in 1343-1345 A.d. its significance
in studying socio-economic history of Eastern India lies in the fact that a
separate section of the work deals with the life and conditions in Bengal,
which the traveler witnessed during the time (1343-1345) of his stay in
this region. The English version by H A R Gibb, entitled the Travels of
Ibn Battuta is the best.
2. Abu Rayhan Muhammad Ibn Ahmad Biruni:-Often known as Alberuni,
Al Beruni or variants,(born 5 september 973 in Kath, Khwarezm(now in
Uzbekistan), died 13 December 1048 in Ghazni today’s Afghanistan was
a Persian and polymath of the 11 th century. He was a scientist and
physicist, an anthropologist and comparative sociologist, an astronomer
and chemist, an Islamic philosopher and theologian and an scholar and
teacher. One such scholar was al-Beruni (973-1048; another was
Firdausi), “commissioned” by Mahmud of Ghazni to produce his
monumental commentary on Indian philosophy and culture-Kitab fi
tahqiq ma li’l –hind. In his search for pure knowledge he is undoubtedly
one of the greatest minds in Islamic history. His Tahqiq-i-Hind is also
called INDICA. His observations of Indian conditions, systems of
knowledge social norms, religions….. are probably the most incisive
made by any visitor to India. Al – Beruni was the first Muslim scholar to
study India and its Brahminical tradtition. He is called the father of
Indology. He is also called the earliest and greatest polymath of the
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Islamic world. Alberuni, Kitab-ul-Hind, English translation by E.C
Sachu, Alberuni’s India.
3. Abd ur- Razzaq:- Was born in heart on 7 november, 1413. His father
Jalal-ud-Din Ishaq was the qaizi and Imam of the Shah Rukh’s court in
Heart. He studied with his father and his elder brother Sharif-ud-Din
Abdur Qahhar and together with them obtained an Ijazah (license) from
Shams-ud-Din Mohammad Jazari in 1429. After the death of his father
in 1437, he was appointed the qazi of the Shah Rukh’ s court.
4. Travel and writing:-Abdu-Ur-Razzaq was the ambassador of Shah
Rukh, the Timurid dynasty ruler of Persia to Calicut, India, from
January 1442 to January 1445. He choronicled his mission of Indian in
his book entitled Matla-us-Sadain wa Majma-ul-Bahrain (the rise of the
Two auspicious constellations and the confluence of the two oceans), a
major work which contained an overview of the history of his part of the
world from 1304 to 1470.
Abd-Ur-Razzaq’s Matla-us-Sadain was Majma-ul-bahrain also
included a detailed account of diplomatic relations between Shah
Rukh’s state and the ming China. In particular, it incorporated the
first hand account the mission Shah Rukh sent to Beijing in 1420-
1422, written by its participant Ghiyath al-din Naqqash.
Q.:- Discuss Briefly Hagiographic Literature under Delhi Sultans. Or

Introduce briefly Mulfuzat of Medieval India.?
Ans.:-Hagiographical literature that includes Malfuzat (pl.of malfuz i.e, Table

talks/ discourses), Maktubat (letters) and Tazkirah (I,e biographical accounts)
of the Sufi Saints offers information of historical importance. S.H Askari is the
first Indian scholar to use this source in writing socio-culture history of
medieval India. Modern workers in Islam in the Indian subcontinent have not
made adequate use of Sufi literature in analyzing the political, social and
economic history of Medieval India. The enormous collection of this literature,
largely in Persian may conveniently be divided into the following categories:
a) Treatises written by Sufis on the theory and practice of Sufism.

b) Letters written by Sufis.
c) Discourses by Sufi leaders called Malfuzat.
d) Collection of Sufi poetry.
 Amir Hassan Sijzi’s Fawaid ul Fuad:- It contains the conversion of
Sheikh Nizamuddin Auliya from 1307-1322 AD, compiled by Amir
Hassan Sijzi Dehlavi, a noted Persian poet. It throws valuable light on
the religion, culture and literature of the period. The Fawaid ul Fuad has
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been planned and prepared in a very systematic manner. Every meeting
(majlis)has a dated and the conversations are recorded in a very exact,
accurate and systematic manner. The Fawa’id al- Fu’ad begins with the
conversation of Shaikh Nizamal-Din Auliya in his Majlis on Sha’ban
3,707 AH/January 28,1308 CE, the last assembly proceeding recorded
of 188 gatherings. Compared to that, the Fawaid ul—Fu’ad has very
limited record in number. But it has very depth and light on the normal
and apritual ideals of the Shaikh Nizamal-Din Awliya and his method of
instructions and guidance.
 Kashf ul Mahjub:-In 1039 Abu’l Hassan al Hujwiri, a native of Hujwir
near ghazni in Afghanistan was forced to cross the Indus as a captive of
invading Turkish army. He settled in Lahore and wrote a book in Persian
called Kashf-ul-Mahjub (unveiling of the veiled) to explain the meaning of
Tasawuf. It enables historians to see how traditions outside the
subcontinent influenced Sufi Thought in India.
 Hamid Qalander Khair en ul Majalis: -It is a compilation of the
conversation of Sheikh Nasir –ud-Din Chirag Dehlavi. This work is not
only important for the study of mysticism but also provides valuable
importance about the market control policy of Alauddin Khalji, impact of
Mongol invasion etc.
 Siyar ul Arifin:- The biographical accounts of 14 Chisti and
Suhrawardy saints, complied by Hamid-bin—Fazullah in 1536 AD.
 Tazkirah:-Of this category, the Siyar-Ul-Auliya (lives of the Saints
especially the biographical sketches of the Chishti Sufi Saints; a
collection of the discourses of Nizamuddin Auliya, (d 1325 AD0 by Amir
Khurd and Manaqib –ul- Asfiya (the glorious deeds of the Saints; the
earliest tazkira of the Firdausi Sufi Saints written by Sheikh Shuaib
Firdausi deserve to be mentioned here. The particular importance of
these kinds of sources lies in the fact that they are accrued from a
source of different genre, which had little to do with politics.
Q.:- Give a brief description of the cause of Turkish Conquest of India?
Discuss the causes of the success of the Turk against the Rajputs in
North India? Or why Rajputs failed against Turks in India?
Ans:- The Turkish invasions refer of two phases of campaigns into India – first
under the Ghaznavidsunder Mahmud of Ghazni, and the second under the
Ghurids, led by Muizuddin Muhammad Ghurids, - which were conducted in
the 11th 12thcenturies and culminated in the establishment of the Delhi
Sultanate in 1206 A.D. They are called “Turkish”because they were led by
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people who were ethnically Turks, though they were influenced by Persian
traditions. The causes of these invasions have been the subject of great among
historians, I,e, whether they were guided by religious zeal or political –
economic motives. Mahmud of Ghazni was the ruler of this Ghaznavid dynasty
from 998 to 1130 A.D. he was the first to formally adopt the title of ‘Sultan’. It
was with him that one sees the culmination of the process of growth of
monarchial institution. Mahmud wanted to boost his image and build a larger
statein the west and the Qara-Khitais in the Trans-Oxiana region. With the
establishment of the Delhi Sultanate, Islam spread across large parts of the
subcontinent. In 1204, Bakhtiar Khilji led the Muslim conquest of Bengal,
marking the eastern-most expansion of Islam at the time.
Economic Motivations:-The predatory nature of these raids has been

discussed by Eaton and Davis. For the Ghaznavds, it was more a question of
material gains. They had come to India for plunder, not permanent settlement.
So they raided and looted Indian cities, including their richly endowed temples
loaded with movable wealth, with a view to financing their larger political
objectives in Khurasan. Even the Ghurids benefitted In their campaigns, from
the loot collected. It is significant that after the overthrow of the Gahadavala
king, Muizzuddin’s army marched to occupy not the capital kanauj, but
Banaras and Asni, where the kings fallen treasure was known to have been
deposited.
Religious Zeal:- One view of the Turkish Invasion of India was that they have
the desire to spread Islam, they used religious terminology to describe events
and attempted to celebrate and exaggerate the victories of the Turks s
achievements of Islam. Muslims who were killed in these wars were given the
status of Shahid (witness or martyr), while those who survived were called
ghazi (holy warrior). Muizzuddin’s forces are designated as ‘the army of Islam’.
Sometimes the campaigns were called jihad(holy war). But this retrospective,
hyperbolic and rhetorical character can be attributed to the background of the
writers, most of whom came from the Ulema class.
Causes of Ghorian Invasions:
1. The imperialistic ambition of the Ghurids was one of the main causes
for their Indian invasion.
2. The perpetual conflict of the Ghurids with the Seljukids and the
Turkish tribes across the Oxus impelled the Ghurids towards India.
3. The rising power of the Khwarizimi empire severely limited the Central
Asian ambitions of the Ghurids. Khorasan, which was the bone of
contention between the two, after being conquered by the Khwarizimi
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Shah left no option for the Ghurids but to look for expansion towards
India.
Q: Discuss the cause of success of the Turks against the Rajputs?
Ans: Political Cause:
i. There was no powerful central authority in India, and India at that time
was divided into a number of independent Rajput states.
ii. There were tough mutual fights among the Rajput states as there was
disunity among the Rajput rulers.
iii. Lack of political insight, neglect of the frontiers and feudalism were
the other causes.
Military Causes:
i. Lack of appropriate military strategy as Rajput army advanced with all

the wings together the right the centre and the left as compared to Turks
who used a special strategy.
ii. Rajputs did try to find out the latest techniques and weapons used in
foreign lands.
iii. The Rajput rulers and their commanders did not have the requisite
capacity to infuse zeal in their armies, as they lacked the military
leadership.
iv. Overdependence on the ruler, lack of offensive etc were other causes.
Religious Causes:
i. Hinduism had no unified ideology to bind them together to the extent the
Muslims had.
ii. Ghazi spirit of the Muslim army for the Muslim soldiers the fight against
the Rajputs i.e. Hinduism was a jihad (Holy War). The soldiers were
thoroughly convinced that if they died for their religion they would go to
paradise. A Ghazi is one who gives his life in defense of Islam.
Social Causes:
i. The caste system had divided the Hindu society and injected the venom
of hatred, humiliation, inequality, untouchability etc. which produced a
decaying society.
ii. Slave system of the Muslim ruler. The slaves maintained by the Muslim
rulers were very faithful to their masters; they were always ready to die
for their masters.
iii. Superstition of the Hindus.
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Administrative Factors:
i. The Rajput rulers did not set up on efficient spy system.

ii. It is also very unfortunate that sometimes Rajput officials proved
treacherous as they let out some of the military secrets to the enemy.
Significance of the Conquest
The conquest of northern India by the Ghorids and the establishment of

the Delhi Sultanate not only changed the existing political structure but
also brought economic, social and Religious changes. There are divergent
views on it by different historians. Some of the changes that had taken
place as a result of the Turkish Empire are as under.
1. Political Changes: The most important effect was the centralizing of the
administration by liquidating multi state system and bringing significant
changes in the whole feudal system that was prevalent in India. They
brought with them the institution of Intend with the help of this
institution they linking up this institution they linking up the far-flung
parts of the empire to one centre. With the rise of the
centralized monarchy in northern India. There has a marked change in
the political horizon. The political outlook became broader and the areas
of isolation begin to as a result India became a part of large Muslim
world.
2. Economic Changes: In the opinion of Mohammad Habib, with the
advent of Turks, the change, which they brought were drastic enough to
deserve the designation of “Urban Revolution” and “Rural Revolution”.
But D.D Kosambi regarded the changes no more than intensifying
elements already present in India feudalism.
The Turks introduced uniform
system of currency, new kind of Taxaliar. They introduced new
techniques of irrigation system. They introduced many new crops paper
in India was introduced by Turks. The credit of introducing silk breeding
also goes to Muslims technology. Trade and commerce also developed to
a large extent. They also introduced new techniques in the field of
Textiles and building constructions.
The result of above mentioned measures was that
state produced more than what it required for self incharge.
3. Cultural changes: India was one of the greatest centres of learning in
Ancient times during Hinduism and Buddhism. But there started a
process of degeneration in the work of political disability. This
contributed in the entire breakdown of the rich cultural ethos. But with
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the coming of Turkish, Indian cultural system underwent a drastic
change. The Sufi Saints established Khanqas and had the credit of
bringing greater degree of cultural transformation by introducing, the
appealing message of human equality and social harmony. In the field of
architecture new central Asian styles have been introducing in the art of
building. Introduction of Dome and Arch in buildings are worth to
mention.
4. Military Impact of the Turks: With the advent of Turks there occurred
change in the character and composition of the Indian armies and
methods of their requirement and maintenance. Now the recruitment
was thrown open to the merit. The practice of feudal levies was rejected
in favor of standing armies. Centrally recruited, paid and administered.
They also introduced new techniques in it.
5. Religious Changes: Divergent views are found on the issue, whether the
Turks forced the Hindus to embrace Islam or not.
It appears from contemporary sources that the Hindu
continued to celebrate their religious and social festivals. The influence
of Sufi Saints was visible on the religions outlook of the people.
Another important change was
that they introduced a new language in the administration that was
Persian. We can say at last the
Turks did not left any field untouched. So, Mohammad Habib was
correct to a great extent by designating it urban and Rural Revolution”.
Challenges and Response during Mamluk Period with special reference to:
Iltutmish (1211 – 1236 A.D): Qutub-ud-din Aibak was the first ruler of the
slave dynasty. He laid the foundation of Muslim sultanate in India.
Malik shamus-ud-din Iltutmish was his slave and son –
in – law was the greatest of the slave kings, who succeeded Aram Shah as
the sultan in 1211 A.D. After the death of Aibak and even during the reign
of Aram Shah chaos and confusion, political, instability and revolts from
different quarters had became the order of the day. Iltutmish therefore
boldly faced this problem. He suppressed the revolts of rebellions nobles
very firmly and avoided them such a harsh punishment that none of them
or their successors dream of challenging his authority again. Some
Qutubi sardarts (Amirs) refused to accept Iltumish as the successor of
Aibak. Therefore Iltutmish could not rule peacefully without repressing
these firms. He defeated them completely in the battlefield of “Jad” many
Qutubi sardars were put to death and rest of them accepted him as their
sultan. Ghazni’s ruler Taj-ud-din Yaldauz also

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refused to recognize Iltutmish as the sultan. So, now, Iltutmish took care
of Yalduag. Itlutmish gave him a crushing defeat. He was taken prisoner
and was jailed in Badayun where he died in prison. In this way one more
obstacle in the way ended. After the
death of Aibak’s death Nasirudin Kubacha proclaimed himself
independent ruler of Multan and Sindh, in 1215 A.D. He captured Lahore
in 1217 A.D. Iltimish stanched Lahore back from him but he could not
finish his power completely. In 1228 A.D. Iltutmish sent an army to
conquer Multan via Lahore. This time Qubacha committed suicide by
jumping into river. The provinces of
Bengal and Bihar were under Aibak, but Ali Murdan declared his
independence after Aibak’s in 1226 A.D. Iltutmish sent his armies thrice
against Ali Mardan. Finally, he succeeded in crushing Ali Mardan.
Iltutmish also very politely and diplomatically averted the attack of
changeiz Khan in 1221 A.D. and save his kingdom from a big scourge. By
dint of his ability and intelligence. Iltutmish was able to establish on
independent empire for himself. He has strengthened the foundations of
the Muslim empire in India. Ghori and Aibak had no time to organize the
conquered territories and Iltutmish fulfilled their incomplete mission.
In fact,
Iltutmish was a capable and intelligent ruler. Originally being a slave,
Iltutmish rose to the position of the Sultan, which is clear evidence of his
abilities. In this context, Dr. Datta has rightly remarked. “Iltutmish may
justly be regarded as the greatest ruler of the early Turkish sultanate of
Delhi.
Balban’s Theory of kingship: The theory of kingship propounded by Balban

led to the adoption of the policy of blood and iron. Balban was convinced
that the only way to face the internal and external dangers was to
increase the power and prestige of the sultan. (King).
Sward was the chief weapon of
Balban to achieve his objectives. He used this weapon with a great
vengeance against his rivals, rebels, robber’s invaders etc. He executed
his policy of blood and iron very successfully and raised the prestige and
power of the sultan in the eyes of the nobles and his subjects.
Principles of Balban’s Theory of Kingship:
1. Divine right of Kingship: He said that the king was the representative
of God on the earth. He declared this to make the nobles believe that he
got the crown not through their mercy but by the mercy of God.

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2. King as a despot: He said to his son Bughra Khan that kingship is the
embodiment of despotism. He declared that he was there to rule and
people to obey him.
3. Royal descent: He declared that he was the descendant of the legendary
Turkish warrior Afrasiyab and that circumstances only had made him a
slave.
4. Recognition of Tripartite relationship: Balban emphasized the
relationship between God and the sultan, sultan and the people and the
God and the people. He considered himself the representative of God on
the earth to look after the welfare of the people. People created by God.
Alau’d-Din Khalji (1296-1316A.D):

After the death of Balban in 1286 A.D. the throne of Delhi was
ascended by his weak successors. Who were unable to consolidate the
empire left by Balban. Jalaluddin cleverly took advantage of the situation
and killed Qaiqbad, the sultan and his son and himself got on the throne
of Delhi in 1290 A.D. and thus laid the foundation of Khalji dynasty in
India. However only after six years Jalaluding was murdered by his son-
in-law Alau’d-din Khalji in 1296 A.D. and ascended the throne of Delhi
himself. The throne got by the Alau’d-din Khalji was the bed of roses for
him but full of thorns.. He had to face internal and external dangers.
After murdering his uncle, Alau’d-din won over most of the nobles
and soldiers to his side by a lavish use of gold. But for some time, he had
to face a series of rebellions-some by disgruntled nobles and some by
Alau’d-din’s own relations. To overawe his opponents, he adopted
methods of utmost severity and ruthlessness. Most of the nobles who had
defeated to him by the lure of gold were either killed or dismissed and
their property confiscated several punishments were given to the
rebellions members of his own family. He resorted to a whole sale
massacre of the Mongols, a couple of thousands of them having. These
new converts had rebelled, demanding a large share in the loot in Gujarat.
He gave harsh punishment even to the wives and children’s of these
rebels, a practice, which according to the historian Barani was a new one
and was continued by his successors. He framed a series of regulations to
prevent the nobles from conspiring against him. They were forbidden to
hold banquets or festivities, or to form marriage alliances without the
permission of sultan. He also instituted a spy service to inform the sultan
of all that the nobles said and did.
On the second hand the most dangerous thing for
Ala-ud-din was the mongol invasions. He had to face more than dozen

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invasions. These invasions started from the end of 1296 A.D. and
continued upto 1308 A.D. Here follows or description of these invasions.
In 1303 A.D. the
Mongols attacked India under the leadership of Targi. After a battle of 2
months. The Khalji, soldiers pushed them back.
The Mongols still invaded India in 1304 A.D. Ali Bagh and Khwja Tash
attacked India. Alludin sent a large army under the command of Malik
Kafur. Who defeated the Mongols at a place named Amroha. Several
Mongols were made captives and killed their heads were used in erecting
the Cis Minar.
Alau’din adopted definite policy to push away the Mongols. He got all the
old forts repaired and eracted new ones also. He increased the military,
equipments like Balban, he also strengthened the frontier aforts of
Samana, Dipalpur, and Multan. After the death of Iltutmish in the
presence of internal and external revolts Balban like great king can not
think about the expansion of the boundaries of the sultanate. But Allu’ud-
din extend the boundaries of his sultanate in presence of external revolts
so, the twenty years rule of this greatest sultan came to an end with his
death on 2nd January 1316 A.D.
Under Khaljis: The first of the Khalji sultans, Jalaludin, did neither have will
nor resources to undertake any large-scale expansionist programme. His
six years reign was gripped by the internal contradistinction of having to
reconcile between the policies of the sultan and the interests of his
supporters. The resolution of this problem came in the unfortunate
association of the sultan, Alluddin Khalji, his assassin and successor, had
a different imperial design. He was to herald an age of territorial
annexation and expansion of the Sultanate saw the frontiers of the
sultanate reaching close to the tip of the southern peninsula by the middle
of the fourteenth century.
1. Conquest of Gujarat: In 1297 A.D. Ala-ud-din sent his forces to conquer

Gujarat. His army besieged Anhilwara and conquered Gujarat. King
Karan Dev ran to Devigiri along with his daughter Debal Devi. Thus
Gujarat came into his hands.
2. Conquest of Ranthambhor: Rana Hamir Dev was the independent ruler
of Ranthambhor. He had given shelter to the Mongols. Alla-ud-din thus
became his enemy. In 1299 A.D. he sent an army under the command of
Nusrat Khan and Ulugh Khan to conquer Ranthambhor. Rana Hamir
fought bravely. Nusrat Khan was killed in this battle. As a result the

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army of Ala-ud-din got confused. At the same time, Ala-ud-din himself
took over the command of the army ultimately fort of Ranthambhor fell
to Ala-ud-din in 1301 A.D.
3. Conquest of Mewar: After the conquest of Ranthambhor Ala-ud0din
attacked Mewar. In 1303 A.D. he besieged chittor and captivated Rana
Ratan Singh. Ala—ud-din entrusted chittor to his son Khizar Khan and
himself returned to Delhi. In 1311 A.D. the Rajputs killed Khizar Khan
and reoccupied Chittor.
4. Conquest of Mewar: After the conquest of Chittor Aluddin directed the
governor of Multan, Ain-ul-Mulak to march against Malwa, King Mahlak
Devof Malwa gave him a tough fight, but he was defeated in the end. The
Muslims occupied Ujjain, Dhar, Chanderi, Mandu and Malwa.
After their conquest Ala-ud-din turned
towards, southern India, under the table general “Hazar Dinari of Malik
Kafur.
1. Conquest of Devigiri: Malik Kafur set out to conquer Devgiri in 1306
A.D. at the head of a large army king Rama Chander of Yadav dynasty
ruled over Devgiri. Malik Kafur destroyed most of the Devigiri. In the end
Rama Chander had to make a treaty with Muslims.
2. Conquest of Warangal: Ala-ud-din ordered Malik Kafur to attack
Warangal in 1309 A.D. plundering and looting on the way Kafur reached
Telangana and besieged Warangal. The Kaikatya king Pratap Rudra Dev
put a hard defense, but he submitted in the end.
3. Conquest of Dwar Samudra and Madura: In 1310 A.D Ala-ud-din sent
Kafur to attack Dwar Samudra, the capital of Hoysala kingdom in the
Far East. The Hoysala king, veer Vallabh III fought bravely. In the end he
had to pray treaty. After some time Malik Kafur attacked the Pandya
Kingom Madura and looted it.
4. Re – Conquest of Devgiri: In 1307 the ruler of Devgiri, Rama Chander
had accepted the sovereignty of the sultan, but after his death, his son
Shanker Dev became the ruler of Devigiri. He refused to pay the annual
tribute to the Sultan, so, Kafur attacked Devigiri. He defeated Shanker
Devi killed him and occupied Devgiri.
Ala-ud-din was in fact a brave soldier
and a diplomat. His south ward campaigns were aimed at achieving two
basic objective.
1. A formal recognition of the authority of Delhi Sultan over there regions
and.
2. The amassing of maximum wealth at the minimal loss of life. His policy
of not annexing the conquered territories but accepted the

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acknowledgement of the Sultan’s suzerainty speaks of Ala-ud-din’s
political sagacity.
Q: Discuss the economic reforms of Allaudin Khilji with special reference

to market regulation?
Ans: According to K. S. Lal “the economic reforms of Allaudin Khiliji form a

conspicuous, feature of his administration”. Allaudin was the first ruler
in the history of medieval India who introduced some economic reforms
in the country on modern lines.
Some scholars are of the view that the main
motive of Allaudin in the introduction of economic reforms was to
promote the welfare of his subjects. But this view does not seem to be
correct. The real cause of his
reform was that he needed money to maintain a large and efficient army
to fight against the Mongols and suppress internal revolts to meet the
financial difficulties he boldly bringing down and controlling the price as
under.
1. Regulation of Prices: He issued regulation to control the prices of all

commodities of common uses like Barely, wheat, rice; cloth etc. prices of
Slaves were also fixed. Weight nd measures were made uniform
throughout the empire if any shopkeeper cheated a customer as
customer as regard the weight of the commodity sold, an equal quantity
of flesh was cut from his body.
2. Control over Supplies: All the local procedures within 100 miles from
Delhi were asked to keep only 10 mounds of grain with them and sell the
surplus to the Govt. In every market the Govt. appointed spies called
Manhis.
3. Control over Transport System: Allaudin also controlled the system of
transport of goods. Generally the Banjars carried the goods from one
place to another by the Multani traders or all types of facilities were
provided to them to more goods from one place to another.
4. Control over the markets: He appointed high officers called Shahnai-i-
Mandi (superintendent of market) to enforce market regulations. He was
assisted by a large staff. All merchants had to register themselves in the
office of Shahan-i-Mandi.
5. Rationing System: More land states that Alluadin also introduced the
system of rating wherever any draught or famine occurred in any area.
The rationing towns were divided into Mohallas and in each Mohalla

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grain was supplied to registered dealers called Baqla. The Baqlas were
not to sell more than half a mound of grain to any person.
Under Tughluqs: The tughluqs came to power in Delhi when Ghiyasuddin

Tughuluq ascended the throne in 1320. The sultanate was suffering from
unsettled political conditions and demanded immediate attention of the
new ruler. The outlying provinces had proclaimed independence as the
effective control of the sultanate had shrunk only to the heartland. The
administrative machinery was completely out of gear and the treasury had
been completely depleted. Ghiyasuddin naturally addressed himself first
to the task of restoring the exchequer and the administration. But soon
after that come the question of restoring prestige and authority in the
outlying parts of the empire.
1. The South: In 1321, Ulugh Khan (later Muhammad Tughluq) started for
the south with a large army, without much resistance in the way he
reached Warangal. After two sieges, each lasting four or five months, the
ruler Rai Rudrer Dev finally decided to surrender. Warangal was annexed
to the sultanate under direct imperial\ administration.
In the same way Malbar was brought
under direct control.
2. East India: The expedition in the eastern parts of India came as a
consequence of the ruler of Jajnagar in Orissa, had given support to Rai
Rudra Dev of Warangal at the time of imperial offensive against the
latter. Ulugh Khan therefore, after leaving Warangal, a fierce battle took
place in which victory sided with Ulugh Khan. Jajnagar was annexed and
made a part of the Sultanate. Bengal was another kingdom in
the east, which had always been a hotbed of sedition. In 1323-24 a
fratricidal quarrel broke out in Lakhnauti after the death of Feroz Shah.
In the battle that ensued the force of Delhi easily pushed back Bengal
army and pursued them for some distance. One of the warring groups
led by Nasirudin was conferred a tributary status at Lakmauti.
3. North – West and North: Since Allaudin’s expedition to Multan the
north – western frontier of the sultanate had removed fixed.
Subsequently sultanas were mostly occupied with the affairs of the south
and Gujarat Tughluq first led campaigns to Kalanaur and Peshawar. The
task seems to have been accomplished without much difficulty.
The Sultan also sent
an expedition against Qarachil (Himachal) for the hilly states of
Himachal. The invasion was ill planned. The seesaw was unfavorable due
to bad weather only three soldiers came back to Delhi.

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Mohammad Tughluq had launched an ambitious project of
bringing Khurasan under submission. A large army of soldiers for this
purpose and the soldiers were paid one year’s salary in advance. The
project was abandoned. In this way Mahmud Tugluq could not
extend the Delhi sultanate but sharanked its boundaries.
Mohammad Tughluq (1324-51 A.D.):

Mohammad Tughluq was a highly ambitious. He wanted to conquer
each and every part of the earth and wanted to become the sultan of the
world. He is remembered as a ruler who undertook a number of bold
experiments and showed of ken interest in agriculture. But in long run
instead of extending the Delhi sultanate, Mahmud Taghluq rather
weakened it and reduced it. Mahmud Taghluq
made a plan to conquer khurasan. As a matter of fact the sultan learnt
that the Mongols under Tarnishrin and the king of Egypt had planned to
conquer Khurasan. He could not tolerate his fact that would have
disturbed that balance of power in central Asia with a view to checking
this invasion he gathered a big force of 370000 for the conquest of
Khurasan and paid one year’s salary to such a big force. But after one
year it became known that neither the Mongols to attack Khurasan.
The sultan also
sent an expedition for the conquest of the hilly states of Himachal. The
invasion was ill planned and undertaken at a time, when the season was
unfavorable. Due to bad weather most of the soldiers perished. It is said
that only 10 came back alive to Delhi. But the hilly Rajas acknowledged
the suzerainty of the sultan.
In 1326 A.D. the cousin of Mahmud Tughluq
revolted in Sagar. The sultan sent forces against him. The rebel leader was
defeated and later put to death. Ibn-Batuta says, “they bound his legs and
tied his arms to his necks and conducted him to the sultan. He ordered
the prisoner to be taken to his women relations and there insulted and
spot upon him. Then he ordered him to be skinned alive and as his skin
was torn off. His flesh was cooked in the rice. Some was sent to his
children and his wife and the reminder was put into a great dish and
given to not touch it. The sultan ordered his skin to be stuffed with straw
and to be placed along with the remains of Bahadur Bura and to
prohibited throughout the country. In 1327
A.D. Kishul Khan of Multan raised the standard of revolt. Mahmud
Tughluq marched against him personaly. He was defeated, arrested and
assassinated.

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In 1338 A.D. Fakher-ud-din Mubarak shah revolted in Bengal
and declared himself independent. The sultan was so much preoccupied
with troubles in other parts that he could not take action against the
rebels and Bengal also became independent.
In 1324 A.D. Krishnanayak the son of
Pratap Rudra Dev organized a confederacy of Hindu chiefs and conquered
the territories of Dwar Samudra, Warangal and Malabar. Thus all these
territories became independent and lost to Delhi sultanate. With
the recall of Quthugh Khan Devigiri also revolted. The sultan marched
with a big force and defeated the rebels. But when left the Devigiri, the
Afghans raised of their leader Hassan Gangu to the throne. Hassan being
to rule with the title of Phana Shah and he laid the foundation of the
famous Bhamini Kingdom. Taghi raised the standard of revolt in
Gujarat, Mahmud Tughluq marched against him the later run away
towards Sindh. The sultan fallowed him to Multan but on the way he fall
ill and died on March 20th, 1351 A.D. In this way
Mahmud Tughluq could not extend Delhi sultanate. He did not succeed as
a king. Instead of strengthening the Delhi sultanate. He weakened it and
reduced it. Many parts of the empire went out of control. In words of R.S.
Sharama. In so far as south was concerned “as all sides the flames of war
and rebellion were kindled and of the distant provinces nothing remained
in the possession of the sultan, except Gujarat and Devigiri. Even in these
last named provinces troubles were fast srewing.
Vijayanagara Empire:
The Vijayanagara Empire, was established in 1336
by Harihara and his brother Bukka of Sangama Dynasty. The empire rose
to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the southern powers to
ward off Islamic invasions by the end of the 13th century. It lasted until
1646 although its power declined after a major military defeat in 1565 by
the Deccan sultanates. The empire is named after its capital city
of Vijayanagara, whose ruins surround present day Hampi, now a World
Heritage Site in Karnataka, India.[4] The writings of medieval European
travelers such as Domingo Paes, Fernão Nunes and Niccolò Da Conti, and
the literature in local languages provide crucial information about its
history. Archaeological excavations at Vijayanagara have revealed the
empire's power and wealth.
Differing theories have been proposed regarding the Vijayanagara
empire's origins. Many historians propose Harihara I and Bukka, the
founders of the empire, were and commanders in the army of the Hoysala

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Empire stationed in the Tungabhadra region to ward off Muslim invasions
from the Northern India. Others claim that they were Telugu people first
associated with the Kakatiya kingdom who took control of the northern
parts of the Hoysala Empire during its decline.[9] Irrespective of their
origin, historians agree the founders were supported and inspired
by Vidyaranya, a saint at the Sringerimonastery to fight the Muslim
invasion of South India.
State: The rulers of the Vijayanagara Empire maintained the well-functioning
administrative methods developed by their predecessors, the Hoysala,
Kakatiya and Pandya kingdoms, to govern their territories and made
changes only where necessary.[38] The King was the ultimate authority,
assisted by a cabinet of ministers (Pradhana) headed by the Prime
Minister (Mahapradhana). Other important titles recorded were the chief
secretary (Karyakartha or Rayaswami) and the imperial officers (Adhikari).
All high ranking ministers and officers were required to have military
training. A secretariat near the king's palace employed scribes and officers
to maintain records made official by using a wax seal imprinted with the
ring of the king. At the lower administrative levels, wealthy feudal
landlords (Goudas) supervised accountants (Karanikas or Karnam) and
guards (Kavalu). The palace administration was divided into 72
departments (Niyogas), each having several female attendants chosen for
their youth and beauty (some imported or captured in victorious battles)
who were trained to handle minor administrative matters and to serve
men of nobility as courtesans or concubines.
The empire was divided into five main provinces (Rajya), each
under a commander (Dandanayaka or Dandanatha) and headed by a
governor, often from the royal family, who used the native language for
administrative purposes. A Rajya was divided into regions
(Vishaya Vente or Kottam), and further divided into counties
(Sime or Nadu) themselves subdivided into municipalities
(Kampana or Sthala). Hereditary families ruled their respective territories
and paid tribute to the empire while some areas, such
as Keladi and Madurai, came under the direct supervision of a
commander.
On the battlefields, the king's commanders led the troops. The
empire's war strategy rarely involved massive invasions; more often it
employed small scale methods such as attacking and destroying
individual forts. The empire was among the first in India to use long
range artillery commonly manned by foreign gunners. (Gunners from
present day Turkmenistan were considered the best). Army troops were of

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two types: The king's personal army directly recruited by the empire and
the feudal army under each feudatory. King Krishnadevaraya's personal
army consisted of 100,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalrymen and over 900
elephants. This number was only a part of the army numbering over 1.1
million soldiers, a figure that varied as an army of two million has also
been recorded along with the existence of a navy as evidenced by the use
of the term Navigadaprabhu (commander of the navy). The army
recruited from all classes of society (supported by the collection of
additional feudal tributes from feudatory rulers), and consisted of
archers and musketeers wearing quilted tunics, shield men with swords
and poignards in their girdles, and soldiers carrying shields so large that
no armour was necessary. The horses and elephants were fully armoured
and the elephants had knives fastened to their tusks to do maximum
damage in battle.
Economy:
The empire's economy was largely dependent on agriculture.
Sorghum (jowar), cotton and pulse legumes grew in semi arid regions,
while sugarcane, rice and wheat thrived in rainy areas. Betel
leaves, areca (for chewing), and coconut were the principal cash crops,
and large scale cotton production supplied the weaving centers of the
empire's vibrant textile industry. Spices such as turmeric,
pepper, cardamom and ginger grew in the remote Malnad hill region and
were transported to the city for trade. The empire's capital city was a
thriving business centre that included a burgeoning market in large
quantities of precious gems and gold. Prolific temple-building provided
employment to thousands of masons, sculptors, and other skilled
artisans.
Land ownership was important. Most of the growers were tenant
farmers and were given the right of part ownership of the land over time.
Tax policies encouraging needed produce made distinctions between land
uses to determine tax levies. For example, the daily market availability of
rose petals was important for perfumers, so cultivation of roses received a
lower tax assessment. Salt production and the manufacture of salt
pans were controlled by similar means. The making of ghee (clarified
butter), which was sold as oil for human consumption and as a fuel for
lighting lamps, was profitable.[51] Exports to China intensified and
included cotton, spices, jewels, semi-precious stones, ivory, rhino horn,
ebony, amber, coral, and aromatic products such as perfumes. Large
vessels from China made frequent visits; some captained by the Chinese
Admiral Cheng Ho, and brought Chinese products to the empire's 300

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ports, large and small, on the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. The
ports of Mangalore, Honavar, Bhatkal, Barkur, Cochin, Cannanore,
Machilipatnam and Dharmadamwere the most important.
When merchant ships docked, the merchandise was taken into
official custody and taxes levied on all items sold. The empire's principal
exports were pepper, ginger, cinnamon, cardamom, myrobalan, tamarind
timber, an fistula, precious and semi-precious stones, pearls, musk,
ambergris, rhubarb, aloe, cotton cloth and porcelain.[52] Cotton yarn was
shipped to Burma and indigo to Persia. Chief imports from Palestine were
copper, quicksilver (mercury), vermilion, coral, saffron, coloured velvets,
rose water, knives, coloured camlets, gold and silver. Persian horses were
imported to Cannanore before a two week land trip to the capital. Silk
arrived from China and sugar from Bengal.
Social Life: Most information on the social life in Vijayanagara Empire comes
from the writings of foreign visitors and evidence that research teams in
the Vijayanagara area have uncovered. The Hindu caste system was
prevalent and rigidly followed, with each caste represented by a local body
of elders who represented the community. These elders set the rules and
regulations that were implemented with the help of royal
decrees. Untouchability was part of the caste system and these
communities were represented by leaders (Kaivadadavaru). The Muslim
communities were represented by their own group in coastal Karnataka.
[55]
The caste system did not, however, prevent distinguished persons from
all castes from being promoted to high ranking cadre in the army and
administration. In civil life, by virtue of the caste
system, Brahmins enjoyed a high level of respect. With the exception of a
few who took to military careers, most Brahmins concentrated on religious
and literary matters. Their separation from material wealth and power
made them ideal arbiters in local judicial matters, and their presence in
every town and village was a calculated investment made by the nobility
and aristocracy to maintain order. [56] However, the popularity of low-caste
scholars (such as Molla and Kanakadasa) and their works (including
those of Vemana and Sarvajna) is an indication of the degree of social
fluidity in the society.
The practice of Sati was common, though voluntary, and mostly
practiced among the upper classes. Over fifty inscriptions attesting to this
have been discovered in the Vijayanagara principality alone. These
inscriptions are called Satikal (Sati stone) or Sati-virakal (Sati hero
stone). Satikals commemorated the death of a woman by entering into
fire after the death of her husband while Sati-virakals were made for a

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woman who performed Sati after her husband's heroic death. Either way,
the woman was raised to the level of a demi-goddess and proclaimed by
the sculpture of a Sun and crescent moon on the stone.
The socio-religious movements of the previous centuries, such
as Lingayatism, provided momentum for flexible social norms to which
women were expected to abide. By this time South Indian women had
crossed most barriers and were actively involved in matters hitherto
considered the monopoly of men, such as administration, business and
trade, and involvement in the fine arts. Tirumalamba Devi who
wrote Varadambika Parinayam and Gangadevi who
wrote Madhuravijayam were among the notable women poets of the
era. Early Telugu women poets like Tallapaka Timmakka and Atukuri
Molla became popular during this period. The court of the Nayaks of
Tanjore is known to have patronised several women poets. The Devadasi
system existed, as well as legalized prostitution relegated to a few streets
in each city. The popularity of harems amongst men of the royalty is well
known from records.
Well-to-do men wore the Pethaor Kulavi, a tall turban made of silk and
decorated with gold. As in most Indian societies, jewellery was used by
men and women and records describe the use of anklets, bracelets, finger-
rings, necklaces and ear rings of various types. During celebrations, men
and women adorned themselves with flower garlands and used perfumes
made of rose water, civet musk, musk or sandalwood. In stark contrast to
the commoners whose lives were modest, the lives of the empire's kings
and queens were full of ceremonial pomp in the court. Queens and
princesses had numerous attendants who were lavishly dressed and
adorned with fine jewellery, their daily duties being light.

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Unit – II
Foundation of Mughal Empire
Babur (1526 – 30 A.D): The political condition on the eve of Babur’s invasion
of India was most applicable and discontent and dissensions reigned
supreme in the country. The Khalji Empire had broken into number of
states in the north Afghan sultanate of Delhi barley cost its shadow
beyond the city walls. In Rajputana there was about as much unity as in
the high lands of Scotland at the same period. For to the south of the king
of Vihanager was paramount beyond the Kistan River and a menace to
this unity neighbours of the Deccan.
Babur and Conquest of India: Zahir-ud-din Mohammad surname Babur (the

tiger), belonged Farghan a small Kingdom in central Asia. He represented
both Turki and Mongol race of Tartars and numbered two great conquers
among his ancestors. On the fathers side he was in the direct link of
Timur. While through his mother he descended from Changeiz Khan.
Almost from the day, when Babur succeeded his father Sheikh Mirza as
the ruler of Farghan. His life was crowded with adventure. He was soon
defeated and deprived from his kingdom by a distant relatives and
reduced from fugitive. Babur tied several times in van to gain his last
ancestral kingdom of Samarkund. Finally took Kabul in 1504 A.D. from
one of his uncles and established himself there as king.
After establishing himself at Kabul he also
developed an interest in the conquest of India. Fifteen years later he made
his first appearance in India and penetrated as for as the river Jehlum in
1519 A.D. In virtue of the conquest of Hindustan by Timur, Babur looked
upon the people of the country as his subjects. From 1519
A.D. to 1523 A.D. Babur led four expeditions towards the end of 1525
A.D. Babur left Kabul to conqueror India, Daulat Khan Lodhi, Governor of
Lahore surrendered after some intial resistance of huge army and
encountered Ibrahim Lodhi at Panipat. On 12 th April 1526 A.D. after a
weeks siege, Babur succeeded in routing the armies of Ibrahim Lodhi, who
died while fighting. The battle of Panipat completely changed the political
history of India and made Babur virtually the ruler of India. Then his
subsequent victories over the Rajputs under the leadership of Ranasanga
of Mewar in the battle of Khanaw (Agra) in 1527 A.D and the Afghans
under Mohammad Lodhi in the battle of Ghegra (Behar) in 1529 A.D.
consolidated the Mughal power in India.
Babur died in 1530 A.D.but before his death he won three
battles in India with his victory in the throne of Delhi. A throne coveted by

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every important ruler of India. With h\this he gave a severe blow to the
power of the Rajpurts. His victory at Gangra crushed the remaining power
of the Afghans. He thus succeeded in laying down the foundation of
Mughal period in India. That had the longest period of survival in India
from (1526 to 1857 A.D)
Humayun (1530-40): Nasir-din Mohammad Humayun popularly Known as

Humanyun was eldest son of Babur and had three step brothers viz,
Kamaran, Askari, and Hindal. The word Humanyun literally means
fortune or lucky. In fact he was the most unlucky of all the first six
Mughal rulers. He is probably the only king in Indian history whose rule
included two spells one from 1530- 40 A.D. and the other from 1555 – 56
A.D.
Problems and Difficulties: The throne bequea by Babur to the Humanyun

was not a bed of roses but full of thorns. He had to face several difficulties
right from his accession among the major factors which contributed to his
problems were the legacy of Baburs will, the unfriendly treatment of his
brothers and relatives and lastly the hostile attitude of the Afghans and
the Rajputs. After the death of Babur in
December 1530 A.D. Humayun was not allowed to ascend the throne by
the prime minister Khalifa Nisam-ud-din who wanted Mehdinkhawaja as
the ruler instead of Humayun. Mehdin Khawja as the ruler instead of
Humayun. Mehdin Khwaja brother – in- law considered to be a strong
person, a competent and experienced administrator. However the
conspiracy fell through lastly and Humayun ascended the throne of Agra
in on December 30, 1530 A.D.
Babur had got practically no time to
consolidate his position and authority and before he could do so he was
removed from the scene. The Rajputs had been weakened by Babur but
not completely crushed so, they gradually gained position and wanted to
regain their last territories which resulted in the weakening of Humayuns
position. There was no law of succession among Muslims, resulting into
the war of succession after the death of king.
Humayun made a mistake by dividing his empire among his
brothers and relatives. He gave Kamaran, the territories of Kabul and
Khandhar, Rohilkhand to Askari, Alwar and Mewar to Hindal, Badakshan
to Suliman Mirza and governoship of Jounpur to Mahmud Zaman Mirza
his brother – in – law. These divisions weakened the power, control and
undermined the strength of the empire. Kamaran was not satisfied,
forcefully occupied Punjab. In

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the addition to the problems from his brothers side Humayun had also
deal with many nobles who always trying to create problems to Humayun.
Althopugh the Afghans were defeated in the battles of Pnipat and Ghagra.
Mohammad Lodhi, Alu-din Lodhi and Sher Khan were ambitious to
capture the throne of Delhi and Sher Khan ultimately drove Humayun out
of the empire in 1540 A.D. and forced him to lead a life of wander for
about 15 years. Humayun himself was
lacking foresight and determination. He was slow understood men, slow to
aware opportunities, slow to decide and slow to win a battle. He was not
capable to visualize the situation. In short, he was faced with many
problems and which could have been overcame, if he possessed strong will
and tact. Truly he was not a good judge of men and circumstances,
laicized sustained effort and after a victory he would fritter away his
energy in rivalry. It has rightly been said that Humanyun for gave when
he should have punished. Naturally kind, like hearted and sociable. He
revealed at the table when he taught to have been in the saddle. His
character attracts but never dominated.
The Second Afghan Empire
Contribution of Sher Shah:

Sher Shah is one of those great persons of history who
blossomed out of dust into glory and rose to the highest pinnacle of
distinction by dint of their courage, ability and resource fullness as also by
the strength of their sward. He was neither born in purple nor sward. He
was neither born in purple nor could he boast of his origin from any high
family of religious or military leaders. The original
name of Sher Shah Suri was Farid. The son of a jagirdar. Hassan in Bihar,
who later himself became the jagirdar under the governor of Bihar. By dint
of his hard work dedication, honesty, ambition and tact fullness, Sher
Shah rose to the position of Deputy governor and then to the prime
minister of the Afghan king of Bihar.
Promotion of Trade and Commerce: Sher Shah paid great attention to the
fostering of trade and commerce and the improvements of
communications in his kingdom. For the development of trade, he restored
the old imperial road called grand trunk road and also built three other
roads, which connected various parts of his empire. For the convenience
of the travelers and trading carvans, he built about 1700 Sarais (inns) or
these roads, where the travelers could pass the night and keep their goods
in safe custody. Separate provision was made for hindues and Muslims in

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these sarais and efforts were made to settle villages around these sarais
and land set apart for their expenses. These sarais helped in quickening
trade and commerce. In the whole of his empire, no custom duty was
charged anywhere except at two spots at Sikrigali and the Indus.
The currency reforms of
Sher Shah also helped the growth of commerce and handicrafts. He fixed
standard weights and measures all over the empire and this proved
helpful in trade and commerce.
All the governors and amyls were directed to malre. Sure the safety of the
merchants and travelers well in every way. If a merchant died, none was to
seize his goods. The local officers were to protect the merchants and were
responsible for all the thefts that occurred.
All the steps taken for the growth of trade and
commerce led to the prosperity of the subjects. All these activities of Sher
Shah acted like a two edged sward for it added immensely not only to the
economic welfare not only to the economic welfare of the people, but also
to the material resource of his government.
Consolidation of Mughal Empire
Akbar the Great: Akbar was born on 15th Oct. 1542 A.D. at Amarkot in Sindh
during the exile of Humayun. After the death of Humayun with the help of
Bairam Khan occupied the throne and begin to rule.
Expansion and Consolidation: The death news of Humayun was received by

Akbar at Kalnaur at the age of 13. (13 year and 3 months). His tutor
Bairam Khan performed Akbars coronation ceremony in simple way.
Bairam Khan as a regent of Akbar begins to rule in the name of young
king. Akbar succeeded to a difficult [position. The Afghans were still
strong regrouping under Hemu. But with the help of his regent crushed all
the people who came in his way. The
Iranian scholar Bairam Khan immediately started consolidating the
administration of the reconquered region as Akbar regent Bairam Khan
defeated Hemu in the second battle of Panipat in 1556 A.D. and changed
the whole history of Mughal period. Akbar and Bairan Khan marched
towards Delhi and Agra and soon took the possession during four years of
Bairam Khans regency, Punjab, Ajmer, Gawaliar and Juidpur were
conquered and the rebellions and strong nobles were completely brought
under order and suitably punished. Bairam Khan
Victories made him proud. He begin to show undue favors to his friends
and relatives, which gave birth to strong conspiracies both at the court

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and in palace, which bring about Bairam Khans downfall. Mean while
Bairam Khan wanted to look the reigns of govt. in his own hands. Akbar
took the administration in his own hands. In spite of Bairam Khans
rebellion, he was pardoned and was asked to leave for Mecca, but was
assassinated in Gujarat on his way to Mecca. Akbar was a
born leader of men and can rightly claim to be one of the mightiest
sovereigns know to history. However his ambitions of conquest and
expansion were no different from those of other imperialists. He conquered
northern India from Agra to Gujarat and then from the boarders of Assam.
He conquered Malwa, Bihar, Bengal, Kashmir, Khandhar etc. and a part of
Ahmadnagar from Chand Bibi.
In 1585 A.D. Akbar moved to north – west frontier
in order to foil the attends of the ambitions of Abdullah Khan Uzebeg to
seize Kabul and stayed there until Abdullah Khans death in 1598 A.D.
The Mughal boundaries
extending from Sindh Baluchistan, Kabul and Kashmir to the Hindu Kush
were the strongest line of defense that had ever existed in India and no
other Indian ruler ever controlled such a formidable frontier as Akbar.
It may not be out of place to mention here that bring
pragmatist, Akbar was the first Muslim ruler to realize that without the
help of Hindus in general and Rajputs in particular no permanent empire
could be setup and consolidated in India. Accordingly he took measures to
secure their cooperation He abandoned the old policy of repression and
persecution of non – Muslims.
Akbar’s Religious Policy: Akbar was deeply interested in the study of religion
since his very childhood. He was a staunch Sunni Muslim in the
beginning but gradually he become to adopt a liberal religious policy. The
parent’s teachers and Sufis influence made him to adopt a liberal policy
in matters of him to adopt a liberal policy in matters of religion.
In 1562 his religious policy
became to change and he initiated tolerant religious policy towards
Hindus as:
i. In 1562, Akbar married the daughter of Raja Bihari Mal. He also

appointed his son Bhagwan Das and his grand son Man Singh to his
posts.
ii. He abolished the practice of making the prisoners of war to slaves and
then converting them forcibly to Islam.
iii. He abolished the pilgrimage tax.

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iv.His most important measures was that the abolition of Jazia in 1564 and
there by winning the gratitude of his Hindu subjects (People).
Ibadath Khana: In 1575 AD Akbar built auspicious hall in Fatepur Sikri

known as the Ibadat Khana where he invited religious and philosophical
conferences for discussion. He invited scholars of all creeds and
religions.
Royal Khutba: In June 1579, the emperor took the first major step on the
path. He diplaced the chief Imam of the Jamia Masjid of Fatehpur Sikri
and himself read the Khutba from th public. The Khutba documents are
as under:
i. Obey God; obey the profit and those who have authority among you.
ii. He told, that Akbar was the most just, most wise and most God fearing
king.
iii. He also told that who obey the king, obey the God and revolt against
the king is revolt against God.
Din-i-Illahi (1582): The next stage in the development of religious ideas of

Akbar came towards the end of 1581. He established a new faith known
as Din-i-Ilahi, and formulated the following regulation for his faith.
i. The followers of Din-i-Illahi believed in one God.

ii. They had their salvations; they would greet one another by uttering
the words Allahu Akbar Jalla Jalalahu.
iii. A member of Din-i-Illahi was not to eat meat during the month of his
birthday.
iv. Fire was to be regarded as something sacred.
v. No member should have blind faith.
vi. All members should show respect to all religions.
Nurudin Mohammad Jahangir (1605 – 27 A.D): After the death of Akbar in

1605 A.D prince Salim ascended the throne with the royal tital of Nurudin
Mohammad Jahnagir (world conqueror) Padshah, Ghazi. The beginning of
his reign was marked by an issuing a number of reforms and regulations
of a liberal nature. Assuring his subjects, peace, prosperity, justice and
protection of life and property.
Influence of Noorjahan: The most interesting part of Jahangirs reign are the
events connected with the advent of Noorjahan. She falls as it were the
pivot of which the History of Jahangirs reign twins. The original name of
Noorjahan was Mehru-Nisa daughter of Mirza Ghiyas Beigh of Persia, who

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had bought service in the court of Akbar. She was first married to Ali-
Qubli Khan (Sher Afghan). Who died, while fighting the governors of
Bengal. Mehru-Nisa the widow latter married to Jahangir in 1607 A.D.
The new concert was conferred the title of Nurmahal (light of the palace)
which soon changed to Noorjhan (light of the world).
The marriage of Noorjhan with the emperor lead to a re-shuffling of the
political equation with in the empire. Her father Ghayas Beigh was
promoted to position of wazir. Her elder brother Mirza Abdul Hussan (Asif
Khan) was appointed Khani Samah. She got her daughter Lodi Begum,
from her first husband Sher Afghan married to a prince Shehryar and her
brother Asif Khan got his daughter Arjuned Benu (Mumtaz Mahal) married
to prince Khuram (Shah-Jahan). All these marriage alliances un doubtly
increased the power and prestage of Noorjahan. Who virtually ruled the
country for about 17 years.
Shah Jahan (1627-1658): Shah Jahan, earlier known as Khurram Shihab-al-

din Muhammad, Shah Jahan was the third son of Mughal Emperor
Jahangir by his Rajput queen belonging to mewar state. He was married
to Arjummand Banu (who later on came to be known as Mumtaz Mehal)
daughter of the powerful noble Asaf Khan, brother of Nur Jahan.
Shah Jahan Frontier Policy:
 The Nort5h west Frontier policy is a monument of failure of Shah Jahan.

He lost the Kandhar which was the prestige of the Mughals. The Tasks of
the conquest of Khandhar was entrusted to different princes, one after
the other but none of them could succeed in his aim. after this the
emperor himself commanded the army but he also failed to fulfill his
desire.
 In 1638 A.D Shah Jahan asked the Iranian governor of Kandhar, Ali
Mardahan Khan to give back the fort of Kandhar to the Mughals. But as
the governor refused to do so, Shah Jahan began military preparations.
Ali Mardhan found himself unable to meet the Mughals. So, he
surrendered the fort to them.
 In 1642 A.D Shah Abbas II occupied the throne of Iran. H organized a big
army o get back Kandhar In December 1648, the Iranians laid a siege on
Kandhar nand compelled the Mughals to accept defeat on February 11,
1649. Shah Jahan badly upset over the loss o kandhar.
Immediately he sent a huge army headed by Aurangzeb and sadulla
Khan. He himself reached Kabul to give commands to his army. The
Mughals marched against Kahandhar in seven parts and besieged it on

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May 16, 1649. But they could not resist the Iranian guns. Dejected they
lifted the sage and Aurangzeb was called back by his father.
 Shah Jahan’s mind was occupied with the thought of Kandhar. Again an
army of 50,000 horsemen and 20,000 infantry was sent under the
leadership of Aurangzeb and Sadulla Khan. The emperor also reached
Kabul on May 2, 1652 A.D Kandhar was besieged. But Mughals again
failed in their efforts and they had to lift the siege.
 Now the task was entrusted to Dara, the eldest son of Shahjhan. In
November, 1652, prince dara led a very huge gnmen. First the prince
tried to occupy the surrounding areas of Kandhar, so that ration might
not be sent to the army in the fort. He succeeded in occupying Bist and
Girishak regions in the west of kandhar. hen h attacked the fort of
Kandhar five times but failed. Now the winter had set in besides the
ration of the Mughals was also about to exhaust. As a result after siege
of seven months, the Mughal army had to retreat without achieving
anything. Kandhar was thus lost to the Mughal Empire once for all.
 In short, the North west Frontier policy of shah Jahan was unsuccessful
and proved fatal to the empire. The Mughals lost 12 crores of rupees in
these campaigns and weakness of the Mughal army was clearly
demonstrated to the world.
Aurangzeb (1658 – 1707): Aurangzeb who assumed the title “Abdul Muzaffar
Mohi-ud-din Mohammad Aurangzeb Bahadur Alamgir Badshah Ghazi.
“Was the 6th of the 14 children of Shah Jahan. He was born at Dahod
near Ujjain in 1618.
Internal Revolts: He had a high ideal of kingship and regarded the welfare of
his subjects as his foremost duty. He worked hard to achieve his
purpose. But his one great weakness was that he had became the
emperor not only to administer the empire but also to protect and
strengthen Islam particularly its Sunni faith. Which resulted in many
serious revolts are as under.
1. The Jats: The revolt of the Jats began primarily because of religious
fanaticism of the local official Abdul-Nabi. The first revolt occurred under
the leadership of Gokul in 1669. It was suppressed. In 1686 the Jats
revolted again under the leadership of Raja Ram and Gave serious
trouble to the Mughals for nearly two years. He however was killed in
1688. But then, Chairman, the nephew of Raja Ram led the Jats. This
revolt continued till the death of Aurangzeb and ultimately the Jat

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succeeded in establishing their independent kingdom with its capital
Bharatpur.
2. The Satnamis: The Satnamis formed religious sect in the district of
Narnol and Mewat. The cause of the revolt was a quarrel between a
satnami peasantand a Mughal soldier. The local officers failed to
suppress the revolt and some small forces dispatched by Aurangzeb were
also defeated. Then Aurangzeb sent a large force with a park of artillery
and the revolt was severely suppressed at that time.
3. The Sikhs: Guru Nanak founded Sikhism in the beginning of 16 th
century. The 5th Guru Arjun was tortured to death by Emperor Jahangir
because he refused to pay the fine which the emperor imposed in him as
a penalty to support prince Khusro. That was the beginning of strained
relations between the Sikhs and Mughals. The 6th Guru Hargobind also
came into a minor class with emperor shah Jahan. The 9 th Guru Teg
Bahdur was asked by Aurangzeb to embrace Islam, he refused and was
tortured to death. The 10th Guru Gobind Sing took up the challenge of
the Mughals and fought against. Aurangzeb throughout his life.
4. Rajputs (Rajput Revolt: Aurangzeb desired to finish the independent
existence of the Rajputs. He regarded their power and influences as the
greatest obstacle in executing his policy of religious persecution of the
Hindus. When the Rajputs realized that the emperor was bent upon their
destruction they took up arms against him. There were three important
rulers among the Rajputs at that time, Viz. Raja Raj-Sing of Mewar, Raja
Jaswant Sing of Marwar, Raja Jai Sing of Amber.
Aurangzeb was neither
sincere to these Rajputs nor had faith in their loyalty. He deputed tai
Sing to the Deccan wars where he finally dies of Illness in 1666. Jaswant
Sing was dispatched to fight against the Afghan in the North West. He
died of Aurangzeb decided to act against the Rajputs. He sent his army
to occupy Marwar. He also imposed Jizya tax on all Hindus in 1679,
which resulted in the beginning of war between Mughals and Rajputs
and continued till the death of Aurangzeb.
All these revolts destroyed the pear of
the empire, disrupted its economy and weakened its military strength,
which ultimately led not only to the failure of Aurangzeb but also to the
down fall of the empire.
Deccan Policy of Aurangzeb: Aurangzeb had been the governor of Deccan

nearly eight years and was the orthodox Sunni Muslim. Therefore he
wanted to annex the Shia Deccan states Bijapur and Golkanda to the

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Mughal Empire. But due to the unfavorable conditions the matter
remained dilly-dallying till the death of virtual king Shah Jahan. Soon
after the death of Shah Jahan a war of succession started between
Aurangzeb and Dara Shikoh ultimately Aurangzeb ascended the throne.
Now Aurangzeb turned his attention towards Deccan like a wounded lion
and forget almost everything.
War against Bijapur: In 1665 Aurangzeb sent Jai Singh against Adil Shah at
the head of a large army. All the Deccan states adopted the policy of
gurilla warfare in front of which the Mughal army could not progress and
were forced to kiss the dust. In 1672 Sikandar Adil Shah ascended the
throne. Bahdur Khan the Mughal governor invaded Bijapur in 1676, but
of no use. He was called back and Dilawar Khan was appointed the
governor of Deccan. He also attacked Bijapur but came back un
successfully.
At last he himself took the matter in his own hands and came
to Deccan when he saw that the ruler of Bijapur was allying with
Marathas, he ordered the ruler Bijapur by means of royal Farman that
the ruler of Bijapur should help the Mughal army instead of Shambhaji
and should expel Sharja (An Amir of Bijapur) from Bijapur us he had not
rendered any service to Mughals. However the ruler of Bijapur turned
down these demands and a war broke out in 1685 and lasted for 15
months. After a prolonged fight the ruler of Bijapur had to surrender.
War with Golkanda: In Aurangzeb scheme of things an independent Golkanda

was an offence and therefore after the annexation of Bijapur, he resumed
operations against Abdul Hassan of Golkanda. The King himself arrived
before the wall of Golkanda in 1687 and defeated the sultans troops
arrayed outside the walls while the emperor attained no appreciable
success in open fighting he resorted to bribery and captured Golkanda
through the means of treachery of an Afghan servant namely Abdullah
Pani. The Mughal troops entered into the fort and captured Abdul
Hassan. He was given an allowance of 50000rupees a year and in this
way whole Golkanda came under the control of Mughals.
Results / Effects:
i. Heavy strain on financial position of the state.

ii. Decay of agriculture and trade.
iii. Weakening of Administration.
iv.Emergence of new political forces as several sections of people got an
opportunity to consolidate their strength in north India.

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v. Loss of prestige as failure of Aurangzeb to deal effectively with the
Marathas lowered the dignity of the Mughal Empire.
Q: Discuss brief about the Aurangzeb’s Deccan policy?
Ans: Aurangzeb was the 6th Mughal emperor of the India and the 3 rd son of
Shah Jahan. He succeeded to the throne after winning the war of
succession against his brothers. He ascended the throne with the title of
Alamgir. He ruled the Mughal Empire from 1658 – 1707. He spent his
last 25 years of his reign in Deccan campaigns because he followed the
expansion policy of his predecessors.
1. Conquest of Bijapur 1686: In September 1681, Aurangzeb advanced

towards Deccan and spent about four years against the Marathas and
making attention towards the two weak Shia kingdoms. In 1685
Aurangzeb’s forces besieged the city of Bijapur and proceeded to
Sholapur. The Bijapur’s army offered a tough resistance to the Mughals,
but when they became short of provisions, they found it impossible to
continue the straggle and surrendered to the Mughals.
2. War against Golconda: The 1687, Aurangzeb sent his son Muazzam
against Golconda but prince Muazzam made a treaty with the ruler of
the state Abdul Husain.
Abdul Husain, the ruler of Golconda had incurred
the displeasure of Aurangzeb by appointing two Brahman brothers
Madona and Akhana & his Ministers also give monetary help to Sambaji,
the son of Shivaji. The siege continued for eight months but failed. When
Mughals failed to subdue the fort of Golconda, Aurangzeb tried to bribe
the Golconda officers; one of the soldiers in the service of Golconda fort
named Abdullah Pani accepted the Mughal bribe. He opened the gate of
fort of Golconda for one night and the Mughal soldiers entered the fort.
Debate on the Downfall of Mughal Empire: There is a great debate among

the historians regarding the decline of the Mughal Empire. Most Scholars
have related the crises in Jagirdari system as the root cause for the
decline of Mughal Empire. No doubt Jagirdari system in its standard
Mughal form continued to the middle of Aurangzeb’s reign.
But during the last twenty six
years of Aurangzeb’s reign the crises in Jagirdari deepened and ultimate
result of which was the decline of Mughal empire. Important historians
explained the decline of Mughal Empire as:

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1. Athar Ali: In early 70’s Athar Ali published his famous work “Nobility
under Aurangzeb in which he articulated that the crises in Jagirdari
system mainly crept because of bejagiri. According to him, Aurangzeb’s
Deccan campaign on one hand excited a drain on financial resources
and on the Jagir system appeared in the form of what a contemporary
writer called bejagiri. Aurangzeb depended on his military strength to
capture the Deccan states. He tried to win over confidence of Deccan
nobles and inducted them in his nobility. He granted them Mansabs on
an increasing scale and with the passage of time Deccan nobles deprived
the old nobility (Khazandas) at their Jagirs and once it happened it
aggravated the crises and the ultimate result was the downfall of the
Mughal Empire.
2. Irfan Habib: Irfan Habib in his book “Agrarian system of Mughal India”,
published in 1963 says the crisis in the Jagirdari system emanated from
the transfer of Jagirs which led to the oppression of peasantry Apathy of
the Jagirdars towards the development of their Jagirs instead prompted
them to fleece the people as quickly as possible. The net result was the
decline in Agriculture and a service of peasant revolts.
To substantiate his theory
he quotes Behnien who refers to the destruction caused by the system of
Jagir transfers. To him in such conditions or circumstances the peasants
could not fulfill their basic requirements and in a way not only they, but
so it on this account that Irfan the revolts which Mughal India witnessed
in later period were basically peasant revolts which paved the way for the
decline of the Mughal empire.
3. Satish Chandra: In 1958 AD. Satish Chandra published his parties and
politics at the Mughal court in which he articulated that Mughal Empire
declined because of the defect in the Jagirdari system. According to him
the crisis in Jagir system did not occur because of the growth in the size
at the ruling class, but the crises surfaced because of its non –
functionalism. According to him the tri-polar relationship between the
peasants, Zamindars and the mansabdars/Jagirdars formed the base on
which Mughal edifice rested. The
financial crises and the crises of Jagir system were the result of the
existing social structure which affected the military might of the
Jagirdars. The last difference between what was Jamu and Hazel was
glaring. Not having enough revenue at back, there came a proportionate
decrease in the no. of troops maintained by a Mansabdar. Thus the
strength of the army corded and symptoms of decline of Mughal Empire
itself began to manifest.

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Main Cause for the decline of the Mughal Empire:
1. Aurangzeb suspicious nature which did not permit either any of his sons
or nobles to became capable and competent.
2. His religious bigotry which lost him the loyalty of the majority of his
subjects and resulted in the revolts of the Jats, Satnamis and Sikhs.
3. Aurangzeb’s religious policy which resulted in fighting against the states
of Mewar and Marvar.
4. His Deccan policy which resulted in the struggle against the Marathas
which brought disaster to his Empire.
5. Foreign invasions of Nadir Shah & Ahmad Shah Abdali and also the
incompetency of later Mughals.
Causes of the decline or down fall of Mughals: The process of the decline of
Mughal Empire became soon after the death of Aurangzeb. The usual
war of succession to the throne and the rapid change of the rulers of the
empire gave the state no change to recover. The death of Aurangzeb on
the 3rd March 1707 was the signal for the disintegration of mighty
Mughal Empire. The following causes were responsible for the down fall
of Mughal Empire:
BILAL BOOK SHOP KUPWARA 9797861908
Unit – III
The Emergence of the Delhi Sultanate: AD 1192-1286
The Sultans of Delhi came from relatively humble origins. They were slaves
who rose to become generals in the armies of the Afghan ruler Muizz al-
Din Ghuri. Their transformation into rulers of a kingdom of great political
influence in North India was a slow and discontinuous process that
occurred through the thirteenth century.
For the better part of that century, there were many centres of social and
political power in the early Delhi Sultanate. There were military
commanders with contending political ambitions, as well as urban elites

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with contrasting social constituencies, religious ideologies, and personal
commitments. Such people did not always support authoritarian
interventions seeking to create a monolithic state.
So, for decades, the Sultanate seemed to disappear from political reckoning,
and its resurrections were more in the nature of reincarnations. It made
its periodic reappearances in bodily forms different from those of its
precursors. Ultimately, the Delhi Sultanate survived not just because of
the political and military acumen of its rulers and military agents, but
because of the ideological investment of a variety of Muslim émigrés that
saw the Delhi Sultanate as a sanctuary for Muslims during the period of
Mongol holocaust.
In The Emergence of the Delhi Sultanate, Sunil Kumar charts the history of
the structures that sustained and challenged this regime, and of the
underlying ideologies—eliding its sometimes ephemeral form—that gave
meaning to the idea of the Delhi Sultanate.
Foundation and Consolidation of Sultanate with special reference to Shah

Mir and Shihab-u-din:
Shah Mir (1339 – 1342): Lahora dynasty, which ultimately ended in 1339 AD
and was replaced by Muslim rule in Kashmir. One of the important ruler
of this dynasty was Suhadeva (Lohara dynasty) who ruled from 1301 –
1320. During his reign a number of developments
and improvements took place in Kashmir. In his reign Muslims not only
entered the valley of Kashmir but they were also recruited in the army as
well, so Islam began to set in Kashmir. In Suhadeva’s reign four
important personalities like syed Sharif-u-din Bulbul, Langor Chak,
Richana and Shah Mir entered the valley who played very important role
in the subsequent history of Kashmir. Richana
was originally a prince of Ladakh, came to Kashmir where he was given
protection by Ramchandra, (prime Minister / commander in chief of
Suhadeva) later on he became the first ruler of Kashmir in the Muslim
name of Sadr-ud-din, as he got converted to Islam by Shah Mir. Richana
married with Kota Rani Daughter of Ramchandra. He restored peace and
happiness in the helpless country. Richana was succeeded by
Udayanadeva and his wife Kota Rani (1323- 39.
Shah Mir finally over throw Kota Rani by capturing the capital and
besieged the fort of Indra-Kot now Safapur) where the queen had

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established her headquarters. He then sent a message to Kota Rani to
his wife and share the throne, but annoyed and fell a prisoner in shah
Mirs hands. Shah Mir proclaimed himself as the
new ruler of Kashmir and assumed the title of sultan Shams-ud-din
Shah.
Origin:Not much is known about his ancestry. Some of historians are of view
that he descended from the pandas or swat. But on the accounts of
Jonaraja and Nizam-u-din Ahmad holds that Shah Mir originally
belonged from Iran.
Contributions:
1. He first of all got Khutba read and the coins struck in his name. He
seems to have been a strong and able ruler and conducted the affairs of
the state in a statesman like manner.
2. He helped Kota Rani to face Achalas invasion (Turkish adventure who
entered the valley by the pir Panchal) with bravery and vigor. With his
heroic efforts he got a big place in the hearts of Kashmir.
3. He succeeded in restoring peace and order in the Kingdom by abolishing
various obituary (unnecessary) taxes and cruel methods of collecting.
4. He fixed the state share of land revenue at one sixth of the gross
produce.
5. Turbulent lavanyas (one of the dangerous tribe in Kashmir design
Loharas) had been a constant source of trouble for the Kashmir rulers.
Shah Mir successfully brought them under his control. To counteract
their influence, he recruited (selected/appointed) most of his army
officers from Chaks and Magres instead of Lavanyas.
Sultan Shihab-ud-din (1354 – 73):
Shah Mir was succeeded by his eldest son Jamsheed. Jamsheed

died after a short ruler of only one year and was succeeded by him
Brother Ali Sher under the name of Ala-ud-din who ruled for 12 years.
Ala-ud-din was succeeded by his son
Shivasomak, under the name of sultan Shihab-ud-din. He may rightly be
called as the Lalitaditya of medieval Kashmir on account of his
spectacular conquests.
Contributions:
1. Shihab-ud-din was an able administrator. He restored peace and order

in the kingdom. He effectively controlled the big landlords, both Hindus

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and Muslims who oppressed the people and indulged in lawbreaking
activities.
2. He was a liberal and tolerant ruler. Most of his army commanders,
Ministers and other high officials were Hindus.
3. Conquests:
a. Shihab-ud-din conquers distant lands like Poonch Rajouri, and
territories lying between Muzzafarabad and Baramullah by lauding
military campaigns.
b. He also subjugated the Gandhars and the Srinagar and occupied
the town of Ashtanagara (eight cities situated close together on the
eastern bank of the swat river). After that his armies seized
Peshawar and hindukush mountains.
c. In south he led an expedition towards satluj. There he met
Udakapati ruler of Nagarkot, shihab-ud-din forced him to share his
vast wealth which he was carrying with him.
d. The Persian chronicles of Kashmir record that shihabudin invaded
the dominions of firoz Shah Tuglug of Delhi. With 50000 fool
soldiers. A big battle is said to have been fought between the force
of the sultans of Delhi and Kashmir ultimately a peace treaty was
concluded in which Feroz Shah accepted the suzerainty of Shihab-
ud-din. Also a matrimonial alliance is also said to have been
concluded which led Feroz Shah Tugluq to marry his two
daughters to Shihab-ud-din and his brother Qutab-u-din. In this
way he consolidates his empire.
Sultanate At Zenith:
Zain-ul-Abidin (1420 – 1470):
Zain-ul-Abidin, the 8th sultan of Kashmir was very affectionate and

broadminded liberal person. He contributed a lot towards his kingdom.
He also proved great in all spheres of his kingdom economic, political,
social, cultural etc. i.e. why he was titled as “Budshah” or great King.
Liberal Religious policy: He withdrew all the orders issued by Sikandar shah
which in any manner were against the Hindus. He brought back to
Kashmir all the Hindus who had left an account of the repressive policy
of Sikandar Shah. Those who wanted to revert to Hinduism were given
freedom to do so. They were restored their grants, libraries and temples.
He adopted liberal religion policy
as:

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i) He abolished Jizya and forbade cow slaughter.
ii) He appointed Hindus on high posts in administration.
iii) He established matrimonial relations with the Hindus as two of his
queens were the daughters of a Hindu ruler of Jammu.
Technology:
In India, the first paper industry was developed in Kashmir,
established by sultan Zainul Abidin in 1417 – 67. Because of the quality
of Kashmiri paper, It was much in demand in world and the rest of
country for writing manuscripts. According to Traikhi – Frusta, sultan
Abu- Saied of Samakand sent fine arts, Arab horses, camels of good breed
as present to sultan Zainul Abidin and Zainul Abidin in return sent home
saffron, paper, perfumes rose water shawls etc as gifts.
Technique of Paper Making: The main tools used for paper making were
dhegi (hummer) chapri (screen) and sacha (teakwood frame) Kunchawas
(soft date palm brush) and polishing stone. The technique of paper
making was essentially the same throughout the country, different only in
the preparation of pulp from different materials.
Silk: Silk has been one of the cherished heritages of J & K. With sericulture
activity in the valley finding mention in ancient Sanskrit scripture
including Rajatarangi. During the medieval period silk production in
Kashmir received a big boost with Sultan Z. Abidin giving special attention
to the scor and introducing new improved techniques to make it a
booming industry. During Afghan rule in Kashmir, the silk industry
terribly suffered, but revived once more under Dogras. Kashmir had a
dynamic silk trade with its precious yarn exported not only to Bruisers
but also to whole Europe. Sericulture is a labor intensive cottage industry
combining both agriculture and industry. It is only one cash crop in
agriculture that gives return within 30 days.
Apart from above, he encouraged weaving
and embroidery paper Mache, wood work and carving, Khantam band
(pennling in houses, shops, restaurants etc).
Economic Development: He took many economic measures for the progress

of his kingdom. He reduced the taxes and reformed the debased currency.
He issued orders that the articles for sale should be openly displayed and
sold at reasonable profits in the open market. Because Kashmiri traders
generally carried on their business in their houses, which discouraged
competition and encouraged cheating and black-marketing.

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He issued a large no.
of silver and copper coins. He encouraged the development of several
crafts such as gold heating, polishing and stone cutting etc. He also
encouraged the art of shawl making, basket making etc. He also sent two
skilled persons to Samarqand to learn the art of paper making and book-
binding. He took several steps to provide employment to large no. of
people. He introduced price control system in order to check black
marketing.
Education and Social Harmony:

Education was wide spread in Kashmir during the sultanate
period. Kings and nobles vied with other in opening school and endowing
them with jagirs for their maintenance. As a result every village had a
school. At the same time high education was not neglected. In Srinagar
then was a university Moreover, monasteries were also used as centers
of learning where education was imparted to the student by able teachers.
System of education courses for study was same in the Madras as of
Turkistan (Central Asia) India and Persia. Generally at the age of five child
was put into the school where he was aught the Arabic alphabet and to
read the Quran. He had then to learn natural swences, dogmatic theology
etc. The first Sultan to have established Madrass in the valley was
shihabudin. Bu the sultan who did most for the spread of Education was
Z. Abidin.
i. He opened a school near his palace in Nushara and placed it in charge of

maulana Kabir.
ii. Sultan himself went there occasionally to attend lectures.
iii. For the maintenance of the school, and for the granting of scholarship
for the deserving candidates be crested in endowment with Moulana as
trustee.
iv. He also founded a college in Zainagir.
v. Another place where education was imparted was hopice of Baba Ismail
Kubarvi.
vi. In addition to Madrassas, he also opened technical education schools,
where people taught paper making, book binding and other arts
introduced in Kashmir.
vii. He also administered medicinal remedies, he had employed shir Butt of
Naushehra as an eminent physician.
viii. Another educational institution of that time was “urwatulwusuqa” which
ws founded by sayyid Ali Hamadani.=

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1. Development of Agriculture: He paid special attention to the tax on
agriculture the officials undertook the task of settlement of land revenue
in every village. The holding of each cultivator was properly measured
with the help of patwari. The land records were present in the central
record office established at Sopore. The state demand of land revenue
was fixed at ¼th of the total produce at some places and 1/7 th at other
places. To
promote agriculture, the sultan constructed several canals in the
country as under.
a) The Kakpur Canals: it irrigated traits of land around the village Kakpur.
b) The Karla canal irrigated the territory lying between Shopian and Ramu.
c) Avantipur canal irrigated the lands around the town of Awantipur.
d) Zainaganga canal irrigated lands around Naushahar, a new town
founded by the Sultan.
e) Shahkul or mortand canal it drew water from Lider River and irrigated
the plateau around the Manasbal Lake.
2. Architecture: He was an enthusiastic builder. He introduced wooden
architecture in his country and built numerous magnificent buildings
through the length and breadth of his kingdom.
He adorned the town of Zain Nagar
(Naushahar) with a number of beautiful buildings.
He founded many other
towns after his own name which included Zainapur (Shopian Tehsil)
Zainkot (near Srinagar) and Zainagir (near Sopur). He built a palatial
building, the Zaindab in Zainagir. He
laid out no. of gardens like Bagh-i-Zaingiri, Bagh-i-Zaindab, Bagh-i-
Zainpur and Bagh-i- Zainkut. But these gardens are now extinct.
His greatest engineering achievement was the creation of a
charming artificial islands like Zain lank, Rupa Lank, sona Lank, in Dal
lake.
3. Literature: He was well versed in Persian, Kashmiri, Sanskrit and
Tibetan. He was a great poet. He gave patronage to scholars. Several
Arabic and Persian works were translated into Persian language. The
Mahabartha and Rajtarangni were translated into Persian.
Jonaraja continued the work of
Kalhana’s Rajtarangni. He wrote the second part of Rajtarangni and
completes the work of written of the history of Kashmir upto 1458 AD in
Sanskrit verse. After Jonaraja’s death his work was taken up by another
chronicler (writer) named Shrivara. A pandith named Nathosoma wrote
Zain cltarit in Kashmiri describing the life and achievements of Zain-ul-

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abdin Yodabatta wrote biography of sultan under the title of Zain
prakasha. A part from above discussing achievements sultan
was famous for other contributions as eradication of corruption
practices, upliftment of poor and peasants, friendly trade relations with
foreign rulers etc.
Spread of Islam In Kashmir
The story of Islam which spread in Kashmir is somewhat different

as compared to other parts of India. Islam spread in different parts of
India on account of gradual conquests made by Arabs and central
Asians. In fact the Islamisatian of Kashmir was
a gradual process by means of conversions. The real credit of facilitations
of these conversions to Islam goes to the broad chain of Sufis who
appeared on the soil of Kashmir soon after the fall of Hindu rule in
Kashmir. They through their preaching, teaching and practice won the
hearts of Hindus and many of them got converted to Islam.
The first Sufi saint who appeared on the Hindu soil of
Kashmir was syed Sharif-u-din Bulbul Shah. He came from Turkstan
around 1310 during the rule of the Lohara dynasty. Bulbul Shah was a
disciple of Shah Niamatullah Farsi who belonged to the Suharwadi order
of Sufis. He was full of warmth of love and converted large no. of Hindus
to Islam. He died in 1326 and was buried in Bulbul Lankar.
The most
important service that he did to the spread of Islam in Kashmir was the
conversion of Richana to Islam under the Islamic name of Sadr-ud-din,
so Richana became the first Muslim ruler in Kashmir.
A Khanqa was established by Richana for Bulbul Shah
Deer in of his life time and also a langar (mess) was attached with it to
provide food and charity to the needy. Later on the place came to be
known as Bulbul Lankar.
Contribution of Sufi’s:
1. Syed Ali Hamadani: With the establishment of Muslim sultanate in

1339 AD under Shah Mir. The valley of Kashmir witnessed a flow of Sufis
who greatly furthered the cause of Islam. Among them, pride place is
occupied by Syed Ali Hamdani who introduced the Kubravi order of
Sufism in Kashmir. Amir-i-Kabir or the great Amir Syed Ali
Hamdani was popularly known as Shah-i-Hamdan in Kashmir. He was
the son of Shahabudin, an alluvia Syed and the governor of Hamadan in
Persian. It is said that he became Hafiz-i-Quran in his early childhood

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later he became the spiritual disciple of Sheikh Sharif-ud-din. Syed Ali
authored two books viz. Zakhiratul-Muluk and Gayatul Makin which
contain an experience of his account and ideas. He visited Kashmir also
but how many times it is controversial. Some says that he came thrice in
1372, 1379 and 1383, but some are of the opinion that he visited
Kashmir only once in 1381. But it is certain that he arrived in Kashmir
during the reign of Qutub-u-din with 700 Murids. Sultan and his chief
officials went to welcome him and shelter in Srinagar “Khanqah-I
Mualla”. But he did not stay here more than one year, went back
through Hazara district but fell ill in the way and subsequently passed
away in 1384.
His dead body was carried by his followers and was buried in
Kheetlan. So to say that syed Ali changed Hindu Kashmir into Muslim
Kashmir is wrong to be believed as he stayed here for a short period and
could not influence the state policy. But the contribution of syed Ali
to the spread of Islam in Kashmir cannot be ignored. He left a large no.
of disciples here it is said that he converted as many as 3700 Hindus to
Islam. His victory over one of the synyasis was commemorated in 1395
by the construction of a Ziarat, the present shrines of Shah-i-Hamdan.
In short,
we can say the spread of Islam received a great fillip at the Hands of
Syed Ali. There is no doubt in the fact that much of the conversions were
done by his disciple’s after his withdrawal from Kashmir but it was he
who made the ways of propagation very smooth and normal for them. His
role as a great Sufi can never be underestimated with regard to the
spread of Islam in Kashmir.
2. Mir Ali Hamdani: One of the great Sufi who made a significant
contribution to the spread of Islam in Kashmir was Mir Ali Hamdani, son
of syed Ali Hamdani. He was born at Khatlan in 1372, and lost his father
when he was only 12 years old. He completed his early education at
the feet of Khawaja Ishaq and Noor-ud-din, Mohammad Hamdani moved
from place to place. In 1393 he came to Kashmir during the reign of
sikandar with 300 followers. He was accorded with a royal reception and
assigned the villages of Wachi, Tral and Nunawani for his maintenance.
Sikandar
held him in high esteem and treated him as his teacher and daily waited
in him as a servant and like a student he daily took up his lesson from
him. He (Mir Ali Hamdani) was responsible for a large no. of conversions
but the most important to embrace to Islam at his feet was Suhabhatta,
the powerful Brahman Chief Minister of Sultan Sikandar, Suhabhatta

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was highly impressed by the syed’s personality and simplicity of life,
besides his teachings and adopted the Islamic name of Malik Saif-ud-din
after his conversion he was more strict than his father and had declared
Hindus in India the Zimis (the protected people) by syed Ali Hamdani.
But Mir Ali called them Kafirs and was totally against the non-Muslims.
It is said that it was at his instance that the Hindu practice of Sati,
gambling, Playing of musical instruments, dancing of women were
banned by sultan sikandar. The Hindus were prohibited from using tilak
on their four heads; all this changed the social fabric of the society.
Mir Ali Hamdani stayed in Kashmir for
about 22 years; ultimately he breathed his last in 1540. He was buried
near his father.
Rishis: Rishi is a Sanskrit word and means a Saint sage or an Ascetic. The
Rishis lead a life of extreme piety and self-abnegation. They abstained
from luxury, did not marry and usually wondered from one place to
another, plan tiny shady and fruit bearing trees for the benefits of the
people. The places where the Rishis took up their quarter’s came to known
as Ziarats. Some of these were newly constructed, while others were
converted from the old ruined Hindu shrines. The
Rishis slowly and steady smoothened the path of Islam in its slow, steady
and systamatic conversion of practically the whole valley. Some of the well
known Rishis include Baba-Nasir-u-din, Baba Bumm-ud-din, Sheikh
Hamza Mukhdumi, Syed Ahmad Kirmani, Baba Hanifudin etc.
The founder of Rishi order was sheikh Nur-ud-din
R.A. commonly known as Nund Rish. He was born in 1377 in the village of
Qaimoh, about 45km to the south west of Bejbehara. His parents were
Baba Salaru-ud-din and Sadir Mauji. Originally Hindu, both of them
embraced Islam at the hands of Sufis named Yasmaen. Nooruddin
developed contemplatively mind at a very early age. It is said that he took
no interest either in domestic or any other profession. It is also said that
during his last days the Rishi took only a cup of milk daily. Finally he
gave up even that and sustained life on water alone. He died in way 1438
and sultan Zainul Abidin also accompanied his bier to the grave. His tomb
is at Charari Sharief 32km south west to Srinagar. Though illiterate
Noor-ud-din gave utterances to hundreds of beautiful sayings in Kashmir
which are preserved in the Nur Nama. Infect the role of Rishis in the
spread of Islam in a philosophical and practical way cannot be ignored.
They with their deeds when the hearts of the people and brought them to
their creed and faith. They lived no luxurious life and often preferred and

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desired to remain for away from the hustle and bustle of the life
Lalleshwari. Lalleshwari, affectionately known as Lal Ded
or Lal Arifa one of the great Kashmiri women Rishi, was born in about
Middle of 14the century. His parents lived at panderthan 7km to the
south east of Srinagar. She was married at an early age. It is said that her
mother-in-law was very cruel to her and later on she faced cruelty of her
husband also. All these disappointments forced Lalla to renounce worldly
life. She turned up ascetic and became a wandering minstrel.
Moving from village to village after leaving her home. She met Sidh
Sirinath the Saivite saint and became her spiritual disciple. She also
condemned meaningless rituals. According to her love and sincerity were
the care of religion and these were the monopoly of no one religion.
She invited all high and low to
her creed. She expressed her teaching in simple language too before the
people.
Kashmir under Chalks: A brief Survey of Chalk Rule:
Chalks: The chalks came to Kashmir during the origin of Shah Mir. They
actually belonged to Dardistan. It was only after the death of Sultan
Zain-ul-Abdin could dream of ruling over Kashmir in due course of time.
Ghazi. Chak, first Chak ruler ultimately led himself in throne in 1561 AD
– 1563 AD. He played an important role in proving
the financial conditions of Kashmir. He conquered many territories like
Gilgith, Kishtwar etc. He was very strict ruler and
was known as ruthless dispenser of justice. He severely dealt with the
rebels. He took stern measures because he had founded a new dynasty
in such trouble, when the power of the Govt. was utterly disregarded.
He also proved to be a capable general and extended the
boundaries of his kingdom. He was also a man of learning. He himself
was a poet and extended patronage to the scholars.
Hussain Shah Chak (1563 – 1570): Husain Shah Brother of Ghazi Shah
came to the throne in 1563 AD. And assumed the title of Muhammad
Nasir-ud-din Hussain Shah Ghazi.
Administration: The new Sultan made some efforts to restore peace and
order. He severally punished the thieves, robbers and corrupt officials.
He listened to the complaints of the people himself and redressed their
grievances. He also protected the interests of the agriculturists. These
measures made the people believe that the kingdom of Kashmir had
become equal to heaven. Another feature of his

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administration was that he conducted all the official and non-official
business of the Govt. regularly according to the schedule. He also gave
full freedom of worship to the Hindus, and himself participated in some
of their festivals.
Ali Shah (1570 -78): Sultan himself was a Shia, but he was anxious to end
the senseless bitterness between Shai and Sunni seeks. So he appointed
Mubarak Bhihaqi one of his trusted Sunni as his chief minister. The
Sultan also married his own daughter to Mubarak Bhihaqi’s son sayed
Abdul Maali. The most important
event in the reign of Ali Shah was his acceptance of Akbars sovereignty.
Also in his reign a severe famine rigid the valley which lasted for three
years food grains became scare and thousands of people perished. The
Sultan however adopted temporary measures to mitigate the sufferings of
the famine stricken people.
In 1579 AD he fell down from his horse while playing polo
and died after some time. Before his death he nominated his son Yusuf
Shah as his successor.
Yusuf Shah (1578 -79) Sultan Yusuf Shah was a romantic person. He was so
much bewitched by the natural beauty of Kashmir that he used to roams
about freely in the valley of GOD ad flowery meadows before he ascended
the throne. He discovered the charms of Gulmarg and Sonamarg and
transformed them into holiday resorts.
When on the sudden death of his father,
Yusuf Shah as called upon to perform the duties of a king, he had no
experience of running the affairs of the state. He found himself incapable
of shouldering the responsibilities of governing the country. He neglected
his duties to his subjects and spent his time in the company of
musicians and dancing girls. So,
within two months after his allusion to the throne, ambitious noble got
an opportunity to make a conspiracy against him. Sayid Mubarak Baihui
supported by Abdul Bhatt rose in open revolt to capture the throne.
Yusuf Shah had to flee away from the valley to Naushahr, leading the
throne vacant Sayid Mubarak Shah.
Unit – IV
MUGHAL CONQUEST OF KASHMIR:

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A Survey of Mughal Governor: Since the death of Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin, the
kingdom of Kashmir had been a prey to intolerance, furious, fanatics,
political intrigues and party strife’s.
At the time of Babur’s invasion of India, the
kingdom of Kashmir was ruled by Sultan Mohammad Shah. The valley
was infested with disturbances due to the inefficient rule of the Sultan
taking advantage of the weak rule of Muhammad Shah, Babur sent an
army under the command of Kuchak Beg and Ali Beg to Kashmir, but
Kashmiri forces under Ghazi Chak repulsed the Mughal attack. Next
year Babur found another excuse to invade Kashmir, and was in easy
victory and left the valley only after payment of a large ransom and
tribute. Babur’s successor, Humayun had also fascination for
Kashmir. When Humayun’s brother Kamran was the Governor of the
Punjab, the discontented party in Kashmir requested him to conquered
Kashmir, but Kamran along with his soldiers were beaten back by
Kashmirian so, Humayun sent his commander Mirza Haider Dughlat to
Kashmir, and ultimately he conquered Kashmir and continued to rule
over it till 1551, when he was killed.
Akbar’s Expedition and Conquest of Kashmir: The political condition of

Kashmir at the time of Akbar’s accession to the Mughal throne was
favorable for him to conquer Kashmir. The death of Mirza Haidar
Dughlat in 1551 was a signal for a struggle to throne on Kashmir. Shah
Mir Dynasty lost the throne which was usurped by Ghazi Chak and
shortly after wards his brother Husain Shah succeeded him.
It was at
this stage that Akbar began to take active interest in the political of
Kashmir and to conquer it. Akbar found an opportunity provided by Shia
– Sunni conflict during the rule of Chak Sultans to extend his influence
in Kashmir. The Sunni nobles presented petitions for aid to compare
Akbar at Agra. Ultimately Raja Bhawandas was sent to
Kashmir by Akbar in 1585 AD at the head of five thousands men to
conquered Kashmir. Yusuf Shah, the ruler of Kashmir came out to resist
the Mughal invasion. The Mughals fared badly in war owing to various
reasons especially the natural hazards. However, the Mughals were able
to capture Yusuf Shah through treachery. The final Mughal conquest of
Kashmir took place in June 1586.
In 1586 AD Kashmir became a part of the Mughal Empire
following the use of full military might by Emperor Akbar.
Impacts of Mughals in Kashmir:

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1. Positive Impact:
a. Kashmir Culture was exposed to the foreign world. As such during
Akbar’s and Jahangir’s reign, great scholar’s poets and other learned
people come to the front. The poets of Kashmir had to compete with the
poets from all over India in Delhi which gave vent to their intellectual
faculties.
b. The food habit of the people got changed the dress also changed e.g. the
Achkan and trousers were used by the people now.
c. There was also a change in the building material lime came to be used
extensively the design of building changed long beams and pillars were
introduced by the Mughals in Kashmir.
d. Mughals constructed Sarais, Shrines, rest houses, Mosque forts and
gardens in Kashmir but the expenditure used was vast one of the great
project undertaken by Akbar and completed by Jahangir was the Nagar
Nagar city with its marvelous walls.
e. The Mughal gardens for which Kashmir is famous were laid down by the
efforts of Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan. That these gardens have
became permanent assets for Kashmir economy and culture. Mughal
gardens like Nishat Bagh, Shalimar Bagh etc.
f. The trade and commerce of Kashmir received a fillip as Kashmir was
exposed to the external world.
2. Negative Impact:
a. Mughal Conquest of Kashmir resulted in the drain of wealth as half of
the produce of land was drained out from Kashmir annually besides
other taxes imposed on trade and other items. So the drain of wealth
squeezed Kashmir of its fabulous wealth as reported by Abdul fazl and
Mirza Hyder Duglat.
b. Kashmir lost its independence by the complete un execution of Mughal
empire.
c. Mughals earned large amount from Kashmir from daft sections of
economy and showed least attention towards their development canals
were constructed for the irrigation of their pleasure gardens.
d. Regarding trade and commerce, the basic purpose was to facilitate the
imperial journeys to Kashmir.
e. Finally, we can say that almost all the Mughal emperors visited Kashmir
for pleasure and to save themselves from the scorching heat of planes.
Changes in Economy and Society:
Economy: It was design Mughal period that some of the books in the lakes
and the rivers were turned into residential boats. The “Shikaras” or

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modern house boats. They also promoted several; industries such as
Shawl manufacturing.
Agriculture: It was the man source of income. The state share of revenue in
Kashmir fell far short of the capacity of the cultivation. Akbar proposed
that the state share should be more than one half of the produce. Produce
was counted in Khirwars in Kashmir. One Khirwar is counted as 3
mounds and seven seers of the crown. The main crops were wheat barley,
mustard etc one trek is equal to 8 seers.
Collection of Revenue: The collection of revenue was done through a great

no. of officials visited the villages at the time of harvesting and thrashing
to harass the cultivations with revenue demands and illegal taxes.
Currency: In the reign of Akbar, each rupee had 9 Mashas of silver in it. These
coins which were struck in 1597, Jahangir introduced in Kashmir a rupee
which had 11 dung in it.
During Jahangirs reign total income of country was
thirty Lakh sixty three thousand and five hundreds and eleven
(30,63511). Revenue raised to 7467000 dames during this period, which
indicated the economic prosperity of the people.
Society: Muslims were in majority they were subservient to the ruler. There
were many disparities and ups and downs. The social organization was
not at all staple or steady one. The varnu (caste) system which was
prevalent in the Hindu society was having its own hold over the society.
That caused many divisions, factions among the professionals.
Castcism: Previously Brahmans were generally called sharmas and they were
distinguished on the bases of Gotras. But changes were introduced,
Brahmans themselves were called by different names as pandith, Rathore,
Mahajan etc. The freedom of marriage, and sub castes
increased in the same way among the kshtriyas, vaishyas, shudras there
emerged a lot of sub divisions. Muslims also had the idea
of common brotherhood only in name. There were lot of disparities,
distinction among the people on the basis of birth, sect, race etc, Arabs
claimed supericority over the Muslims af other areas. They got all higher
pasts in the administration.
Women: During the medieval period the condition of women was not at all an
appreciable one. Their position was honorable. The Hindu wife was
regarded as the mistress of the house. They were given due place in the

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execution of religious rights and ceremonies. They had the opportunity to
get education. Since polygamy was available in royal families. It was
estimated that women wer treated mainly as means for quenching the
sexual appetite, sati was also prevalent and that testifies the charity of
women. Pardah system and child marriage were common. Birth of female
child was treated as a means of condolence. Freedom of women was
mostly restricted. Muslim widows had right to marry.
Food: Hindus adopted the principle of vegetarianism killing animals was

considered as a sin. Muslims were find of non – vegetarian diet. Even few
Hindus took the flesh of birds and beasts.
Architecture and Pleasure garden Building:

The country of Kashmir had been a source of attraction for
Mughals. The Mughals totally changes the face of Kashmir. They gave
promotion to tourism in Kashmir.
Development of Architecture: Akbar founded the Nagar Nagar fort near

Hariparbat Srinagar. Akbar’s inscription runs as follows, the foundation of
the fort of Nagar – Nagar was laid in the reign of the king of kings Akbar.
He sent one crore and ten Lakh of rupees and two hundred Indian master
builders. They also have build some beautiful gardens in Kashmir. These
gardens are beautifully laden with chinar frees and lot of colorful flowers.
Both local people and tourists visit these gardens to relax and enjoy some
beautiful moments of life. Emperor
Jahangir, who came to the throne of India in 1606 was also enamored of
the natural beauty of the Kashmir. The famous Jamia Masjid of Srinagar
was also completely rebuilt at state expenses. Jahangir who was a great
lover of beautiful natural sights added to the beauty of Lakes and slopes
of the mountains by planting pleasure gardens. he took to the systematic
planting the char chinaris at each of the ordinal points.
Nishat Bagh: Laid out in the 17th century by Mirza Abul Hassan, the Nishat
Bagh is amongst the most prominent gardens that the Mughals developed
in the erstwhile Hindustan. The bagh is located directly along the eastern
bank of the Dal – Lake on the foot of Zabarwan mountain range.
Char Chinars: Jahangir who was also a great lover of beautiful gardens, he
took to the systematic planting of chinar trees or char chinaris.
Shalimar Bagh: Shalimar Bagh was created by Emperor Jahangir around

1620. The construction was overseen by prince Khuram or shah Jahan

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like Nishat Bagh, this garden was also developed along the lines of
traditional chahar Bagh concept. After accession to the throne shah
Jahan added Zanana Park to the garden.
Achabal Bagh: The present garden was laid by Empress Nur jahan in 1620
and was named after her as begumabad.
Verinag: It is an octagonal pavilion garden, built around a spring which is the

acknowledge source of Jehlum river. The garden was constructed by Mirza
Haider Dughlat an able engineer of the Mughal court of Emperor
Jahangir. Garden was enlarged during shah Jahan’s reign and was
renamed as Shahabad.
Shasma Shahi: The garden was developed on the orders of Emperor shah
Jahan in 1632 by Ali Mardan Khan. The defining feature of this garden is
its very high terraces and strong Mughal character of its gateway,
cascades and retaining walls. The waters of the spring are renowned for
their cool and rejuvenating qualities oriented on the north south axis the
garden is arranged on three ascending terraces,. Total area is approx 1,73
acres width 70.83 m length 122.81 m.
Pari Mahal: It is also located west of the city centre of Srinagar near chasma
Shahi. It is created by Prince Dara Shukoh, the eldest son of Shah Jahan
in 1650. It was built at the site of the ruins of a Buddhist Monastery. It is
believed that Pari Mahal was constructed for astronomical and teachings
or astrological calculation under the Mughals Dar Shukoh known as Pari
Begum.
Habbaq: It is a garden laid by a Mughal governor Saif Khan in Srinagar. He

also built the Safa Kadal the seventh bridge in Srinagar.
Kashmir Under Afghans (1753 – 1819): Afghans adopted the attitude of

medieval conquerors towards a conquered territory and thus showing
interest in securing the life blood of the people of Kashmir by imposing
exorbitant taxes and draining Kabul. They thus showed no interest
towards developing any productive sectors. The Afghans like Mughals
and Sikhs did not construct for developing the tourism industry of
Kashmir. They like Mughals did not construct a single canal for
increasing the productive capacity of the valley. They were without any
doubt notorious for inventing new taxes. In the land revenue they
introduced new tax called “Traki” and in the shawl industry they
introduced a new tax known as “Dag-i-shawl.

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Critically Afghan in Kashmir: In 1752 – 53 AD. Kashmir passed into the
hands of yet another great empire, that emerged on it northern and
western boarders. It was the Afghan empire founded by Ahmad Shah
Abdali. Who after taking advantage of chaotic situation that had gripped
the Mughal Empire snatched away many of its parts including Kashmir
Afghan through their governors ruled Kashmir for about 60 years. The
quick succession of Afghan governor proved no less than a disaster for
the impoverished here that only two or three governors ruled for 2 – 3
years while as the majority did not continue for more than a year. Thus
in the face of insecurity, the Afghan governors plundered the valley as
soon as possible. Abdullah Khan Ishaq Aqasi who led the Afghan forces
to Kashmir amassed a booty of one crore rupees which he carried away
to Kabul. Some of the governors were proverbial for
their cruelty like Haji Kahn Karim dad, in a mode of enjoyment would tie
up the inhabitants by back in pairs and drove them in river. Similarly
Azad Khan perpetrated such terror that a mere mention of his name
produced on involuntary supplication. While inviting
the Afghan King nobles had hoped that after the ouster of the Mughals,
the Abdali ruler and his successors would bring peace and order in the
valley and establish a stable administration. But their hopes were soon
belied. The first Afghan governor Abdulla Khan Ishaq proved to be a
despot. He let loose a reign of terror in the valley. He denuded the state
treasury of all communities in his palace and ordered them to surrender
all their wealth on pain of death. Their houses were looted and were
deprived of all that was of any value there in. The governor’s soldiers set
themselves to amass wealth of fair and foul means. Many harassed
merchants, unable to carry on their trade, migrated to other parts of
India. Peasants left their fields uncultivated for fear of heavy exactions by
the Afghan officials.
Thus the whole economy of the valley was shattered and
people became one long night of sorrow and misery. It is said that in six
months, the governor Abdullah Khan Isaq collected about a crore rupees
in cash and goods.
Assessment of Sikh rule in Kashmir: In 1819, Afghan was replaced by Sikh

rule in Kashmir, Maharaja Ranjit Singh of Punjab who carried out a
strong empire by defeating the Afghan annexed Kashmir in 1819 and
governed it through his deputies up to – 1846. i.e. 27 years.
During this brief period, Kashmir
suffered too much to find any precedence in the annals of its history. It

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has been observed and articulated that Kashmir so was thrown from a
frying pan into the fire during the Sikh rule. Moorcroft
a foreign traveler who visited Kashmir has left a heart rending account
oppression done to the people by the Sikh administrators. Says
everywhere the people are in the most object conditions, exorbitantly
taxed by the Sikh govt. and subjected every kind of extortion and
oppression by the officials”. According to him not less than 7/8th of the
crop was robbed off from the producers. The consequence of this system
according to Moorcroft was the gradual depopulation of the country. He
says not more than 1/6th of the surface was under cultivators. When he
visited Kashmir the people who were starving in the home were driven in
great number to the plains of Hindustan.
Victor “Jaquement” who visited Kashmir in 1831 and pointed out
the country was so completely ruined that the poor Kashmiri’s seem
despair and have became the most indolent of men”. He found Kashmir
the poorest of all the places he visited India.
The Sikh rule witnessed the climax of
drain of wealth from Kashmir. According to one estimate 30 lakhs were
annually deposited to the Lahore Durbar as revenue installment due to
it. Besides this 50 lakh were paid as salary annually to governors and
Sikh soldiers. With this about 92% of revenue was drained out to
Punjab. During most of the Sikh period Jamia Masjid of Srinagar was
closed down through the basic reason for the closer of the mosque was
more political than religious. Another act of discrimination was that the
cow slaughter was punished by death penalty.
Kashmir under Sikhs:

Being a history students we must should be familiar about
the word “Shikashahi”. It was the total anarchy and the untold
oppression which KAshmiris faced durig the Sikh rule. Hameedullah
Shahabadi called this period as “Sher- -Napursan” (the neglected city)
which Dr. Abdul Ahad has rendered as the “Bebooj Raj” (unaccountable
Tule), an era unforgettable brazen savagery. The value of a Kashmiri
during Sikh rule was twenty five rupees. Any Sikh who would kill a
Kashmiri would be fined 25 Rs out of this 16 rupees would be paid to the
next of kin if a Hindu an 4 rupees if a Muslim. The balance would go to
the govt. treasury. But of a Kashmiri would kill a Sikh, he would be
hanged. Kashmir’s everywhere were taken for
unpaid forced labor called Begaar. The economy of J & K under the Sikh

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is a history of rather continues exploitation of peasantry by the ruling
classes as under:
1. Begaar: Force Labour (Vishti or karu – Sarkar)

This practice was common and remained one of the most
pronounced features of the Kashmir administration under Ranjit Singh.
Thousands of villagers were forced to work for the successful completion
of the road since their construction. The sudden fell only in the Muslim.
Villagers of Kashmir as the city people and pandithswee exempted from
“Begaar”. In his “beboojnama” (Story of
lawlessness) Hamidullah, an eye, witeness has lifted cruelty and
highhanded action of Sikh rule from patwari to Nizam, the names can be
better guessed as
Shahmat Singh (Police officer)
Chugli Babu (News Reporter)
Rishwat Baba (Qazi)
2. Rehdari: Sikhs introduced Rehdari system in Kashmir. Nobody was
allowed to cross the banihal pass without the permission of Migration
checking point on the four corners of the valley.
3. Trafficking of Women: Sikh rulers were the first in the history of
Kashmir imposed tax, both on wedding as well as divorce. It was given a
shape of law and was realized under the conver of Zari – crazaya.
Prostitution was deep rooted in to society of
Kashmir from the remote past was also existence during Sikh rule.
However during Sikh rule for the first time prostitution was legalized and
tax was imposed on prostitutes and brothels.
4. Khanadamadi: During the despotic rule of Sikhs Begaar not only
assumed considerable dimensions but was followed vigorously. The
impact of Begaar on the Kashmir society was so deep that Khanadumadi
as institution flourished. During Sikh rule, Whenever, men were called
for forced labour, unfortunate Khanadamads were sent to perform this
duty.
Kashmir Under Afghans:

The first Afghan Governor of Kashmir. Abdullah Khan Isaq Aqasi
proved to be a despot. The whole economy of the valley was shuttered, life
of the people became one log night of sorrow and misery. In six months
the governor Aqasi collected about a corore of rupees in cash and goods.
The drain of wealth started in Kashmir.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Dag-i-Shawl: (sept. of Shawls) was introduced by Dad Karim Khan in
1776 because due t demand in the market. In 1776 Afghan governor
Yahya Abdullah Khan a pair visit to Kashmir and Govt. presented him a
Kashmiri shawls, so shawls were in great demand in Iran, Afghanistan,
Turkistan, Europe and Russia. The Afghan regime was sustained by
the despotism of governor whose sole concern was to squeeze every
penny out of the impoverished Kashmir by imposing a variety of taxes
such as. a)
Zari-i-habibat (land tax) b)
Zari –i- Ashkhas (protection tax) c)
Zari-i-daud (double tax) d)
Dagi-i-shawl (tax on shawls) Karim Dad Khan
levied unjust tax on all classes of people as:
Nazrana: The wealthy nobles and Jagidars were ordeed to pay tax called
nazrana, which was many times mere than their income. Many sold their
properties and left the country.
Zari-Ashichas (Ashichas): The merchants and shopkeepers had also to pay

Zari-Ashichas, a kind of tax on goods imported into or exported from
country.
Abwabs: many additional abwabs and uses (taxes) on the peasants without
the conference of the state.
Begaar it was common during Afghan rule and reduced the
population.
Currency: Ahmad shah Durani, Raja Sukh Jewan Mal introduced Duoani
currency, where of a rupee amounted to 15 during and it had the
following legend. “Yeh conqueror with Gods commands Ahmad shah
Durani. “ It continued upt to 22 years when syed Abdullah Shah
introduced a new currency in the name of Zuman shah Durani.
It was Atta
Mohammad Khan, Afghan governor (1808-19810) who introduced a
currency in the name of Shah Shujah of Kabul. But after his rebellion
with Kabul rulers, he got struck coins in the name of saints and priests.
Darin of Wealth and Taxation under Sikh – Afghans:

Drain of wealth implied outflow or carrying away of Kashmir’s
enormous wealth to Afghanistan and Punjab by the Sikhs and Afghans
through various means. It led to the extreme form of exploitation of
Kashmir’s resources for the benefit of the people of Afghanistan and

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Punjab. Drain of wealth on
account of the policies of the foreign rulers. It may be observed that the
Afghans and Sikhs came to Kashmir as “Hawker and peddler” not for the
good of Kashmir but for the goods of Kashmir i.e. shawls etc. The
economic drain reduced Kashmir’s to the position of Hewers of wood and
drawers of water”. The drain started after the battle of sopore 1585.
The victory gave birth to the Mughal rule in Kashmir, the drain increase
tremendously when the Akbar obtained the Siwani of whole Kashmir in
1588. Drain of wealth in Kashmir occurs through taxation (heavy) by
Sikhs and Afghans as: During the Afghan
rules, Kashmir’s had to pay a no. of taxes such as Zari-i-Ashkhas
(protection tax) Zari-i-habubut (land tax) Zari-duod (smoke tax). The
smoke tax was imposed as pandith community as punishment for evading
taxes. There was a tax on shawls called Dagi-i-shawl. Even the marriages
were taxed through Zari-i-nikah. The province yielded revenue of about 20
to 30 lacs of rupees two of which a tribute of about so seven lacs was
remitted to the Kabul treasury. But this account was seldom utilized in
any beneficent projects.
Shawl Industry: The woolen shawls industry provided employment to

thousands of men, women and children and was a big source of income to
the state. During the early part of Sikh rule the total value of Kashmir
woolen shawls manufactured in Kashmir was estimated at about 35 lac
rupees per anum. The govt. levied a duty of 26% on the estimated value of
shawls. In the time of Diwan Kripa Ram, the Govt. collected as much as
12 lacs as the duly on shawls. The international demand of Kashmiri
shawls shot up the price of embroidered shawls from Rs 150 – 5000.
Marriage Tax: The Muslim were required to pay a marriage tax each Nikah
was validated by this tax called Zari-nakih. Similarly, shawl wears dyers,
Jewellers, pattern designers etc. were under taxed. Even on attending
delivery cases of women, govt imposed a tax called Kabullha”.
Nazrana: Was levied four times a year mandiri was chargeel for the
sustenance of temples.
Tambul (rice) was taken on the occasion of marriages in
the rural families.
Rasumi – Dafatari: It was a tax collected for the clerical staff of Daftari Diwani
and was charged at the rate of 5 rupees per thousand kharwars of grain of
a village.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Rusudat: It was tax collected on fruit trees, willows and vegetables.
Thanudari tax: It was collected from small and large villages, for maintenance
of police stations.
Poverty in Kashmir During Sikhs/Afghans:

Hameed-ullah Shah abadi called this period as Sher-i-
Napursan (neglected city) and others as Bebooj Raj. During Afghans and
Sikhs people had to bear many oppressions and heavy or unnecessary
taxation which ultimately contributed towards the poverty of Kashmir.
During Sikh rule, Kashmir
suffered from a severe earth quake which destroyed many public and
private buildings and took a heavy tool of life. It was followed by the
epidemic cholera.
Famine: The dreadful famine 1832-33 which completely ravaged the Kashmir
deteriorated further conditions of peasants, “Khalil Morjanpuri” states
that near Jamia Masjid Srinagar I saw a Musaman begaar and hindu
women eating the flesh of dead body”. (Dead cow).
The Sikh rule over a Kashmir lasted only for
a brief span of time, during which the rulers at Lahore were not paying
attention towards the affairs of the people with the result misery of the
people increased due to natural calamities such as premature snowfall,
which would destroy ripe rice and leading famine. This famine is followed
by diseases like cholera and plague resulting in a heavy loss of life.
Thousands of people migrated to India during these hard days and no
wonder the population of the valley came down to 2 lakh from lakhs.
Moorcroft who visited the valley during Sikh rule (1835) writes
everywhere people were in abject condition. They were in a condition of
extreme weakness village were half deserted and swarming with begaars.
Similarly Aghansfood had making Kashmir a part
of their kingdom. Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali fragmented the
Mughal Empire. The severe famine of 1745-46 had wrought havoc. Afghan
rule in Kashmir was a night Marish experience. Famines, heavy taxes
during Afghan also lead poverty of Kashmir.
Short Answer Type Questions:

1. What is Traki in Kashmir History?
A tax introduced by Afghans in the land revenue.
2. Dag-I-Shawl
A tax in Shawl industry introduced by Afghans.
3. Sukh0Jiwan Mal?

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Chief Advisory of Abdullah Khan Isaq Aqasi.
4. Who was Abdullah Khan Isaq Aqasi?
First Afghan Governor of Kashmir.
5. Who was Imam-ud-din?
Last Sikh Governor of Kashmir.
6. What s Baj in Kashmir history?
A tax introduced by Shahabu-ud-din upon common people.
7. Lalitadatya of Medieval Kashmir?
Shahab-ud-din because of his conquest also nicknamed as Shivasomak.
8. Suhabatta?
Brahman Chief Minister of Sultan Sikandar.
9. Zakhiratul Mulk and Gayatul Makan?
Two Important books authored by a Sufi Saint Syed Ali Hamdani.
10. Who was called But-Shikan?
Sultan, Skiandar (destroyer of Idols)
11. Dulucha and Achal’s ?
Turkish adventurers during Lohara dynasty.
12. Zain Prakasha?
Autobiography of Zain-ul-Abidin written by Yodabatta.
13. Founder of Rishi Order?
Sheikh Noor dinRA
14. Nurnamah?
Auto biography of Sheikh Noor din RA which contains life of Noor din RA and
beautiful sayings.
15. Mohammad Nurbaksh?
Founder of Nurbakshiya order in Kashmir.
16. Origin of Chaks?
Belonged from Dardistan.
17. First Chak ruler and Last ruler?
Ghazi Chak and yaqoob Shah Chak.
18. Mughal Conquest of Kashmir?
June 1586.
19. Nagar Nagar?
A beautiful city constructed by Mughals in Kashmir particularly Jahangir and
Akbar.
20. First Muslim ruler of Kashmir?
Sadru-ud-din
21. Dagh?
Mark of branding
22. Barid and Barid-i-Mammaliq?

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Intelligence officer and intelligence department.
23. Miratish?
Head of artillery.
24. Lalleshwari.
Affectionatelt known as Lal Ded or Lal Arifa one of the great women of
Kashmir. Her parents lived at pandrethen 7km to Srinagar.

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History 2nd Sem. 2021 .

Bilal Book Shop Opp Govt Degree College Kupwara 9797861908

BILAL BOOK SHOP

SCANNING, LIMINATION, SPIRAL BINDING, DTP WORK. I CARDS, WEDDING

ONLINE ALL ADMISSION FORMS & RESULTS

NOTES FOR ALL CLASSES

COURSE TITLE HISTORY

SEMESTER 2ND SEM

2nd sem. History

Zia-ud-din was a notable historian under the Sultans of Delhi. Discuss.

I. Tarikh-i-Firishta:- It was written by Muhammad Kasim Firishta during

Tarikh-i-Firishta consists primarily of the following books.

 The kings of Ghazni and Lahore.

Q.:- How are travelogues an important literary sources of the Delhi

Ans.: Some Travelers who left accounts

Tenth – eleventh centuries.

973-1048 A.D Muhammad bin ahmad Abu Raihan Al-Baruni (from

1413-1482 Abd al Razzaq kamal al- Din Ishaq al – Samarandi 1466-1472

1518 Duarte Barbosa, death from Portugal (Book of Duarte Barbosa).

1562 Seydi Ali Reis from Turkey.

1536- 1600 Antonio Monserrate from Spain.

1. Travelogues of Ibn Battuta:- Among the travelers, Muhammad –bin-

Q.:- Discuss Briefly Hagiographic Literature under Delhi Sultans. Or

Ans.:-Hagiographical literature that includes Malfuzat (pl.of malfuz i.e, Table

a) Treatises written by Sufis on the theory and practice of Sufism.

Q.:- Give a brief description of the cause of Turkish Conquest of India?

Economic Motivations:-The predatory nature of these raids has been

Causes of Ghorian Invasions:

Q: Discuss the cause of success of the Turks against the Rajputs?

Ans: Political Cause:

i. Lack of appropriate military strategy as Rajput army advanced with all

i. The Rajput rulers did not set up on efficient spy system.

Significance of the Conquest

The conquest of northern India by the Ghorids and the establishment of

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Balban’s Theory of kingship: The theory of kingship propounded by Balban

Principles of Balban’s Theory of Kingship:

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Alau’d-Din Khalji (1296-1316A.D):

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1. Conquest of Gujarat: In 1297 A.D. Ala-ud-din sent his forces to conquer

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Q: Discuss the economic reforms of Allaudin Khilji with special reference

Ans: According to K. S. Lal “the economic reforms of Allaudin Khiliji form a

1. Regulation of Prices: He issued regulation to control the prices of all

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Under Tughluqs: The tughluqs came to power in Delhi when Ghiyasuddin

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Mohammad Tughluq (1324-51 A.D.):

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