ECT304 Subject Methods Biology

KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF OPEN LEARNING
ECT 304
SUBJECT METHODS: BIOLOGY
JOHN MAUNDU
DAVID W. KHATETE
May, 2005
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Table of contents 2
INTRODUCTION 4
1.0 LESSON ONE: Biology and the welfare of humankind 5
1.1 Introduction 5
1.2 Objectives 5
1.3 Positive contribution of biology to the welfare of mankind 5
1.4 Biology as a potential for misuse 11
1.5 Summary 14
1.6 Definition of key words and concepts 14
1.7 Further reading 16
2.0 LESSON TWO: Biology in the Secondary School Curriculum 16
2.1 Introduction 16
2.2 Objectives 16
2.3 General purpose for teaching biology 17
2.4 Summary 24
3.0 LESSON THREE: Secondary School Biology Syllabi For Kenya 26
3.1 Introduction 26
3.2 Objectives 26
3.3 Goal for the new biology syllabus 26
3.4 Objectives for teaching KCSE biology 27
3.5 Sequencing of topics and time allocation 27
3.6 Summary 29
4.0 LESSON FOUR: Approaches and Methods for teaching Biology 30
4.1 Introduction 30
4.2 Objectives 30
4.3 Choice of strategies and methods 30
4.4 Summary 41
4.5 Key words and concepts 41
5.0 LESSON FIVE: Planning for teaching Biology 43
5.1 Introduction 43
5.2 Objectives 43
5.3 Steps in converting educational objectives or aims into practical reality 43
5.4 Schemes of work 44
5.5 Lesson plan 47
5.6 Summary 49
6.0 LESSON SIX: Resources and Facilities for teaching Biology 51
6.1 Introduction 51
6.2 Objectives 51
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6.3 Resources and facilities 51
6.4 Summary 61
7.0 LESSON SEVEN: Laboratory Design and Management 62
7.1 Introduction 62
7.2 Objectives 62
7.3 School laboratory design 63
7.4 The location of school science laboratory 65
7.5 Central workshop 67
7.6 Laboratory management 68
7.7 Summary 71
8.0 LESSON EIGHT: Assessment and evaluation in biology 73
8.1 Introduction 73
8.2 Objectives 73
8.3 Assessment and evaluation 74
8.4 Summary 84
8.5 Definition of key terms and concepts 87
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INTRODUCTION.
This module ECT 304: Subject Methods in Biology is written basically for open learning
or distant trainee students. This course is written to offer the same high quality degree
programme that compares favourably with the programme offered to regular students at
Kenyatta University. The two authors have endeavored to write the teaching and learning
materials in this module which are user friendly and at the same time intellectually
stimulating to the open learning student.
The course starts by introducing the student to the role of biology to the welfare of
mankind in lesson one. It then takes the student through the biology in secondary school
curriculum in lesson two before looking at secondary school biology syllabi in Kenya in
lesson three. Lesson four discusses approaches and methods for biology teaching while
lesson five deals with planning for teaching. Lesson six exposes the student to the
resources and facilities for teaching biology while lesson seven deals with the laboratory
design and management. Lastly, lesson eight discusses assessment and evaluation in
biology.
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ECT 304: SUBJECT METHODS-BIOLOGY
1.0 LESSON ONE: BIOLOGY AND THE WELFARE OF HUMANKIND
1.1 Introduction
Biology as a discipline is concerned with the study of biotic (living) and abiotic
(non-living) things and how they relate and function in specific environments. To
date a large body of biological knowledge has been built, much of which is used
to improve the well being of humans and other creatures and some of which has
been used against the promotion of life or environmental conditions.
In this lesson we shall focus on a number of positive contributions to the welfare

of mankind (humankind) as well as some examples that illustrate negative
contributions to the said welfare.
1.2 Objectives.
By the end of lesson, you should be able to:
1.3 Explain the meaning of ‘positive’ and ‘negative’ contributions of biology to the
welfare of humankind
1.4 State and explain at least three positive contributions of biological knowledge to
human welfare
1.5 State and explain at least two ways in which biology has served as a potential for
misuse in the life of human beings.
1.3. Positive Contributions of biology to the welfare of human beings

The use of biological knowledge is evident in many spheres of our lives. We
witness the application of the knowledge in health related matters, in agriculture, food
and nutrition as well as in industries.
Question.
In what ways is biological knowledge useful in matters pertaining to health?
1.3.1 Use of biological knowledge in health concerns.
Health matters focus on the state of one’s physical, mental and spiritual condition. It
is not therefore, merely characterized by absence of disease. Nevertheless disease
prevention and cure occupy a great deal of time of medical practitioners and allied staff
including researchers in the medical field. Through continuous research, humans are able
to discover preventive and curative measures to address a wide variety of ailments. Such
discoveries are mainly based on biological knowledge about the anatomy (structure) and
physiology (functioning) of the human body. Examples of diseases that can be prevented
through medicine and/or application of hygiene and sanitation are cholera, tuberculosis,
poliomyelitis, tetanus and typhoid.
Question
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What kinds of medicines actually cure diseases?
Curative medicine is necessary in addressing the onset of diseases. Among the

oldest and commonly known curative drugs are antibiotics. These drugs originated from a
discovery made in the 19th century by a British bacteriologist Sir Alexander Fleming
(1881-1955) whose work on the penicillium mould led to the manufacture of penicillin –
an anti-bacterial preparation. Since then many other kinds of antibiotics have been
manufactured such as streptomycin and adamycin.
Not all drugs are antibiotics. Examples of diseases principally treated or managed
with non-antibiotics include malaria, influenza, athlete’s foot and hypertension.
Activity 1.
Find out from your local health facility the prevalent diseases and the kinds of drugs used
to cure or manage them.
Besides curative and preventive medicine, biological knowledge has been found
useful in handling disputes regarding parentage through blood typing and DNA
(deoxyribo nucleic acid) techniques. Through the former technique, the types of blood of
the parties in dispute are established and checked against that of the person being claimed
to ascertain whether any of them could be a parent. This is confirmed or disputed through
DNA testing to establish the patterns of the DNA material (bases, sugars) of all parties
concerned and hence solve the problem.
Activity 2
List any two other ways in which biological knowledge is used to address health matters.
1.3.2 Biology and Agriculture.
It has been said that in Kenya agriculture is the main stay of the economy. This is
particularly so since about 80% of our population resides in the rural areas. It is therefore,
incumbent upon the relevant ministries to help develop animal and crop production more
vigorously than ever before. In doing so they would be utilizing biological knowledge in
such practices as animal breeding, crop rotation, hybrid seed development and weed
control using appropriate chemicals. These practices utilize biological knowledge of
production, growth and development.
Note:
The development of disease-resistant or drought-resistant crop strains or high meat/milk

yielding cows and goats is based on patient application of biological knowledge over
along period of time (years).
Activity 3
List at least two other applications of biological knowledge to agriculture
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1.3.3 Meeting nutritional requirements: a biological focus.
Our bodies require adequate amounts of protein, fats, carbohydrates, minerals and
vitamins to function normally. In other words, a balanced diet is essential for the body to
function efficiently and effectively including overcoming potential sources of illness.
Through the diligent study, biochemists have determined the type and quantity of food
ingredients necessary for proper functioning of the body. Thus nutrition is biologically
based in content and context.
Knowledge about dietary requirements has led to the manufacture of a wide variety of
milk and other food products that are essential for young children. Although some
criticism may be leveled against such efforts, credit is nevertheless due particularly in
times of scarcity of the natural products such as breast milk.
Question
What other examples of nutritional products do you know? List two in your notebook.
An important nutritional product is glucose, which is available even in rural market

centres. It can be given to a person e.g. an athlete or footballer to boost his/her energy
level. Oral rehydration solutions (ORS) are also helpful restoring lost body fluids (e.g.
loss through diarrhoea).
1.3.4 Biology in industry
A number of industrial processes utilize biological knowledge. Examples include bread

making, beer making and milk processing. In milk processing, one of the initial processes
is pasteurization (named after Louse Pasteur). In pasteurization, microbial populations in
milk are reduced or killed through heat treatment at high temperatures (over 60 degrees
centigrade) for a short time then cooled suddenly. The microbes are not able to withstand
this treatment leading to the preservation of fresh milk for a specified period of time (a
day to several months depending on the kind of treatment given).
Activity 6
Find out how sour milk is prepared and packaged
Note:
Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) was the French biochemist who introduced pasteurization as a
milk processing technique.
The preparation of beer requires the use of yeast (a fungus) to bring about fermentation of
malt prepared from barley. Through fermentation yeast enzymes convert malt sugars to
alcohol and carbon dioxide. Yeast of the saccharomyces genus is a suitable choice.
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Activity 7
1.Find out from the local brewery the kind of yeast used
2.List three sources of sugars for fermentation for beer making
Bread making is another example of application of biological knowledge. Hear ‘Bakers

Yeast’ is used to enlarge the dough due to the production of carbon dioxide gas. This
facilitates quick/easier baking due to the increased surface area of the dough.
The yeast also produces alcohol from the carbohydrate sugars present. The alcohol
evaporates during baking while the gas also escapes leaving the familiar many tiny holes
seen on bread.
Activity 8
Find out how wine is made
.
1.3.5 Biological Research
Research is basically a quest for new knowledge and skills. A researcher seeks to find an
answer to a question or a problem. Biology- related research is abound in many areas.
• In agriculture one may wish to find out the root cause of aflatoxin
poisoning and how to manage it effectively
• How to improve milk production in local animal breeds
• How to eliminate the hyacinth weed through biological control or
• How to improve honey harvesting and processing techniques
Activity 9
List two kinds of research activities under each of the following areas :
(a) Health/Medicine
(b) Industry
(c) Nutrition
Question
Is research of significant value to the welfare of humankind?
Whatever the field of research, it is important to realize that all human activities
affect our welfare in one way or the other. The discovery of retroviral drugs has added
new hope for longer life among HIV/AIDS sufferers. Better knowledge about
management or cure of cancer or leukemia will help us increase our hope for survival.
Thus the better we can understand and explain our biological world the better we shall be
scientifically. Improved scientific literacy not only makes us able to understand ourselves
better but also makes us more competent in dealing with our biological and physical
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environment. Hence there is need for continuous research at all fronts including those that
are biologically related.
1.4. Biology as a potential for misuse
Despite the many contributions of biology to the welfare of the human race, there are
instances when biological knowledge has been abused. Abortion, use of pesticides, drug
abuse and surrogate motherhood are practical cases in point.
1.4.1 Abortion
The process of abortion involves the termination of the life of a human being in
the foetal stage. This is facilitated by biological knowledge on the process of
development.
Note:
.
Procurement of abortion is a denial to a human being’s existence. It is a violation of
the sanctity of life, which begins at conception
1.4.2 Pesticides
The use of pesticides is worldwide. It has been argued that these chemicals boost
agricultural productivity. However, some of them persist in the soil as they are non-
biodegradable thereby interfering with the ecosystem thereby adversely affecting crop
productivity and subsequent food chains. Infact the use of chemicals like D.D.T.
(diphenyl-dimethyl-trichloro-ethane) has been banned in many western countries and
beyond.
Activity 1
Find out from your local agricultural officer more examples of dangerous crop
pesticides and outline the damage or harm they cause.
1.4.3 Drugs and drug abuse
Drug abuse is widespread in many countries including Kenya. Among those abused
locally include alcohol, bhang (Cannabis sativa), heroine and cocaine. Intense counseling
and civic education is a necessary intervention measure to reclaim the ‘lost’ lot and to
prevent others from becoming addicted.
Question
What other kinds of drugs are available locally?
Tea and coffee are commonplace stimulants in our country. However, some people do
become so addicted that they cannot function without these drinks. Cases of headaches
and general lethargic feeling has been reported among the addicted lot.
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Cigarettes are another kind of addictive drugs. These are so widely smoked in schools
and colleges that there is a cause for concern given the easy availability and that they
contain carcinogenic (cancer-causing) chemicals. The ministry of education has a big
challenge in this area.
Note:
AllSurrogate
4.4 drugs areMother-hood
potentially poisonous. This includes the medicines prescribed by doctors, which
must be taken as per the physicians prescriptions.
Surrogate mothers are ‘substitute’ mothers who accept implantation of zygotes into their
uteri. Each zygote results from fertilization of an ovum (egg) from another mother by
sperm from her husband. The fertilization occurs inside a test-tube hence the name “test-
tube” babies. This type of fertilization is referred to as “ in vitro fertilization” (IVF)
meaning “outside the living body and in an artificial environment” (Webster”s New
collegiate Dictionary).
Activity
Find out
Usually the name
surrogate for fertilization
motherhood that occurs
is undertaken inside
when the asource
livingof
body
the and give 5ovum
fertilized examples.
is
physiologically unable to have successful implantation ( a case of uterine incompetence).

However, a moral query may be raised regarding this type of procreation. Further, this
practice can lead to court cases concerning ownership of the babies that are eventually
produced. Where implantation in the woman who is the source of the ovum is possible,
there is no need for surrogate mother-wood.
Louise Joy Brown (British) is the first test-tube baby (aged 26 years in 2004). It has been
reported that the test-tube procedure, which is almost routine in the West, is slowly being
introduced in Africa. Indeed a feature article in one of Kenya’s local dailies (Daily
Nation June 10, 2004) reports that KEMRI opened a test-tube facility in Kenya last year
(2003). There is however, a need for debate on this issue to gauge its legitimacy and
socio-religious implications.
Activity
Test-tube baby procreation is immoral. Discuss.
1.4.4 Cloning. Another debate issue is cloning. A clone is a progeny of an individual

obtained asexually from corresponding cells ( of a plant or animal). Human cloning may
be therapeutic (i.e. for disease control or prevention) or may be for reproductive purposes
seeking to create new desired life. Whether for medical or procreative reasons, this
process has a potential for misuse especially in terms of the resulting genome (a haploid
set of chromosomes together with the genes therein). Ethical questions on possible
manipulation of genomes and continual supply of appropriate human embryos have been
raised.
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Dolly was the first ever cloned sheep. She died in Feb. 2003. (Daily Nation, Aug 19,
2003). It is unethical in medical research to experiment with humans if the process has
not been successfully tried with non-human animals. Further, the development of humans
is significantly and progressively shaped by culture, education and science not through
mere cloning.
Activity
1. State and explain two more examples of how biological knowledge can or has been misused.
2. In your opinion would you say that the positive contributions of biology to the welfare of
humankind outweigh the negative contributions? Give reasons for your answer.
3. Prepare a flow diagram of positive and negative contributions of biology for the welfare of
humankind.
1.5. Summary
In this lesson we have learned about some positive and negative contributions of biology to the
welfare of human race. We have noted that biological knowledge is applied in health, agriculture,
nutrition and research among others. We have also observed that abortion, pesticide use, drug
abuse, surrogate motherhood and cloning are areas where biological knowledge can be or has been
misused.
1.6. Definition of key words and concets
Antibiotic-substance capable of killing disease-causing bacteria.
Penicillium – A mould from which a non-toxic antibiotic acid, penicillin is

manufactured.
Drug- substance used in the preparation of or as medication for diagnosis, management
or cure of an illness.
HIV- Human Immuno-deficiency Virus.
AIDS- Acquired Immuno-Deficiency Syndrome.
Yeast- A substance used in fermentation in such processes as baking, wine making or

alcohol preparation.
Saccharomyces- The group of fungus constituting yeast and belonging to the family
saccharomycetaceae.
Pasteurisation – The process through which milk and other liquids are temporarily
sterilized with heat thereby destroying disease-causing micro-organisms. Term also used
to refer to partial sterilization of foods that perish easily (e.g. fish or fruits) by use of
radiation.
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Breeding – Raising of animals or crops with the purpose of obtaining improved livestock
or crops.
Nutrition – The totality of processes by which a plant or animal feeds and utilizes food.
Abortion- The process of removing a foetus (developing baby) by deliberately inducing

premature birth or by using physical means to procure such birth.
Pesticide – a substance or agent used to get rid of pests.
In vitro – Outside a living body (as in In- vitro fertilization)

Surrogate Motherhood – Parenting on behalf of real mother e.g. surrogate mothers who
carry a pregnancy on behalf of a couple where the woman is unable or unwilling to
undertake such a biological responsibility.
Cloning – The process of obtaining desired individuals asexually through manipulation

and use of specific cells from a living being.
1.7. Further Reading
Broad J. (1988). Science and criminal detection. London: Macmillan Education

Dowdeswell W.H. (1981). Teaching and and learning Biology. London : Heinemann
Educational Books.
Brock T. & Brock K (1973). Basic Microbiology with implications for industry. New
jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc
Maundu J., Sambili H.& Muthwii S. (1998). Biological Education: A methodological
approach. Nairobi: Lectern Publications Ltd.
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2.0 LESSON TWO: BIOLOGY IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL
CURRICULUM
2.1. Introduction
The secondary school curriculum consists of many disciplines including biology.
Each of these disciplines (Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics, Religious education,
Geography, History, English, Kiswahili e.t.c.) serves specific roles in the education of
the students enrolled at this level of schooling. In this lesson we shall examine the
role of biology in the academic and social development of secondary school students
and demonstrate the subject’s integrative role in the said development process.
2.2 Objectives
By the end of this lesson you should be able to
• State and explain the general purposes of teaching biology as a science.
• Explain at least two fundamental reasons for teaching biology.
• Outline the role of biology as an integrating agent across the curriculum.
2.3. General purposes for teaching biology

Biology like any other subject in the secondary school curriculum is a discipline in its
own right. It has specific subject matter governed by underlying principles. However,
the subject does share some operational and procedural features with other scientific
fields such as Chemistry and Physics.
Question
In what ways is biology related to other scientific disciplines?
It is recognized that no country can achieve much national economic and technological
development without the participation of scientific knowledge and skills. Biology is a
source of such knowledge and skills and whose application is evident in processes like
pasteurization, food preservation, wine making, bee –keeping and hybridization.
As a science, biology participates in the realization of two broad objectives through

teaching and learning (instruction) namely,
(a) the production of a community of scientific community whose principal role is to

promote the welfare of humankind and
(b) the advancement of science through research and publications.
As noted in lesson One, biology contributes positively in societal welfare in the fields
of medicine, agriculture and industry among others through the application of
biological knowledge and techniques. Various personnel are specialized in these
fields and through them a variety of consumer goods and services are provided in
order to promote general standard of living of humankind.
In addition to providing societal services, biological knowledge and skills are utilized
in advancing the field in its own right. The search for cure for HIV/AIDS, cancer,
malaria and other prevalent diseases goes on in various research institutions. As the
scientists continue to search for medicine as well as efficient biological control
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methods (e.g. of water hyacinth in L. Victoria), they not only add to repertoire of
knowledge but help in development of the discipline (biology).
Note:
The promotion of employing human welfare by employing biological knowledge is an extrinsic

justification for teaching the subject; the advancement of biological knowledge through research
Activity
is an intrinsic reason for teaching biology.
(a) List and explain three ways in which biological knowledge has been applied to improve the
welfare of the community in which you live.
(b) Outline the contribution of a famous biologist (e.g. Darwin, Mendel, Linnaeus) to the
discipline of biology.
Question
What kind of skills should students learn?
Any student of science learns both manual and cognitive skills. The practical tasks
outlined above fall in the former category. The latter category comprises such skills at the
following
• ability observe accurately

• ability to classify objects or events
• ability to ask thought-provoking questions
• ability to interpret information correctly
• ability to control variables in experimental work
• ability to draw relevant conclusions from observation
These and similar cognitive process skills are basic ingredients in the development of the
budding scientist or future scientific literacy advocate.
Activity
(a) Against each of the above process skills, give an example of a relevant activity or topic and
explain how the skill is applicable.
(b) List other mental (cognitive) skills that are desirable for secondary school students to acquire.
Note:
The named process skills are not only applicable to science or biology for that matter. Other disciplines
also employ these skills e.g. geographer also make observations (of rocks, cloud patterns etc).
Question
Besides knowledge and skills we have attitudes. What kind of attitudes should a biology student
acquire?
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The development of attitudes is not an easily manageable undertaking. Attitudes develop
gradually. The kinds of attitudes we associate with biology are common to other
scientific disciplines. Examples of such attitudes are
• curiosity
• self confidence
• open-mindedness
• respect for evidence
Curiosity is an innate tendency. A toddler will reach out for objects placed before it to try
and find out what they are and how they feel or behave when touched or shaken. It is
therefore prudent to encourage rather than stifle this inborn inclination during science
instruction and biology education in particular. This way students learn to understand and
appreciate their environments and are better placed to explain why things behave the way
they do e.g. why the chameleon changes colour (defense mechanism), why milk goes
sour (due to entry of bacteria) or why a child may have rickets (due to lack of vitamin
D).
Self-confidence
In usual day-to-day engagements, one needs to exhibit adequate level of confidence in
order to perform well. It is natural for one to be motivated on successful completion of
task. This feeling of ‘ I am able to do it’ is useful in biological investigations and in
communication of findings from such investigations. Learners should therefore, be
provided with opportunities develop this potential wherever a situation demands it e.g.
during seminars, exhibitions and report writing sessions.
Resourcefulness
The ability to design ways to solve a problem ( e.g. setting up a school or class museum)
is a novel opportunity for developing resourcefulness. A student who is able to creatively
deal with a situation is on his/her way to becoming an innovative investigator and may
eventually be a useful problem-solving of community problems. The wise teacher will
devise ways of giving opportunities to his/her class to develop the said potential.
Open-mindedness
This quality is closely related to resourcefulness in that learners are encouraged to have a
“readiness to receive “ attitude during which one is able to objectively and critically
judge a given piece of information. The teaching of biology should therefore, not
encourage a one-track frame of think that does not welcome new ideas. One should for
example, realize that there are more than one way of recording observations (e.g. in
tabular form, in form of diagrams or through descriptive accounts).
Respect for evidence

The real focus or root function of science is to provide explanations about physical and
biological phenomena, i.e. why things in the universe behave the way they do. For
example, a biologist would
• explain albinism in terms of lack of melanin in the skin (through inheritance)
rather than associate it with curse or extra-marital unfaithfulness.
• Obtain information to find a possible cause of aflatoxin poisoning instead of
attributing it to mere misfortune.
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• Search for possible cure of HIV/AIDS rather than give up the fight on the
scourge.
• Read a lot about cloning and listen to researched views on the subject to get
informed and better able to make reasoned judgments.
Question
Why is evidence necessary in biology education?
Biological information and all scientific information is never final. It is tentative asnew
more valid information could alter our notion about a given aspect. For example, the
spontaneous generation theory was quashed by Redi’s experiment (in the17th century)
with meat, which demonstrated that foods did not just go bad some living thing (in this
case flies) caused it to get spoiled. Thus the hitherto view that living things could
originate from lifeless matter was laid to test.
Activity
Suggest ways through which learners could improve their curiosity to discover, self-confidence,
resourcefulness, open-mindedness and respect for scientific evidence in the course of teaching
and learning biology at the secondary school level.
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5. Fundamental principles behind instruction in biology
As pointed earlier, the root function of science is to provide an understanding of the
universe. Through the study of biology students learn to approach understanding of
themselves and their environment more fully. This is facilitated by critical examination
and internalization of the basic principles underlying biological phenomena.
Through the study of genetics, anatomy and physiology, the student is better able to
understand and explain how our bodies are structured and how they function. The study
of ecology on the other hand helps to inform the student about the relationship between a
given set of living organisms and their environment.
All these understandings about the biosphere are based on fundamental principles such as
the following.
• All living things originate from other living or previously living things of the
same kind.
• A cell is the very basic functioning unit of all organisms.
• Sunlight is the ultimate source of energy that is utilized by all livings things.
• All living organisms must adapt to the environment in which they are so as to
survive
Activity
(a) List at least one more basic principle of biology.

(b) Give examples of unicellular (single-cell) and multicultural (many-celled) organisms.
(c) Justify the principle on the sun being the ultimate source of energy.
(d) Give examples of plants and animals that are adapted to specific environments.
Question
How can students study and appreciate biological principles?
Through observation, experimentation and library research biology students begin to

appreciate that these and other biological principles are a reality: for example students
can
• Design an activity to observe the four stages of the life cycle of a housefly (egg,
larva, pupa, adult) using meat, tin cans and adult flies as proof for origin of living
things.
• Observe a unicellular organism (e.g. the amoeba) and human check cell as the
basic unit.
• Read about food chains and food webs to learn about energy transfer across
organisms. The library research will cover primary, secondary and tertiary
producers and consumers.
• Observe and record examples of plants growing in water, on trees, in savanna
grassland on marine environment and other habitats to appreciate adaptation.
Activity
(a) Draw a food chain and a food web.

(b) Give examples of primary, secondary and tertiary producers and consumers.
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6. Biology as an integrating subject
Much of the subject matter of biology is closely associated with content in other
disciplines. There is an element of “lending” and “borrowing” across several subjects. In
the case of Home Science for example, the concept of micro-organisms taught in biology
is used to explain food spoilage: food deficiency diseases and malnutrition covered in
both subjects is more of familiar/core substance in biology.
Mathematics, a tool of science, enable the understanding of the calculation of the amount
of fertilizer/manure required in crop production as well as the percentage cover of
vegetation in an ecosystem. Further calculations involving genetics (e.g. proportions of
F1 generation) and number of stomata in a leaf are possible through mathematical
computation. This incidentally provides a realistic base for such calculating and makes
understanding of such computing less abstract.
Knowledge in Physics and Chemistry also facilitates better understanding of biological
content such as in the study of chemicals of life (proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, vitamins
and mineral salts) whereby the biology student is able to understand both the physical
appearance and chemical composition and activity of these food substances.
Activity
Give examples to illustrate how biological knowledge is related to content in geography, history
and geology.
Biology has a language of its own. This means that the subject has unique vocabulary that
is used alongside ‘common language’ to express specific concepts. Examples of terms
that are closer to biology than any other subject in the secondary school curriculum are
given below
• Carrying capacity- the ability or extent to which an ecosystem can support a

population without being destroyed.
• Genetics – the study of heredity and variation in organisms.
• Natural selection – A natural process that facilitates the survival and perpetuation
of organisms that are best adapted to the environment in which they live.
• Evolution – the historical development of biological species usually from simpler
to more complex (component for) form.
• Biology – the study of living and non-living things and their interaction with the
environment in which they are.
Thus, the above outline of school subjects does show that biology is indeed an
integrating and interactive discipline since it cuts across several other school subjects
Activity
(a) List three biological terms together with corresponding descriptions/definitions.

(b) List two more secondary school subjects and explain how their content lends to or
borrow from biology.
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2.4 Summary
We have, in this lesson, looked at the place of biology in the secondary school curriculum by
examining the basic purposes of teaching biology at this level pointing to intrinsic and extrinsic
justification for doing so. Through the examination of aspects of knowledge skills and attitudes,
we have learned that these are basic tenets in any science curriculum but noting that process skills
are not the preserve of biology or any science for that matter. We have ended the lesson by noting
that biological knowledge cuts across several other disciplines and by so doing creates inter-
disciplinary linkages, which facilitate better concept formation and understanding in the
secondary
2.5. school curriculum.
Definition This
of Key justifies the inclusion of biology in the curriculum in the said
Words
level.
Principle – Basic general truth underlying something.
Intrinsic – Value or quality arising naturally or from within i.e. inherently pertinent
Extrinsic – A quality or value which is external to an area of interest.
Skill – ability to do something efficiently within a reasonable time limit.
Attitude – Way of behaving or thinking.
Stomata – Small openings in the leaf through which gaseous exchange occurs.
Biceps – Muscle at front of upper arm and which facilitates the bending of the elbow.
Triceps – Large muscular back upper arm and which operates antagonistically to
biceps.
Aflatoxin – A poisonous substance produced by fungal infestation of cereals.
Melanin – A dark pigment found in human skin and hair: its absence leads to
albinism.
Albinism – condition in human or other animal characterized by lack of colouring
pigment in hair and skin.
Food chain – An arrangement of organisms such that one feeds on the one below it.
Food web – A network of food chains.
Producer – Plant or animal that serves as food for another organism
Consumer – Animal or plant that feeds on another plant or animal
2.6. Further reading
Green T.L (1965) The teaching of biology in tropical secondary schools.

Maundu J., Sambili, H., Muthwii, S. (1998). Biology Education: A methodological
Approach. Nairobi: Lectern Publishers.
Ministry of Education, Science & Technology (2002). Biology Syllabus. Nairobi:
Kenya Literature Bureau.
19
3.0 LESSON 3
SECONDARY SCHOOL BIOLOGY SYLLABUS.
3.1 Introduction
In this lesson we are going to discuss the new biology syllabus. We shall look at the
goals and objectives of the new biology syllabus. We shall also look at the sequencing
and the time allocation of different topics.
3.2 Objectives.
By the end of this lesson you should be able to:
a) State the goals and objectives of the new biology syllabus

b) Discuss the sequencing and time allocation of the new biology syllabus
3.3 GOALS OF THE NEW BIOLOGY SYLLABUS
The new biology syllabus outlines the following as the goals of teaching the subject in
Kenyan secondary schools:
1. The study of biology aims at equipping the learner with knowledge, attitudes
and skills necessary for controlling and preserving the environment.
2. IT enables learners to appreciate humans as part of the broader community of
living organisms.
3. It is important in fields such as health, agriculture, environment and education.
4. It is the precursor of biotechnology which is a tool for industrial and
technological development.
• It is recommended that the teachers use discovery method in achieving the

objectives of biology
• Most of the apparatus, chemicals and equipment required for practical
activities are affordable.
• However, the teacher is highly encouraged to improvise using locally
available materials to reduce the costs
• HIV/AIDS, STIs (sexually transmitted infections) have been included.
• The current system of using 5 kingdoms has been adapted instead of the
traditional two kingdom system.
• The syllabus should be covered within the allocated time. The timing for
each topic has been suggested to aid the teacher.
20
Questions
1. Do you think the above list covers all the goals of teaching biology? Discuss.
2. What materials and equipment are difficult to improvise?
3.4 OBJECTIVES FOR TEACHING KCSE BIOLOGY.
There are ten objectives for teaching secondary school biology in Kenya. They point out
that by the end of the course, the learner should be able to:
1.Communicate biological information in a precise, clear and logical manner.
2. Develop an understanding of interrelationships between plants and animals and

between humans and their environment.
3. Apply the knowledge gained to improve and maintain the health of the individual,
family and community.
4. Relate and apply relevant biological knowledge and understanding to social and
economic situations in rural and urban settings.
5. Observe and identify features of familiar and unfamiliar organisms, record the
observation and make deductions about the functions of parts of organisms.
6. Develop positive attitudes and interest towards biology and the relevant practical
skills.
7. Demonstrate resourcefulness, relevant technical skills and scientific thinking

necessary for economic development.
8. Design and carry out experiments and projects that will enable them understand
biological concepts.
9. Create awareness of the value of cooperation in solving problems.
10. Acquire a firm foundation of relevant knowledge, skills and attitudes for further
education and for training in related scientific fields.
Question
Do you think there is any single method that can be used in teaching of biology that
will enable the teacher achieve all the ten objectives? Discuss.
21
3.5 Sequencing and time allocation.
The Kenya Institute of Education (KIE) has suggested what topics to be taught at each
level, from Forms One to Form Four. They have further suggested the sequencing of the
topics at each level. The duration of each topic in terms of number of lessons has also
been indicated. The suggestions are as follows:
Topic No of lessons
Form 1
1. Introduction to biology 5
2. Classification 1 12
3 The cell 20
4. Cell physiology 20
5. Nutrition in plants and animals 59
Subtotal 116
Form 2
6. Transport in plants and animals 52
7. Gaseous exchange 36
8. Respiration 18
9. Excretion and homeostasis 42
Subtotal 148
Form 3.
10. Classification 2 35
11. Ecology 55
12. Reproduction in plants and animals 50
13. Growth and development 20
Subtotal 160
22
Form 4
14. Genetics 34
15 Evolution 19
16. Reception, response and coordination in plants and animals 43
17. Support and movement in plants and animals 39
Subtotal 135
Grand total 559
Activity
Assume the school gives you four lessons of biology per week. Compute the time
implications for your teaching.
3.6 Summary
The new biology syllabus replaces both the biology and biological syllabuses. Thus all
schools in the country offer the same biology syllabus. You should constantly be
referring to the goals and objectives of teaching the new syllabus so that you help to
produce the type of candidate expected at the end of the course (Form Four). The course
is tight, every biology lesson should be taken if you have to cover the syllabus
adequately. Any biology lesson lost during the course will impact negatively on your
syllabus coverage.
3.7 Definition of key words and concepts.
Goal or Aim: These are broad statements on the purpose of teaching the biology
course.
Broad objective: These are general statements describing what the learner should be
able to do by the end of the course.
Lesson: Duration of each period, usually 40 minutes in most schools.
Sequencing: Order of teaching each topic
Syllabus: Document outlining the content of the course. Modern syllabuses
also have goals and aims of the course, general objectives and time
allocation to each content area.
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3.8 Further reading.
Republic of Kenya, Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (2002). Secondary

Education Syllabus Volume Two.
24
4.0 LESSON 4
APPROACHES AND METHODS OF TEACHING BIOLOGY.
4.1 Introduction.
There are various methods available to the teacher for teaching of biology. As a biology
teacher you have the freedom to choose which method to employ and when. The methods
are based on underlying approaches or strategies. In this lesson we are going to discuss
the approaches/strategies and methods of teaching biology.
4.2 Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

2.2.1.1 Discuss the criteria a teacher should use in the choice of strategy and method of
teaching a given topic in biology.
2.2.1.2 Define expository and heuristic strategies of teaching
2.2.1.3 Discuss different methods of teaching biology, highlighting the advantages and
disadvantages of each.
4.3 Choice of strategy and method.
In teaching and learning, TWO main approaches or strategies are available: Expository
and Heuristic. Heuristic approach is also known as the Inquiry strategy (in Greek
heurisko means “I find out”) hence the finding out or inquiry nature of the approach.
Some teaching methods are more heuristic than others depending on whether the
predominant behaviour is learner or teacher-centered. Learner-centered approach is
heuristic while teacher-focused activities characterize expository strategy.
The choice of a particular method is dictated by various factors:
• General objectives of the biology syllabus. There are 10 objectives and there is
not any one single method of teaching that can effectively lead to achievement of
all the 10 objectives.
• Whether you will teach in the classroom, laboratory or field (course)
• Availability and quantity of apparatus and materials.
• Specific objectives of a given topic
• The academic level of the learner.
4.3.1 Lecture method (Expository)

• Generally speaking, the lecture method is a process of delivering verbally
a body of knowledge. This is usually done by the teacher by exposing the
knowledge to the learners
• In its strictest sense it is characterized by a one way communication
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• The presents ideas or concepts while the students listen
Treneman (19 ) in his study showed that:

• Those students who had 15 minutes of lecture scored 41% on a factual
recall test while
• Those who had 30 minutes of lecture could only score 25%
• This means the second period of 15 minutes proved to be (a) far less
productive and (b) also reduced the listener’s ability to recall the first 15
minutes.
• This is probably due to (a) fatigue setting in and (b) lose of concentration
• The span of concentration is less for a child than for an adult.
• Characteristically, children switch their attention rapidly from one subject
to another.
Question
Using the above example on achievement:
1. How much do you think they will score in (a) a 40- minute lecture? (b) 80
minutes lecture?
2. What is the implication of this work for the teacher?
Implications of lecture to the teacher:
One should not lecture continuously for more than a very limited time, say not more
than 10 minutes at most with an average secondary school class.
• 3 – 5 minutes for children in primary school is adequate lecture time
• there should be change of activity in between lecture episodes
• practical work involves/doing/ observing/ experimenting/ explaining something
a) working in small groups
b) watching a film
c) discussing, etc.
• The teacher who is sensitive to the mood of his pupils will notice the cues they
give that signal the necessity for change: e.g. dozing; banging desks; no/few
hands up.
• Don’t just book them for punishment.
• The criticisms of the lecture technique refers to the limitations inherent in the
technique itself, which cannot be overcome however fluent or articulate the
teacher may be.
• You should have your teaching notes when teaching to ensure correct sequencing
of the ideas and quoting of accurate figures.
• But word by word reading from notes is death to good teaching: not good/ not
recommended.
26
When lecture method is appropriate.
There are times when lecture method can be used. But as stated earlier, it should be very
brief, say 3 – 5 minutes, not more than 10 minutes in a high school situation.
Lecture method is appropriate when:
1. conveying information e.g. instructions to the experiment.
2. explaining a concept, e.g. carbon fixation in photosynthesis; oxygen transport
from alveolus to the muscle.
3. synthesizing many sources of information to supplement textbook materials.
4. informing students of expected results of a learning activity such as
experiment , after they have done a practical/ experiment.
5. introducing a new topic or unit, or summarizing a topic just taught
Activity
Suggest one other appropriate instance when the lecture method could be used
Suggestions for improving lecture method.
1. Teaching personality – e.g. your personal appearance, poise, manner of dress, etc,
all count a lot. Try to present yourself in a way that doesn’t disturb the learning
environment
2. Use a well modulated voice and correct pronunciation,
3. Facial expression, gestures, should be used to give emphasis to points being made
4. Talk to your students, not to the chalk board.
5. Constantly check on students understanding through questioning
6. Encourage them to interrupt and ask questions to seek clarification if necessary
7. Adapt a language to the level of students understanding i.e communnicate
8. Make use of simple and focused illustrative devices/ teaching aids.
4.3.2 CLASS OR SMALL GROUP DISCUSSION (heuristic).
This mode of learning is possible because:

• The conventional school class is small enough a group to allow class discussion
and pupil participation.
• Morrison and McIntyre (19 ) in their research found that most pupils prefer
classrooms when teachers use “discovery” methods and where they establish
relatively democratic relationships.
As a learner centred teaching method, Group Discussion facilitates the following:

More attention is given to individual and group work
• Pupils are encouraged under guidance to seek solutions to problems
• Pupils are stimulated to produce, develop and utilize their own ideas.
27
Note:
This method is preferable where the tasks are more complex; co-operation is required.
It encourages active learner participation and discovery.
4.3.3 Questioning Method

It is customary for teachers to ask questions during teaching. Questioning skills
are important for the teacher because:
• Good questioning skills increase pupils participation.
• Poor questioning techniques diminish pupil participation.
We ask questions for a variety of reasons such as:

• To obtain feedback about the level of understanding in the class/ conceptions and
misconceptions.
• To find out what they already know
• To promote thinking
• To draw attention to something e.g specific feature in a diagram
• To provide the child with an opportunity to verbalize his ideas in a coherent way.
• To give opportunities for praise and encouragement of learners.
• Sometimes to act as a measure of class control e.g to make a playful child more
attentive
Activity
Describe an activity through which you could promote thinking by means of questioning
NOTE:
- To meet the variety of purposes listed above, many forms of questions are
required. Some of the questions will be more searching/ probing than others.
Open-ended questions promote thinking
4.3.4 DEMONSTRATION (semi-heuristic).

Sometimes it is necessary for learners to observe the correct way of carrying out an
activity (e.g dissection of a small mammal). This is when a demonstration lesson is
advised.. In a demonstration, the teacher carries out an activity on behalf of the student.
However, the learner may assist in setting up the activity . He nevertheless remains an
active observer and should ask questions to seek clarification.
Activity
List FIVE topics in your subject area where demonstration is applicable
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Advantages of demonstration.
1. It allows use of more sophisticated apparatus and carrying out more difficult
experiments such as in the use of microtome in making plant or animal sections.
2. It allow carrying out of more hazardous experiments as in the use of potassium
cyanide to kill insects
3. They are relatively less expensive.
4. They allow the teacher to demonstrate manipulative and allied practical skills.
5. The teacher is able to draw the attention of all members of the class to features of
interest as the experiment proceeds.
Disadvantages of demonstration.
1. They tend to place the learners in a passive role which they may find frustrating
or boring. This can be improved or minimized by a) involving the learners in the
thin king behind the experiment/demonstration; b) in the manipulation of the
experiment
NOTE:
• It is advisable for the demonstration to be assembled ready for action before the
lesson.
• Don’t bring the class to the front to see a demonstration and then leave them with
nothing to do while you run to and from the prep-room or store to collect and/or
assemble apparatus.
• Demonstrations should be tried before the lesson. Even simple ones can cause
problems. Prior trial enables the teacher to find out practical problems. He/she
can consult text books or colleagues to learn how to overcome the problem.It is
bad to all the time tell the learners “had it worked…..” or, this and that is missing
because the lab. Assistant has not arrived or did not prepare/ get it
• Make sure the apparatus and the whole set up is in a position to be seen clearly by
every pupil to facilitate effective learning
4.3.5 CLASS PRACTICALS (Heuristic).
In any school, science departments receive high proportion of funds for laboratory
equipment and materials compared to other school disciplines. This reflects the belief that
practical work is vital in the learning process. So you should use the science laboratories
as often as possible.
Modern methods of teaching biology employ heuristic approach with the practical work
being part and parcel of the theory work. However, it is important to remember that
practicals require good organization and supervision. In well organized practicals, pupils
should be allowed to stop and think, discuss, suggest modifications or further
experiments. Pupils sometimes suggest further experiments which had not been
29
anticipated by the teacher. This is good for open-mindedness and innovation. In such
situations, the teacher has still got to maintain class control during the practical.
NOTE:
Practical work not only facilitates development of manual and mental talents but also
provides learners opportunities to put theory into practice and learn “the way a scientists
work”
Organisation of class practiacls
For a class practical to succeed it is important to:

• always try out the practical before the class
• have all the necessary apparatus/ materials well set in the lab. before pupils arrive.
• Have a complete set of the apparatus and materials on the teacher’s bench for use
in introducing the work for the day to the pupils.
• divide your class into groups right at the beginning of term/ year,.
• reorganize the group whenever you find it necessary.
• Ensure that each group has a group leader. Group leaders should be rotational.to
encourage development of leadership qualities among learners.
• assign each group a particular bench in the lab where they will work throughout
the term/ year. This will minimize loss of time and commotion at the beginning of
each lesson since the pupils know where to sit as they come into the lab.
• assign benches to groups to train students to be more responsible in cleaning their
bench/ area.
• recognize groups for good behaviour and work well done whenever you find it
necessary
Duties of a group leader.
• To oversee that everybody participates in the practical

• He/she is in charge of the group’s apparatus and materials.
• He should report immediately and breakages. The teachers, through the lab
assistant should keep an inventory of breakages.
• To ensure that the groups working bench /area is cleared and cleaned before the
pupils leave the lab.
• For experiments that need follow up, the group leader will each day appoint one
or two pupils to do the readings and bring the data to her.
• To collect data/readings from the group and produce it to the rest of the class as
and when required. Report to the rest of the class agreed group results.
• To chair group discussions.
• Apparatus and materials to be used by each group should be placed on their
benches.
• Those that are to be shared should be left on the teachers bench and on the side
benches and the group leaders will come to collect them when they need them.
30
Advantages of arranging materials:
• This avoids overcrowding on the teachers bench as all the pupils rush to collect
each and every item.
• Minimizes accidents and breakages
• Serves as a training opportunity for the ‘future scientists’
NOTE:
a) For this to work, you have to be very strict with your pupils right from the start to
ensure they don’t get into the habit of handling materials before they are asked to.
b). If you are lax about it, the pupils will spoil or misuse the materials before the
practical is started.(e.g, cases where pupils eat fruits or bread before the teacher
comes in).
Instructions/procedures:
These should be either on printed handout or written on chalkboard before pupils come in
(if the lab was free) or written on chalkboard when pupils have come in and they copy
into their practical notebooks. It is important for you to:
• go through the instructions with the pupils before the experiment starts.
• give all instructions before the practical starts, so that when pupils are working in
groups, there is as little interference as possible.
• answer any questions that help to clarify the task ahead
• show anything that needs to be shown, e.g. pieces of apparatus/ materials. Show
them each piece of equipment and material.
• be in the lab before pupils come in. i.e. ensure that you are the first one in the lab
and the last one to leave.
Activity
State and explain ONE advantage of arriving in the lab. before the students
Question
Should the Laboratory Assistant also be in the lab before the students come in?
The Lab Assistant, if possible, should also be in the lab as you give instructions.He
could help you distribute materials and generally assist in student supervision. This
does not mean however, that you can then disappear into the staff-room or your house
You should be present as the learners carry out the practical work.
The lab assistant is a very important person. You should educate the pupils to
respect him/her.
NOTE:
In giving instructions to students, remember to:
• give them the procedure/Format for writing up experiments:
31
Title
Aim/objectives
Apparatus/Materials
Method/Procedure
Observations/Results
Inferences
Conclusions.
• Ensure clean up after the lab session before pupils are dismissed.
• Have pupils draw what they have used/set up under method or procedure, not just
text book diagram.
• Emphasize that diagram of results should be under results.
• Ensure that as far as possible, all biology lessons should be in the lab.
4.3.6. FIELD TRIPS (Heuristic).
In the course of biology teaching, often need arises to take pupils on a field trip; or a
visit to the museum, factory, research station, hospital, natural ecosystem such as
lake, forest, national park, arboretum. In the field, pupils can find animals and plants
in their natural habitat so that their distribution and interdependence can be readily
observed and studied.
Museums possess specimens not normally found in schools.
Factories, research stations, etc, show the pupils another aspect of biology (and
science in general) and its applications from that normally seen in schools e.g
application of yeast in bread-making. The problem is how to choose the appropriate
place for a class visit and making the necessary organization . Careful planning is
essential.
Question
Do you consider it wise to subject the pupils during a field trip to a long and difficult
lecture?
A Field trip is an opportunity for learners to obtain information at source. This may
include short lectures on the subject at hand. As much as possible the students should
take the initiative to obtain such information through observation and asking questions to
seek answers to specific aspects of the trip objectives.
Advantages of Field Trips.
Use of field trips as a method of teaching biology has a number of merits. These include
the following:
• It enables learners to observe and obtain information at source
• It promotes development of research skills
• The teacher can use it to summarize a given topic
32
Activity
a) State one more advantage of field trips in teaching biology

b) State two limitations or disadvantages of using field trips in biology
teaching
Some suggestions.on planning field trips

The success of a field trip depends largely on how it has been planned. In planning for
this method of teaching it is advisable to:
• Decide on the place, date and time
• Specify the aims and objectives of the field trip.
• Decide whether you will take the whole class or in groups (the fewer the students
the better)
• Seek permission from the school authorities.
• Write to the establishment you want to visit and ensure you get a confirmation
before the date of the field trip.
• Brief the students about the trip, a) date, b) Facility, c). Objectives/ aims of the
visit, d) appropriate clothing if necessary
• Tell the pupils how you will asses the learning outcomes of the trip: Quiz/CAT,
individual/group report/ exhibition
• Organize for transport ahead of time
• Make arrangements for meals – if the students will be away over lunch
• You may invite some of your colleagues to accompany you on the trip.
NOTE:
a)The extend of planning for a field trip depends on the facility on place you plan to visit.
Some will require greater coordination than others.
b)The trip should be part of the schemes of work. It should neither be an after thought nor
an adjunct to keep the students busy.
c) Field trips do not always have to be far away from the school compound
4.3.6 PROJECTS (Heuristic)

Science projects involve essentially the solving of problem(s) by using original data.
If properly administered, project work constitute one of the most advanced forms of
learning. Projects undertaken vary greatly: e.g.from simple collections to working
models; or a demonstration of a biological principle. Usually, older students
undertake projects that are relatively more sophisticated than younger students
Projects are long term study activities lasting from few weeks to several months, one
year or
longer. Pupils work individually or in groups: e.g.
a) Succession of a murram area, b) pollination of a given plant; c) which caterpillar
belongs to which butterfly/ moth.
33
Question
What is the value of projects in the teaching and learning of biology?
Several advantages serve to underline the importance of project work in teaching

biology as well as other disciplines. These include the following:
• To develop fundamental knowledge of research tools in the learner.
• To develop the understanding that most scientific advances are built on research
• To assist in developing desired behaviour which characterizes the scientific
thinking and through practice develop scientific talent.
• Projects serve as a motivation for developing a desire to explore, to prove or
disprove, and the appreciation of findings, produces greater desire for deeper
project undertaking.
• A project involves a student in identifying a problem or question; studying it
independently by gathering information and data; and arriving at conclusions
based on the information data. The problem may be drawn from any topic in
biology; including medicine; agriculture ; or community.
• Students identify a problems, formulate hypotheses, design experiments, carry out
the study in their own time, analyse results and make conclusions.
• The findings are very rewarding and satisfying to the student.
NOTE:
Projects expose the learners to acquaint them with the use of scientific methods and
communicate techniques
In a nutshell, project work:

• Encourages the learner to develop an understanding of the necessity for
organization, planning and experimentation in research.
• Serves as a showcase for scientific talent and potentiality.
• Emphasizes the necessity of having and developing the ability to communicate
ideas.
• Help to develop a respect and appreciation for and understanding of man’s search
for knowledge.
• Serve as a practical experience, a factor for motivating and deepening interest in
the science of biology as a career opportunity.
• Offer an opportunity for talented students to consult and work with experts in
scientific fields. Could work with any researcher at university or research
institution.
• Aid in challenging the talented student into worthwhile scientific endeavour.
• Serve as a challenge to supplement the normal class activities.
• Generally offer opportunity for individual learning.
Ideas for projects.

• Learners should be encouraged to select projects in an area in which they are
particularly interested. This will motivate them to devote their time
enthusiastically.
34
• In our teaching we should create situation which will motivate learners to take up
projects.
• The provision of adequate resource materials e.g. books, models, charts ideas,
lists of good projects done; and opportunity to listen to radio and watch specific
programmes on TV is one positive way of motivating learners to think ‘project
work’
How to go about doing projects
A number of steps can guide the progression of project work:

a) Select a problem: The more original the problem studied, the greater the
challenge. The interest and ability of learners, the cost and availability of equipment
should be taken into account.
b) Establish hypothesis(ses).
c) Plan further and organize data and study trends.concerning the proposed field of
study.
d) Test hypothesis(ses) on the basis of data collected.
e) Draw conclusions.from the data
f) Summarize findings and give references
g) Presentation of reports
Project plan/ proposal
• The project plan or proposal can be very simple and short for beginners.
• But it should be more detailed and specific in other cases.
• It should include:
a) Topic: problem to be investigated.

b) Scientific or biological reason for investigation (rationale)
c) A description of what the student is going to do.
d) Important results or information to be gained from the investigation.
e) Time schedule
f) List of equipment and materials needed.
g) Bibliography.
Disadvantages of project work

Project work
• Can be frustrating, - students may end up finding no tangible results if not well
guided by the teachers
• Is relatively time consuming.
Activity
Critically examine the merits and demerits of project work
35
Project presentation.
Projects could be presented in the following manner:
• Written report.
• Written report presented orally
• Written report on a display with appropriate explanations
Assessment of projects.
• All school projects should be assessed and grades/marks awarded.
• Publish marking scheme where originality and communication should be
adequately weighted.
Activity
State and explain at least THREE criteria you could use to assess students’ projects
Some problems that may be expected.
• Finance, equipment/materials constraint
• Personnel to supervise all projects at a given time.
• Crowded timetables and/or heavy workload
• Apparent impossible syllabus—to many topics to be covered
• Lack of general facilities e.g. labs, equipment, materials.
Concluding remarks.
• Problems not withstanding, field courses/ project work, just like practical work
are invaluable facets of our biology teaching.
• We cannot afford to leave them out and expect to develop dependable scientific
manpower for the nation.
• Every effort and co-operation should be undertaken to avail the students to these
facilities.
• There is no way we can adequately develop creative abilities and thoroughness in
what learners learn without these vital components.
• It is by presenting our programmes clearly and completely that we shall justify
our existence and our needs as teachers, institutions, a nation.
Activity
Add TWO more problems that a biology teacher may encounter in the management of
student projects
36
4.4 Summary
• In this lesson we have learnt that there are TWO main approaches or strategies for
teaching biology. These are expository and heuristic or inquiry .
• There is no any one strategy that teacher can use to realize all the 10 objectives of
teaching biology. One or more methods can be used in any single lesson.
• Each method has advantages and shortcomings.
• The classroom teacher is at liberty to use the methods that suit his/her specific
need.
4.5 Key words and concepts.
Expository strategy: is the teacher centred approach where the learner remains a
passive recipient of knowledge.
Heuristic strategy: is the learner- centred approach where the student is actively
involved in the learning process.
Association for science Education, (1967), Teaching science at the Secondary Stage,
John Murray, London.
Edgar Jenkins and Richard Whitfield, (Ed.) (1974), Readings in science Education,
McGrawHill, London.
Green T.L. , (1965), The teaching of biology in Tropical Secondary Schools, UNESCO
HANDBOOKS, Oxford University Press, London.
Maundu J., Sambili H., Muthwii S, (1998), Biological Education: A methodological

Sutton, C.R., and Haysom J.T. (Ed) (1974), The art of science teaching, McGrawHill,
London.
37
5.0 LESSON FIVE
PLANNING FOR TEACHING
5.1.Introduction.
Planning is essential for meaningful success in any human activity. This applies to
biology teaching also.
In this lesson we are going to discuss what planning for teaching involves. We are going
to discuss how to prepare schemes of work and lesson plans. We shall discuss the
schemes of work and lesson plan format used at this university.
5.2 Objectives.

• Define schemes of work.
• Explain the importance of schemes of work
• State the factors to consider when making schemes of work.
• Make schemes of work
• Prepare lesson plans.
5.3 Steps in converting Educational Objectives or Aims into practical realities.
Schemes of work are developed from the syllabus which is derived from the
translation of educational intents (Aims/Objectives). When converting educational
objectives or aims into practical realities the following steps are followed:.
Curriculum (with its formulated aims and objectives) from Education Ministry
Changed to
Syllabus (With its aims and Objectives) from the Ministry of Education
Changed to
Schemes of work Prepared by the TEACHER
Changed to
Lesson Plan THE TEACHER
In Kenya, curriculum development is undertaken by the Kenya Institute of Education

(K.I.E). It produces various syllabi (syllabuses) from which the biology teacher and other
subject teachers prepare their schemes of work and lesson plans.
38
NOTE:
• The lesson plan is the functional unit of planning for teaching.
• Teaching is the final step in the process of converting educational aims and
objectives into practical reality.
5.4 SCHEMES OF WORK
Schemes of work are prepared from the syllabus.
5.4.1 What is a schemes of work?
• It is a work plan for the whole term or year.

• It is a projection of what the teacher intends to cover with his/her pupils within a
given period of time.
• It is a detailed time plan for the subject matter which is to be covered over a
specified period of time.
5.4.2 Purpose of schemes of work.
• It helps the teacher to plan a head – teacher must be well organized.

• The teacher sorts out and organizes the requirements of the syllabus without
oversight and in advance.
• It facilitates the teacher to see through the term what he/she will be doing with the
class in each week, each day, each lesson.
• It shows the teacher at any point in time how much he/she has accomplished and
how much is yet to be done.
• It makes it easy for the subject inspector and other school supervisors to advise
and counsel the teacher concerned.
• They are helpful; in a transition situation e.g.:
a) when a teacher is transferred and a replacement takes over. Children are
unreliable and will cheat you. It is better for the new teacher to receive official
communication.
b) When a teacher falls sick or goes on maternity leave and somebody else takes
over his/her classes.
The new teacher takes over from an end-sport, thus ensuring continuity.
• They serve as sources of lesson plans. Lesson plans are prepared from the
schemes of work
NOTE:
The schemes of work must be prepared at the beginning of the term for the whole term.
39
5.4.3 Basic principles of making a schemes of work.
The following guidelines are important in preparation of schemes of work:
• The syllabus topics should be listed in the order in which they will be taught. For
the current biology syllabus the KIE has done it for you – right from form 1 to
form 4.
• As a teacher you have the freedom of rearranging the topics to suit your school
environment; for example, Reproduction and Ecology are best taught during rainy
season in our country because:
a) Reproduction: i) many plants are in flower for reproduction in plants

ii) Amphibia and even birds are reproducing and nesting
b) Ecology: i) There is more life during rainy season, e.g. ponds, streams,
vegetation growing etc. ii) Life is more animal and plant activity during rainy
season.
• Many topics in biology depend on previous topics, the new topic requires a
thorough understanding of the previous topic.
e.g. You need

a) cell biology before cell physiology.
b) reproduction before genetics
c) genetics before evolution, etc.
Therefore the first requirement of a scheme of work is to put the syllabus into a fuller
form and into a logical sequence.
5.4.4 Factors to consider when making schemes of work.
1. The school calendar. The school Head will tell you during the first staff
meeting, normally close to the opening of the school.
2. School calendar may include:
a) Sports day
b) Speech Day
c) Parents day
d) Half term break
e) Drama, music days
f) National holiday
3. Include any other factor foreseen that will interfere with your normal teaching
of the lesson.
40
4. Continuous Assessment Tests (CATs) quizzes, tests and examinations must be
schemed for.
5.4.5 Kenyatta University Schemes of work format.
• The KU schemes of work format in biology is as shown below.
Week Lesson Subtopic/ Objectives Learning Resources References Remarks

content activities
• You will need to use the above format while on Teaching Practice.
An elaboration of the table above has been made hereunder to assist you in scheming.
Week: number of weeks available for the term e.g 14
Lesson: Lesson of the week e.g. lesson 1(single); lesson 2 & 3 (double).
Content/sub-topic: - State the content or sub-topic you are dealing with in that lesson.
- This comes from the syllabus

- Refer to the teachers guide for the approximate time
allocation.
Objectives: - State what you expect the learners to be able to do, i.e. what you hope to
achieve by the end of the lesson.
- Could be one, two or more objectives. Number them
- Must be stated in measurable/ behavioural terms e.g “By
the end of the lesson, learners will be able to state and
explain the term OSMOSIS”
- Refer to teachers guide and specific objectives in the
syllabus
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Learning activities: - What you expect the learners to be doing in the lesson.
- The strategy you will be using to be able to achieve the

stated objectives. E.g. carrying out an experiment;
discussing; measuring, Going out to collect grasses…
Resource materials: - Write the resource materials and the teaching aids you are going
to use.
- If it is a chart state the title of the chart.
- Use as a wide variety of teaching aids as possible to aid

teaching.
References: - Show all the references you used during scheming,
- Should have title, author and page.
- Include the chalkboard. Though it is the most important

resource, it is always assumed.
Remarks. - Write a) whether the lesson was taken or not, if not why?
b) whether all objectives were achieved or not; if not why? In other

words if the lesson was successful. Suggest remedies if necessary
NOTE:
Every class must have its own schemes of work, unless the timetable allows for parallel
classes
5.5 LESSON PLANNING
The lesson plan consists of a) specific topic or subtopic one is going to teach, b)
specific instructional objectives, c) how the whole lesson of say 40 or 80 minutes has
been organized for a specific class within a specified time, say 3.00 to 3.40 pm.
During lesson preparation ask yourself pertinent questions about a) your pupils, b) the
subject matter as well as and c) what the best method for handling the subject matter
is.
Instructional objectives must specify what the learner should be able to do/achieve
and how they will go about (learning activities) in order to achieve these objectives.
Remember every lesson must have its own lesson plan, even if you are teaching
parallel classes or teaching the same level for the 20th time.
Remember to have your lesson notes side by side with your lesson plan.
42
NOTE:
Lack of lesson plan leads to: superficial and haphazard treatment of subject matter;.
side tracking; digression; wastage of time; introducing unrelated details; giving of
wrong facts; clumsy presentation; lack of confidence by the teacher; inability to
guide pupils to achieve objectives.
5.5.1 Lesson plan format.
The KU lesson plan format (2004) is as shown below but plans are underway to
make some minor adjustments:
Name ……………………………. Reg. No………………………
School …………………………… Form …………………………..
Date ………………………………. Time …………………………..
Subject …………………………… Topic ……. Subtopic/content ……..
Objectives
Time Content Learning activities Resource materials
5.5.2 Essentials of a lesson plan.
Introduction.:
Several points are worth noting concerning how a biology lesson should be started:
• A successful lesson depends very much on how it is introduced.
• Introduction might be: a question; a statement; a quotation; a demonstration of
some activity; a review of the previous lesson; a short story etc.
• There is no single best way of introducing a lesson. This varies with the teacher,
the subject, the class, time of day, etc.
• The best introduction is one that spontaneously fits the situation.
• A good introduction should arouse the interest of students in the subject matter,
and this interest should be sustained during the presentation.
43
Lesson development:
This portion of the lesson deals with actual delivery of the content. In doing so it:
• facilitates presentation, planning the main body of the lesson plan in steps or
stages with each stage emphasizing a sequence, the method used, resources, etc.
• allocates time to various presentation stages.
• Ensures that appropriate time guideline is provided in accordance with the
proposed experiences for each stage.
Conclusion.
• Every lesson must have a conclusion.
• A conclusion to a lesson is as important as the introduction.
• You can conclude a lesson by reviewing the main points of the lesson through
question and answer method. A lesson must end not suddenly stop.
• The use of Question –Answer is perhaps the best strategy of concluding a lesson
because it enables the teacher to evaluate and assess whether the objectives he/she
set out to achieve have been achieved or not.
NOTE:
a) If you are going to give an assignment it should appear in your lesson plan.
b)Specify the assignment – if it a reading assignment, include the book to be read,
showing author, title and the page(s).
Evaluation/Remarks
Just like any human endeavour requires evaluation, the effectiveness of a teaching
episode should be judged on the basis of specified criteria. Thus at the end of every
lesson you should:
• evaluate your lesson to see whether the objectives were achieved or not. If not
indicate the reason(s) why and propose remedial measures thereof.
• Judge whether in general your lesson was good or bad.
Activity
Prepare a 2-week scheme of work and from it make a single and a double lesson plan for
a named academic level
5.6 Summary
In this lesson we have discussed what planning for teaching of biology involves. The
teacher has to prepare schemes of work. We have seen what is involved in making good
schemes work. We have shown you the schemes of work format you should follow.
We have also seen that the lesson plan is prepared from the schemes of work. We have
discussed the importance of schemes of work in the teaching process and emphasized that
each lesson must be planned for.
44
Schemes of work: is a projection of what the teacher intends to cover within a specified
period of time, usually a school term.
Lesson plan: is the work plan showing instructional/specific objectives and the learning
activities the teacher intends the learners to undertake in order to realize
the stated objectives.
Syllabus is the content to be covered in a given course.
McGrawHill, London.
Maundu,J Sambili, H & Muthwi, S, (1998), Biology Education: A methodological

London.
45
6.0 LESSON SIX
RESOURCES AND FACILITIES FOR TEACHING BOLOGY.
6.1 Introduction.
In this lesson we are going to discuss different resources for teaching biology. Biology
being a living science, the teacher must be innovative and creative to use as a wide
variety of resources as possible. This will not only make the subject interesting and
enjoyable to the learners, but will also make learning more effective.
6.2 Objectives.

a) Discuss the various resources for the teaching of biology.
b) Explain the use of each resource.
.6.3 Resources and facilities
6.3.1 Publications.
Publications are a very important resource for biology teacher.
a) Textbooks: - These are designed for use in teaching the whole or part
of a particular study .
b) Reference books:- books which can be referred to for specific

information. They are not designed for that course of study, e.g.
encyclopedias, etc
c) Periodicals: e.g. journals, Magazines and newspapers which are

issued at regular intervals e.g. daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly, etc.
d) Pamphlets: Are printed materials consisting of only a few pages about

some specific topic . e.g., Aids, breast feeding, animal orphanage.
e) Internet: You can use Google or Yahoo to search for any topic on any
aspect of biology and biological sciences
6.3.2 Apparatus.
• These are a set of equipment or instruments designed for a particular use, in this
case teaching of biology; for instance the use of klinostat in studying tropism
• There are a wide variety of apparatus for the teaching of biology.
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6.3.3 Chemicals.
• Some chemicals do not keep well. They go bad quickly.
• They therefore should be purchased in small quantities only when you need them.
• Examples: 1. Diastase enzyme
2. Pepsin enzyme
3. Rennin enzyme
4. Blood test chemicals Anti – A
Anti – B
Anti – D for rhesus factor
Note:
Blood test chemicals experiments are not allowed in schools any more due to
the AID scourge.
Some points to consider when preparing and storing laboratory reagents.
1. Reagent bottles must be clearly and adequately labeled. Give warning if the
chemical has hazards in its storage and/ or use.
2. Reagents whose strength is 2M, (e.g. 2M sodium hydroxide, 2M aqueous

ammonia) should be kept in bottles which have corrosion – resistant labels.
3. Reagents which decompose in light should be kept in tinted bottles and, if

possible, stored in dark cupboards.
4. Caustic alkalis should be stored in bottles which are sealed by means of a

plastic or rubber bung and not with ground glass stopper.
NOTE:
Distilled or de-ionized water is an adequate solvent for almost all aqueous solutions.
5. When a reagent is known to deteriorate with storage, large quantities should

not be prepared and a freshly prepared reagent should not be added to a nearly
empty reagent bottle to top it up.
6. The bottle should be emptied, washed and rinsed before being filled with the
freshly prepared reagent.
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6.3.4 Charts.
A number of things can be said about charts as teaching aids:

• Charts are useful as a quick way of getting a diagram in front of the students
during a lesson.
• The chart can be left on a pin board for further study by the students after the
lesson has ended. The best procedure is to leave the chart of the ongoing topic on
the pin board in the class or the lab. until students have had time to use it..
• Charts provide a rich learning environment. However, a chart should be removed

as soon as the topic is over, otherwise the students will ignore them if they are
allowed to there for too long.
• Many simple charts can be quickly, cheaply and easily produced by the teacher,
e.g. use of manila sheets.
• More complex charts e.g., systems of mammals (nervous, circulatory, digestive),
internal structure of a stem, etc, require professional input because they take a
long time to produce clearly and accurately.
• You can make your own charts to meet a particular educational/ instructional
need.
• If you are preparing charts, prepare them before the class and take more time on
them to produce good quality charts.
• A wide range of wall charts are available from commercial suppliers.
Factors to consider when planning or selecting a chart for teaching purposes.
1. Content.
• The infomation in the chart must be accurate, up to date and appropriate
e.g. lysosome – one membrane; Mitochondria – two membranes.
2. Teaching situation.
• Consider size of group – 40, 80 or 200 students?.

• The level of learners is also important: form one or form 4?
• What teaching situation: Theory lesson; Practical lesson; Revision?
a) Is the chart meant to provide initial stimulus/ introduction?

b) Is it for demonstration of a particular skill ?( e.g., Observing through a
microscope; First aid – kiss of life)
c)Is it to help in visual description of e.g. DNA?
d)Will it help to organize knowledge and summarize information (e.g. food

web)?
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3. Visual impact.
• The chart should not be overcrowded with material, but should have simple
arrangement with a balanced composition focusing on the lesson objectives
• The purpose of the chart should be clear at a glance – it should have a clear
heading.
• All details should be visible from the back of the classroom (8 – 10 metres.)
3. Labeling.
• Letters which can be seen at a distance of 10 m by normal vision should be at

least 3 cm high.
• Stencil lettering using a felt pen makes the chart attractive and adds
professionalism to the finished product. However, good free hand lettering is
acceptable where letter guides are not available
• Label lines should be thick enough (at least 3mm) and should not cross each
other.
• Label lines should not have arrows at either end.
5. Displaying of charts.
It is wise to always think of how you are going to display the chart in your class at the
time of lesson planning, Below are a number of ways of displaying charts.
a) Pin board: this is the simplest method of displaying charts
b) Strip of steel and magnets: Charts can be held between a strip of steel screwed on the
wall and charts can be held using magnets.
Steel magnet magnet
c). Clip board or bulldog: may also be screwed on the wall to hold charts.
d). Plasticine: may be attached to the corners of a chart which can then be secured to the
wall with a little pressure.
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Note:
Use of transparent and other adhesive tapes should be avoided as the tape can cause
damage to both the surface of the chart and the surface to which it is attached. Masking
tape is ok.
Question
What is the rationale for using visual aids?
Research shows that in all cases in teaching that involve visual presentations are superior
with respect to:
a) amount the learners remember
b) the depth of understanding that results
c) the enjoyment experienced
d) development of correct concepts.
The argument for use of visual aids is that ‘I see’ and ‘I understand’. Therefore, ‘I
don’t see and I don’t understand’. This is so because we understand when we have
visualized or when we have ‘seen’.
Activity
In the context of seeing and understanding, discuss the importance of visuals in the
teaching of biology giving relevant examples.
NOTE:
The most effective teaching aids are those which contribute to a visual impression.
Learners construct their ideas during and outside a lesson. Use of visuals greatly
facilitates this process.
It is usually better to show the real thing (e.g a specimen) than to talk about it.
However, actual specimens are not always available hence the use of charts and other
teaching aids. Children should be trained in careful observation by giving them things
to look for in the charts or pictures.
6.3.5 Slides.
• Slides should also be available as teaching aids.
• They include a) microscopic slides and b) photographic slides
• Microscopic slides can be prepared as you and your students work during
practicals.
• Once you get a good slide make a permanent preparation of it, label it and store it
for future use
• Photographic slides eg, ecological, plants and animals, can be prepared as slides
by photographic studios.
• Both microscopic and photographic slides can be purchased commercially.
50
6.3.6 Models
Models are also important teaching aids in biology teaching. More specifically,
• Models are prepared to look like the real thing.
• Sometimes a model is designed to demonstrate a process or a concept, e.g. blood
circulation, DNA replication or the hearing process
• The value of models is that they simplify the real thing they represent and make it
easier for the learners to understand.
• Models are often used to convey an appreciation of three dimensional structure.
e.g. a motor neuron , the mammalian eye or transverse section of a dicot root.
• Many biological models are made from plaster of Paris and others from rigid or
flexible plastic. Other models can be made from wood or soap stone.
NOTE:
You should have skeletal and other anatomical models in your lab. e.g. heart; kidney;
eye; human skeleton; rabbit skeleton, LS and TS of stem etc
6.3.7 Specimens
As much as feasible, real specimens should be used in teaching biology (it is not
feasible to bring a real elephant into a classroom). This is because as a general rule,
the living specimens are better visual aids than preserved ones, pictures and charts
representing them. It is advisable for the teacher to always check out in the school
environment for it usually has a rich source of supply of specimens. Learners may
also bring in some specimens.
The teacher should know where to get specimens in good time, e.g., hydrophytes,
xerophytes; frogs; tadpoles; etc. It is always disappointing to see a teacher dwelling
on theoretical abstract description of an animal or plant when it is right outside the
classroom/ lab. e.g. Fern; bryophyte; grasshopper; flower structure (e.g of. Hibiscus).
Some times it is possible for students to collect specimens. When students go out to
collect specimens the teacher should always exercise great care regarding safety
aspects. e.g., poisonous arthropods and reptiles, wearing of protective clothing in
riverine ecosystem etc..
Collection of specimens.
Collection of specimens can be organized in various ways: E.g.

a). Asking children to bring samples of interesting living organisms – plants and animals
they find locally.
b). Encouraging school workmen to bring samples of interesting living organisms they
find locally
c). Collecting samples from places visited on biological/geographical trips or journeys.
d). Exchanging specimens with neighboring schools.
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Note:
When the children or school workmen bring you specimens, do not pay them as this may
kill discovery curiosity. Instead, put their names, date, and where specimen was collected
on the specimen label. This is a better and professional way of recognizing their efforts.
Activity
State and explain one limitation of specimens in the teaching of biology
6.3.8 Recording and projection equipment.
a). Slide projector.
• 5cm x 5cm slide projectors are very useful in teaching biology as well as other
subjects
• In their simplest form slides are fed by hand. This simple technique usually does
not go wrong.
• More complex slide projector can be loaded with 36 or more slides and therefore
convenient for showing more slides. This equipment is usually automatic,
although it can be operated manually.
b). Slide viewer.
• Slide viewers usually take a single 5cm x 5cm slides (photographic).

• They usually have a lens to magnify the slide.
• It is cheap and convenient to use because it allows children to work individually
or in small groups.
c). Overhead projector.
• This is a useful teaching aid in the regular classroom and laboratory.

• The main advantages of an Overhead Projector (OHP) are that:
i). You do not need a darkened room.
ii). The teacher faces children while teaching
iii) Transparencies are convenient to use with it
• The major disadvantage of an OHP is that its lamb has a short life span and is
quite expensive (at least Ksh1,000/= in 2004).
d). Micro-projector.
• This is a microscope which projects the image of the object on the micro-
projector screen.
• The screen is attached to the eyepiece of the microscope.
• The main advantage is that the whole class can see the specimen and the required
details.
52
• The teacher can explain to whole class with ease.
• It is expensive but worthwhile.
e). Motion picture projector.
• Most films in public cinemas are 35 mm.

• However most educational films to schools are 16 mm.
• Educational films can be obtained from KIE, British Council (Nairobi, Mombasa
and Kisumu), American Cultural Centre, Teacher Resource Centres , etc.
f). Film loops.
• These are used in school science teaching.

• They are usually single concept film loops, e.g. mitosis, germination,
reproduction in amphibia, etc.
• They usually last 2 to 4 minutes and have no sound.
• They are housed in special cassettes and are shown in special film loop projectors.
g). Television, video cassettes & radio programmes.
• These can be taped or video taped to be used in teaching. e.g. Excretion;

phagocytosis, nerve transmission.
• Can get video and /or audio cassettes on many programs from KIE so long as you
have your own equipment (TV, VCR and radio cassette) in your school.
• Used to be free but KIE now charges Ksh. 800/= per video cassette.
Activity
Compare and contrast the merits and demerits of the projection equipment outlined above
h). Stencil duplicator.

• This is one of the commonest methods of reproducing typed or written materials
for teaching in Kenyan secondary schools.
• Most schools including primary have stencil duplicator.
• Every teacher should know how to type/ cut a stencil.
• A well cut stencil can produce several thousand copies.
i). Spirit or hectographic duplicator.
• This is used for producing typed or hand written materials.

The main advantag
• es is that a) is quick and simple to operate b) Can be in different colours
53
• Main disadvantage is that it can run only up to 100 copies.
j). Photocopying.
• It is fast.
• A photocopy machine is expensive to buy and maintain.
k). Episcope.
• Main advantage is that it can project textbook diagram on the screen.
• Main disadvantage is that it requires a darkened room and is expensive.
6.3.9 Laboratories.
• When children come to the lab. they come to do serious work- to discover meaning in
scientific phenomena
• You as a teacher are like a midwife in the labour ward. It is your responsibility to help
children discover knowledge/truth through practicals.
• A set rules on how to behave in the lab. will facilitate biological exploration in an
orderly manner
6.3.10 School museums.
• Museums provide rich support services for biology teachers.

• A biology teacher will need an (animal) museum for his/her work
• You should continuously build a school museum of a great variety of preserved

animals.
• You can do this by:
i) using students, school workers, school visits to collect and preserve

specimens.
ii) Exchange specimens with your other biology teachers in other schools.
6.3.11 Botanical gardens.
• These are gardens with assortment of living plants.

• You as a biology teacher you should set up one to be cared for by either a)
Biological Club or b) Wildlife Club.
• Should have as a wide variety of plants as possible: e.g. Algae, Angiosperms;
rare plants such as Pteridophytes (ferns), Bryophytes – e.g Merchantia or Pelia;
various flowering plants.
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6.3.12 Greenhouse.
• Greenhouse is valuable to the teaching of biology.

• It has the advantage of controlling the environmental conditions such as:
humidity, air movement; ventilation; temperature.
• It facilitates the growing of a wide variety of plants.
6.3.13 Aquarium.
• An aquarium is one of the most economical and useful ways of maintaining a

large number of living plants and animals in a semi natural way in the laboratory.
• Once established the aquarium requires little maintenance.
• A fresh water aquarium can keep plants and animals such as: algae, aquatic
angiosperms, protista, planaria, aquatic snails, aquatic insects,
crustaceans, water mites, amphibia and fish.
• Marine aquaria will keep even a wider range of marine plants and animals.
However, it is rather difficult to maintain them ( balancing salinity as water
evaporates is not easy).
• A carefully planned aquaria can provide an excellent example of a miniature
ecosystem exhibiting a balance between the organisms inhabiting it and their
environment e.g. guppies, algae and other plants.
• An aquarium is a good source of organisms for simple physiological work
(prawns and crayfish are good examples).
6.3.14 Herberium.
• A herberium is a collection of dried and preserved plant specimens which are

usually mounted and systematically arranged for reference.
• Herberium also refers to the place that houses a herberium.
• You should have in your school a plant press and herberium sheets (manila
sheets) for building your herberium material.
• A herberium is invaluable in the teaching of plant taxonomy/ classification/
practical survey of plant Kingdom, ecology, and project work by students.
6.3.15 Vivarium.
• A vivarium is an enclosure for keeping or raising animals or plants indoors.

• It could be a wet vivarium with water at some point – for amphibia.
• Or a dry vivarium with no water.
• You can keep plants, amphibia, reptiles, mammals – rats/mice, snails.
55
6.3.16 Animal house.
• Animal house is important for biology teaching.

• For keeping animals such as rats – for dissection; mice; guinea pigs and rabbits
for dissection, behaviour and genetic experiments.
Activity
The use of a wide variety of resources should motivate secondary school students to
like and enjoy biology. Despite this, the failure rate in the subject is still quite high in
the KCSE examination. Discuss.
6.4 Summary
Make biology classes enjoyable by a) using a wide variety of resources, and b)

relating biology to every day life.
As a biology teacher, you don’t need to seduce your students much to like and enjoy
your subject so long as you are using a wide variety of resources.
Facility: is an item that enables one to carry out a given function, for instance a
laboratory is essential for the teaching of sciences.
Resource: is an equipment, apparatus, textbooks or teaching aid that enables

effectiveness of teaching.
McGrawHill, London.
Maundu J, Sambili H, Muthwii S (1998), Biology Education: A methodological
London.
56
7.0 LESSON SEVEN
LABORATORY DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT.
7.1 Introduction.
As a biology teacher, you may be called upon by your school authorities to make an
input into the design and construction of a new biology laboratory in the school. In
this lesson we are going to discuss the factors to consider when designing a new
school laboratory. We shall also discuss the management of a biology laboratory.
7.2 Objectives.

a) State the factors to consider when planning the lay out of a biology laboratory.
b) Explain the sighting of a biology laboratory on the school compound.
c) Discuss the actual design of the school laboratory.
d) Discuss science laboratory management including safety aspects.
7.3 School laboratory design.
The design of the secondary school biology laboratory (or any science lab. for that
matter) must be a cooperative exercise between the architects, the science teachers and
the administration. It will be embarrassing if as a biology teacher or Head of Science
department you do not have the necessary knowledge of design and management to
comment constructively.
There are six factors to be considered when planning the layout of a science laboratory in
the school. The six factors are:
a) Linear bench space: provide for 1 linear metre (3ft) of bench space in
junior laboratories and 1.3 linear metre (4ft) per student in senior laboratories.
b) Circulation space: provide 1.7 (5ft) of space between the ends of benches
and walls for circulation space and room for wall furniture.
c) Storage space: space for cupboards and shelves in the laboratory for
storage of apparatus and other materials in common use.
d) Permanent equipment: space for installation of non-movable
equipment such as aquaria.
e) Wall space: space for apparatus and equipment which need to be fixed
in a vertical plane, for example, water distiller or water deionizer.
f) Demonstration bench: provide for a demonstration bench (also
called teacher’s bench) for demonstrations and other practical activities.
The above are more traditional fixed work benches. The modern trend is adoption of
movable work benches in school science laboratories with the use of trolleys for the
movement of apparatus within a science laboratory. The emphasis in modern science
curricular is on learners involvement in practical activities. While we are aware that
practical work will not always take up the whole lesson, it is best that all science lessons
are taught in the laboratory.
57
Question
Why is it recommended that all science lessons take place in the laboratory?
A laboratory should be available for teaching for 35 out of the 40 periods per week.
One period per day should be left free for servicing and cleaning of the laboratory, for
example sweeping, moping the floor, dusting and general cleaning.
The laboratory should have provision for:

a) preparation room.
b) A science trolley
c) Facilities for storing chemicals and equipment.
Further, it is essential to note that:

• The laboratory should have fixed or movable benches.
• The recommended height of working surfaces are 750 mm and 850 mm for seated
and standing work respectively.
• Chairs and stools should be about 250 mm lower, i.e. 500 mm and 600 mm
respectively.
• Pupils at their work benches should be able to see the teacher and vice versa. This
is essential from the point of view of safety in the laboratory.
• A screen for overhead projector and slide projector should be provided.
• All display areas should be provided with pin-boards.
Preparation and storage facilities.

The preparation and storage facilities require special attention as follows:
• The laboratory should have storerooms with preparation areas, from which
materials can be distributed to the laboratory.
• The storage system should facilitate easy collection of equipment and apparatus
from the store and its transfer, generally by trolley, to the laboratory in readiness
for the lesson.
• The laboratory should have lockable, clearly labeled cupboards particularly for
expensive or dangerous items such as poisonous chemicals.
The shelves in the storage rooms should accommodate a variety of items
Services.
Services such as electricity, gas and water supply and waste disposal facilities should
be provided in the science laboratory. The services should be provided:
c) at the demonstration bench
d) at students’ working positions/benches
e) for special facilities such as greenhouses and animal houses
f) in the science workshop
58
g) in the preparation room
h) for fittings such as fume cupboards, ovens, aquaria and animal cages.
7.4 The location of school science laboratories

The exact location of a science laboratory will vary from one school to another. However,
a broad guideline on where the lab. will be sited is given hereunder for your consideration
and record.
7.4.1 Science block.

The science laboratories (biology, Chemistry, Physics) should be should be close
together. The advantages of having laboratories close together are:
• The movement of staff and apparatus are reduced.
• Mutual facilities such as workshop and resource centres can be easily shared.
• The availability of technical assistance is enhanced.
• Work of an interdisciplinary nature (e.g soil analysis) can be developed more
easily.
• From a financial point of view, the cost of installation of services such as gas,
electricity water and drainage can be kept to a minimum.
NOTE:
There should be no stairs along corridors connecting two laboratories so that trolleys can
be used without hindrance.
7.4.2 The practical wing.
The sighting of science laboratories in relation to other practical subjects such as Art and
Craft, technical subjects is important as it may be particularly beneficial to students
engaged in practical activities and projects.
Activity
State and explain TWO reasons for considering the creative arts departments
when sitting a biology laboratory
7.4.3 Environmental considerations.

The windows of the laboratory should face either North or South, in other words the
building should be oriented East – West. This will reduce the extend to which strong
sunlight enters through the windows directly. The roof should have increased overhang
for protection against direct sunlight. This is because the sun shining on non-luminous
Bunsen flame in the laboratory can be very dangerous. The window should not be
adjacent to the chalkboard or overhead projector screen. However, it is important for the
biology laboratory to have at least one sunny bench with blinds to control the sunshine.
59
7.4.4 Provision of special facilities for biology laboratory.
The biology laboratory requires provision of special facilities which include a
Greenhouse, an Animal house and Ponds among others.
a) The Greenhouse is not green in colour. The name is associated with the
keeping of plants grown therein green throughout the intended period of the
experimental/research work (see Lesson Six for more details).
b) The animal house:
• The animal house should be shielded from direct sunlight as much as
possible.
• The house should be well ventilated.
• The ventilation should be covered with insect-proof mesh.
• To aid drainage, the floor should slope slightly to a floor drainage grill.
• Any wooden surface which may be gnawed should be protected with sheet
metal to a height of one metre above floor level.
c) Ponds, as pointed out in Lesson Six, can serve as useful resources for
teaching biology since a variety of plant and animal life can be maintained
here.
In addition, the biology laboratory should have:
• Good artificial lighting to aid dissection
• Good ventilation for extraction of smells
• Bench area and services for permanent apparatus/ specimens such as
aquaria, locust cages, plants
• Refrigerator and deep freezer
• Potted plants
7.5 Central workshop.
The biology laboratory should benefit from services rendered at the school’s central
science workshop. Such a workshop should:
• be a suitably equipped for all science departments
• be mainly for maintenance, repair, and construction of apparatus and teaching
aids.
• have a rigid work bench, vice, lathe, drill, a sharpening wheel and tools.
• have services such as gas, water, a large sink, and electrical main outlets.
• have glass working equipment.
• have a fume cupboard
• have suitable storage facilities to store bulk materials such as
i) long glass and rubber tubing and
ii) pieces of timber, Perspex, metal and sheet materials.
• have a desk for the technician, bookshelf and filing cabinet.
Activity
List different kinds of apparatus that could be made in the central science workshop.
State how you could use them in the teaching of biology.
60
7.6 Laboratory management.
Efficient management of the laboratory is crucial to the teaching of science in a
practical manner. All members of the science/ biology department should be
involved in the efficient management of the laboratory through regular meetings to
ensure that the equipment and consumables needed are available and usable when
required. In addition, there should be an annual budget for:
a) Equipment – non-consumables .
b) Consumables such as chemicals and other materials
c) Stationery
d) Books
e) Living organisms and their feeds
The lab. technician should have specific responsibilities such as:
a) Stock control including annual stock taking
b) Requisition and receipt of supplies
c) Petty cash account
d) Breakage records
e) Storage including labeling
f) Implementation of safety regulations
g) Looking after First aid box
h) Preparation of materials, solutions, specimens and apparatus.
i) Cleaning glassware and other equipment
j) Care of animals and plants
k) Keeping equipment in good working order.
l) Maintaining herbaria and museum material in good condition
m) Ordering material for lessons in good time
7.6.1 Storage and retrieval

The teacher should be able to access equipment and materials with minimum ease. To
achieve this it is useful to observe the following:
• Every item must have a specific storage space.
• The most frequently used items should be the most accessible.
• Certain simple apparatus such as Bunsen burners, tripods, stands, basic glassware
can be stored close to working positions.
• Heavy items should be stored on lower shelves.
Activity
a) List at least THREE commonly used lab. items in biology lessons
b) Why is it advisable to store heavy items on shelves close to the ground ? What are
some of such items ?
61
7.6.2 Security and safety in science departments.
In view of the valuable and potentially dangerous materials normally found in

laboratories, science teachers have special responsibility to take reasonable
precautions to safeguard the pupils, themselves and property. To achieve this it is
important for all concerned to adhere to the following safety rules among others:
• Doors to the laboratory should be kept locked all the time until the teacher is
ready to supervise a class entering the laboratory.
• The teacher should be the first to enter and the last to leave the laboratory.
• For experiments which go on beyond the lesson, there must be an adult to
supervise the students. The head of department must be fully aware of such
an arrangement.
• As stores/ prep rooms contain dangerous materials such as flammable
chemicals, poisons as well as expensive and specialist equipment, access by
pupils is prohibited.
• Science teachers and technicians should check that windows, lights, gas, water
and electricity are switched off after lessons and at the end of the day.
• Balances plugged into the mains must be switched off when not in use.
• Specialist facilities such as fume cupboards should be checked.
• Animal house and greenhouse should be kept locked when no one is working
in there.
• The rules should be committed to memory as it is too late to consult them in an
emergency.
NOTE:
Display laboratory rules and alert students to them
The teacher should be able to supervise adequately all the pupils in the class when
they are engaged in practical work. The laboratory floor should neither be slippery
nor have any cracks. Further, the wall and floor fittings must not protrude
unreasonably into the laboratory walking spaceAt least one fume cupboard is required
in a laboratory where noxious or unpleasant gases and vapours are produced.
In addition to the above, it is wise to have separate and clearly labled containers for:
a) broken glass
b) biological materials – animals and plants
c) Wet materials such as filter papers.
d) Solid chemicals
Activity
Suggest why separate containers should be availed for the items just
listed above
It is also prudent to have adequate fire fighting equipment which is suitably located in
the laboratory. First aid kits must be provided and kept in places accessible to
62
teachers, technicians and pupils. Pupils should be made aware of the location and
contents of the kits and should be taught how to use them.
The contents of the First Aid kit should contain the following items:
1. 1 pair blunt-ended scissors
2. Assorted bandages
3. Triangular bandage (sling)
4. Adhesive plaster and dressing
5. Sterilized cotton wool
6. Sterilized gauze
7. Mild antiseptic solution.
8. Safety pins
9. Small forceps
10. Eye bath.
7.7 Summary
In this lesson we have discussed factors to consider in the design of a science
laboratory. We discussed the sitting of the laboratory on the school compound. We
looked at the special needs that have to be considered in the biology laboratory. We
also discussed about management of the laboratory with particular emphasis to safety
aspects.
7.8. Definition of key words and concepts
Laboratory: is a facility where science practicals and activities are carried out.
Laboratory safety; are measures to be adhered to in order to minimize dangers in the
laboratory
Preparation room: is where preparation for practicals and experiments are done.
7.9. Further reading.
McGrawHill, London.
Maundu J., Sambili H., Muthwii S. (1998), Biology Education: A methodological

London.
63
7.0 LESSON EIGHT
ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION IN BIOLOGY
8.1. Introduction
The process of education involves the inculcation of values, knowledge and skills in
learners. However, the learners must take responsibility of developing their potentials. It
is necessary for teachers to gauge from time to time whether their instructional
procedures and strategies have born fruit i.e. whether the intended learning outcomes
have been realized or not. This is the role of the process of Assessment which every
biology teacher should consider as an integral component of the teaching- learning
encounter.
Evaluation is much wider in context. It includes and goes beyond assessment to cover
aspects that help to make judgement about the quality and effectiveness of an educational
programme. In this lesson, we shall distinguish the two terms ‘assessment’ and
‘evaluation’, justify their inclusion in the secondary school biology curriculum, and learn
sum methods of assessment and evaluation
8.2. Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Distinguish between assessment and evaluation
• Identify and explain the main purposes of assessment in biology education
• State and explain the value of evaluation in the teaching and learning of
biology
• Justify the need for the inclusion of assessment and evaluation in the
secondary school biology curriculum
• Construct a table of specifications to facilitate test construction
• Prepare classroom tests and evaluation guidelines in biology for secondary
school students
• State advantages and limitations of achievement tests.
8.3 Assessment and evaluation
8.3.1 Meaning of the term ‘assessment’

Although there is no universally accepted definition of assessment, this term can be
used to refer to the process of determining student performance in classroom tests,
school projects or national/international examinations. For purposes of this module,
we shall restrict ourselves to student achievements in teacher set/marked tests as well
as examinations set by national bodies such as the Kenya National Examinations
Councils(KNEC).
64
8.3.2. Purposes of classroom tests and national examinations
School(classroom) tests and national examinations in biology provide useful
information which can be used to:
• Reveal to the students their strengths and weaknesses in various topics
of the syllabus.
• Inform teachers about the extent of achievement of lesson objectives
and about the quality of their teaching of the subject.
• Inform parents/guardians about their children’s progress in school
regarding biology.
• Judge the kind of remedial work, if any, that should be planned for
specific students.
Activity
Add one or two more purposes that classroom tests/national examinations

serve
8.3.3. Kinds of classroom tests/examinations

There are several kinds of teacher-made tests and national examinations. In this module
we shall outline and give examples on the following types:
• Essays
• Structured
• Objective
• Practicals
.
1. Essays
These are analytic, interpretive or descriptive literary accounts based on given topics
from the school syllabus. The candidates give, express their ideas in a continuous
prose form. Two examples of such responses are:
(a) (i) Describe the process of osmosis, (ii) How is osmosis different from diffusion?
(b) Discuss the importance of mapping the genome in the promotion of health.
Question.
How should examiners guard against bias when marking essays?
The scoring of essays is largely subjective and therefore, open to biased allocation of
marks. This could happen through ‘carry-over effect’ where marking is influenced by the
score awarded to the first/previous question. This tendency could be avoided by marking
one question all through for the candidates. This facilitates consistent allocation of marks
and hence reliability of the marking exercise.
Sometimes markers may be tempted to allocate marks on the basis of ‘the general
impression’ the examiner has of a particular candidate. This should be avoided as well.
65
One way of doing so is to mark ‘anonymous scripts’ whereby the candidates names do
not appear on the scripts (Kenyatta University does so). This coupled with a marking
scheme (which is necessary in essay marking) should suffice to diminish inconsistency in
scoring through this halo effect whereby the marker generalizes performance on the basis
of a certain characteristic trait of the candidate.
Question.
What does a marking scheme contain?
A marking scheme is mandatory if reasonable or fair award of scores for an essay is to be

realized. The scheme contains an allocation of marks to various aspects of a question.
These parts of the question do not necessarily receive the same marks. Marks weighting
is determined on the basis of the amount and quality of the information demanded.
Overall, the marking scheme should consider, inter alia,
• Accuracy of information
• Relevance of ideas to the question
• Logic in the presentation of ideas
Activity
Add other aspects that a marking scheme should contain or consider
Essay questions should be constructed using a number of ‘action verbs’ such as the
following:
• Describe
• Summarize
• Explain
• Evaluate
• Compare
• Contrast
• Discuss
• Outline
• State
• Justify
Activity
List other action verbs that could be used in the formulation of essay questions
Note:
Essay questions are relatively easy to set but tedious to score. Patience and careful
thought is advised.
66
2 Structured Questions
Tests of the structured variety format principally require the candidate to provide a series
of answers to sections of a given question. The sections are usually based on a common
topic or theme.
Example: (a) What is digestion? ------------------------------------------------

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(c) What are the end products of carbohydrate digestion in a mammal?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(d) State the function of one of the products to the body of the named mammal?
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The fore-going example requires a list or short description. Structured questions could
also be based on tabular data or a diagram.
Activity
Construct two structured test items one based on a diagram and the other on
tabulated data
3 Objective tests
A test is objective if various markers can, using the same marking scheme, arrive at the
same answer. No objectivity is attached to setting since origination and assembly of the
test items is subjectively decided upon by an individual or team of individuals. Their
choice of item is dependent upon other forms of testing being used and the syllabus
coverage envisaged.
We will present here four types of objective tests, namely True/False, completion,
matching and multiple choice.
True/False- This variety simply requires the candidate to indicate agreement or

disagreement with a given statement, e.g. Ticks are insects --------T/F
Completion- Questions based on this format require the candidate to complete given
incomplete statements,
e.g. The cell organelle responsible for energy generation during respiration is called ----
Matching tests- A test comprised of matching items usually consists of two columns of
unequal lengths. Each column contains information that, where possible, can be matched
or corresponds to information in the other column. The candidate is supposed to match
content in the two columns, e.g.
67
Match, by means arrows, the structures in column A with the functions listed in column
B. An example has been done for you.
Column A Column B
Tympanum Tiny opening in leaf facilitating gaseous passage.
Xylem Source of Vitamin A
Melanin Outer part of the kidney
Stoma Resonating drum of the mammalian ear
Cortex Constitutes the woody part of a tree
Dark skin pigment
Gene pool source.
Note
It is important to make the two columns unequal to discourage guesswork
Activity.
Construct one item for each of the test formats described so far.
Multiple choice.
Multiple choice types are generally more difficult to set than other kinds of objective test
items. This is so because the examiner has to provide the correct answer to each test item
along with other incorrect but plausible alternatives.
A multiple choice item consists of a stem and several options only one of which is the
best answer. The best answer is called the key while the incorrect options(alternatives)
are called distracters.
Example:. Which one of the following is not an insect?

Circle the letter bearing the correct answer.
a. Praying mantis
b. Honey bee
c. Spider
d. Dragonfly
Question
Which cognitive skills do multiple-choice tests assess?
68
Multiple choice items can be used to test achievement at several cognitive levels e.g.
knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation (Bloom et al.,
1956). Here are examples of multiple choice items at various levels of cognition.
(a) The graph below shoes the number of tsetse flies caught over a six-month period
in a rural community in eastern province using the trap method.
No. of tsetse 5
flies
(Thousands)
3
Ja Fe ma Ap M Ju Jl
Months of the year

During which months was the catch highest?
A. February
B. January, February, April
C. January
D. April, January
What is one possible explanation for the drop in the catch in July assuming the traps were
functional?.
A. More livestock was introduced into the country
B. The flies were dormant
C. A lot of chemicals were used to spray the tsetse flies
D. The weather was not conductive for tsetse fly multiplication
(b) Which one of the following is not a common characteristic of mammals?

A. Flight muscles
B. Mammary glands
C. Four chambered heart
D. Skin covered with hair or fur
(c) Kamau walks through a river with slow-moving water. Which one of the
following diseases is he likely to contract?
A. Hookworm
B. Cholera
C. Bilharzia
D. Typhoid
69
Activity
(i) Identify the cognitive level in each of the above questions based on Bloom’s
taxonomy
(ii) Prepare three questions each testing a different level of cognition
4 Practicals
Practical work provides learners with opportunities to put into practice what they
have learned theoretically. It is an occasion whereby students learn skills of observation
and experimentation in a way initiating what practicing scientists in research do within
and outside laboratories.
When planning for a practical examination, it is important to select a variety of
syllabus-based topics to be covered and a range of skills to be developed further. The
number of candidates vis-à-vis the availability of resources should also be considered. At
the background is of course the intended learning objectives and entering behaviour
(acquired levels of competency and preparedness ) of the candidates.
Note:
Practical work is essential in biology as it can motivate students to develop interest
in the subject alongside the acquisition of knowledge, skills and positive values.
Activity
Use the secondary school biology syllabus to prepare two practical work questions for a named
level/class
Question
On what basis will you prepare your classroom tests?
6. Table of Specifications
A classroom teacher should not just pick up a pen and paper and start writing test items.
Even the KNEC does put in a lot of work before coming out with final examinations. To
guide the biology teacher in test construction, a blue print otherwise referred to as a table
of specifications (or specifications grid) has to be prepared first, detailing:
• the number of topics to be covered
• the kinds of knowledge and skills to be tested
• a total of test items to be constructed against each kind of knowledge or skill
This way a balance in the paper will be sought and important aspects of the syllabus
topics covered considered.
Alongside the above considerations, the teacher has to be aware of resource availability,
time allocation, instructional objectives and the entering behaviour of the candidates.
Below is a sample of a table of specifications for a Form 4 class.
70
Fig 8.1 Sample of specification Grid
TOPICS KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS TOTALS

Observation Drawing Conclusion Interpretation Application
Genetics 1 1 2 3 2 9
Evolution - - 3 1 2 6
Locomotion 2 3 1 1 2 9
Totals 3 4 6 5 6
NOTE:
Fig 8.1 does not show what type of test types will be used in constructing specific test items nor
: does it exhaust the range of knowledge and skill aspects to be tested. It is simply a guide
Activity
Prepare two Tables of specification one containing various kinds of tests and other additional
7. Advantages and limitations of classroom tests and examinations
cognitive and manipulative (manual) skills to the ones shown in Fig 8.1
No single kind of assessment tool will enable a biology teacher (or any classroom teacher
for that matter) to determine his/her teaching-learning performance. There is therefore a
need for the use of various kinds of tests each of which has both advantages and
operational limitations. Table 8.1 summarizes these merits and demerits.
71
Table 8.1Advantages and limitations of tests and examinations
Type of test Advantage Limitation

ESSAYS • Quick to set • Low syllabus coverage
• Provides for expression • Subjective scoring
of thoughts in prose • Carry-over and halo
form effect may influence
• Encourages marking
comprehensive study
• Tests for creativity and
logic in presentation
OBJECTIVE • Reliable scoring • Not easy to prepare
• Not tedious to mark good tests
• Wide coverage of • Rote memory may be
syllabus encouraged
• Scanty reading by
candidates
PRACTICAL WORK • Tests for process skills • Resources for use may
• Encourages curiosity to be inadequate or too
discover expensive for many
• Theory is put into schools
practice • Relatively time
• School-community- consuming to prepare
Industry link possible • Working space ,may be
a problem
5. Evaluation in Biology
Sometimes the term ‘evaluation’ is used interchangeably with ‘assessment’ or even
‘measurement’. To avoid confusion, we shall use the term ‘evaluation’ to denote the
process of making judgment about the value of effectiveness of an educational program
or curriculum. Thus ‘assessment’ is part of that process because several avenues of
information are used to arrive at the best decision about a given course of study.
Several evaluative techniques are available; these include
• Document of analysis
• Classroom observation
• Use of questionnaires
• Interviews
6 Analysis of documents consists of preparing and/or using an analysis guide that

focuses on such aspects as schemes of work, lesson plans and textbooks and attendance
registers among others.
Activity
List other kinds of documents that could be analyzed to gauge the quality of biology
education at the secondary school level.
72
7 Classroom observation entails visiting and judging the quality of teaching-learning
encounters to ascertain the implementation of the biology syllabus: The evaluator
would pay particular attention to the following aspects among others:
• Relevance of objectives to syllabus
• Whether lesson introduction was motivating or not
• Adequacy of resources and how they are used
• The extent of learner participation in learning
• Relevance of the lessons to scheme of work
• Relevance of the lessons to everyday life of the learners
8. The use of questionnaires facilitates the gathering of information from a large number
of stakeholders. Thus appropriate questionnaires would be administered to the students,
education officers and other relevant persons. The instruments should be tailored to
source information that pertains to particular groups. Each group (e.g. students) should
have its own questionnaire.
Question
Is there a single format for use in the construction of questionnaires?

The type of questionnaire one prepares is determined by the purpose it is supposed to
serve i.e. the kind of information it seeks to obtain. However, in questionnaire
construction an evaluator should remember
• To have a relatively short instrument (1-3 pages)
• To use simple, clear and non-ambiguous language
• Not to ask questions that are irrelevant to the purpose of the evaluation
• To keep controversial aspects towards the end.
• To begin with a word of introduction to the respondents
• To end with a ‘thank you’ note.
Note:
Remember that the questionnaire will represent you. Use of short, clear statements or questions is
advisable since you will not always be available to explain what you mean.
Activity
Construct a one-page questionnaire for teachers to seek information on the use of practical work
in biology.
73
9 Interviews are face-to-face interactions between the interviewer and the stakeholder e.g.
biology student (the interviewee). Through this technique, in-depth information is
obtained. The interaction could bring to fore hitherto undisclosed realities in the Kenyan
context such as
• Why students generally do not do well in science subjects including biology.
• What aspects of biology they like/do not like and why
• What would really motivate students to enjoy learning biology more
• Students’ perception of an outstanding biology teacher.
Activity
Prepare a structured interview schedule by outlining a set of questions that you could use when
conducting an interview with secondary school biology students on the value of Field trips
Note:
An interview may be open-ended where the interviewer does not use a set of questions but
obtains information through an open discussion focused on a particular idea e.g. “improvisation
in biology”
Interviews like other evaluation techniques are useful means of judging the quality of
biology education in schools. However, the evaluation data should be combined with
assessment information to yield a richer basis for judging the quality of biology education
being offered in schools.
8.4 Smmary
In this lesson we have learned the difference between assessment and evaluation and the purposes
of each in determining the achievement of intended learning objectives. We have also learned how
to prepare a Table of specifications that facilitates the construction of classroom tests. Further, we
have learned about some evaluation techniques that can be used to source information that together
with assessment data can provide a comprehensive judgment of the quality of biology teaching-
and-learning activities in our secondary schools.
8.5 Definition of terms and conepts

Assessment – The determination of learner performance or achievement of learning
objectives by means of tests.
Evaluation – A process of decision making on the worth or effectiveness of a given
educational programme.
Classroom tests – Tests set by school subject teachers
Table of Specifications – A tabular grid containing the number or kind of test items to be
set based on the syllabus topics taught (covered).
Kenya National Examination Council - the supreme examining body in Kenya

responsible for setting and marking of examinations for primary and secondary schools
and non-university colleges. It issues certificates for the courses it examines.
74
Questionnaire – A research or evaluation tool consisting of a set of questions for
specified target populations.
Interview – One to one interaction or conversation with a defined purpose
Document Analysis – The analysis of specific documents using defined criteria.
Classroom Observation - Practical evaluation of curriculum implementation through
actual visits to lessons being delivered.
8.6 Further reading
Maundu J., Sambili H., Muthwii S. (1998). Biology Education: A Methodological

approach. Nairobi: Lactern publishers, Ltd.
Stanley J.C & Hopkins K.D (1972). Educational & Psychological Measurement and
Evaluation. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India
75

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KENYATTA UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF OPEN LEARNING

1.0 LESSON ONE: BIOLOGY AND THE WELFARE OF HUMANKIND

In this lesson we shall focus on a number of positive contributions to the welfare

1.3. Positive Contributions of biology to the welfare of human beings

1.3.1 Use of biological knowledge in health concerns.

Curative medicine is necessary in addressing the onset of diseases. Among the

1.3.2 Biology and Agriculture.

The development of disease-resistant or drought-resistant crop strains or high meat/milk

An important nutritional product is glucose, which is available even in rural market

1.3.4 Biology in industry

A number of industrial processes utilize biological knowledge. Examples include bread

Bread making is another example of application of biological knowledge. Hear ‘Bakers

Is research of significant value to the welfare of humankind?

1.4. Biology as a potential for misuse

What other kinds of drugs are available locally?

physiologically unable to have successful implantation ( a case of uterine incompetence).

1.4.4 Cloning. Another debate issue is cloning. A clone is a progeny of an individual

1.6. Definition of key words and concets

Antibiotic-substance capable of killing disease-causing bacteria.

Penicillium – A mould from which a non-toxic antibiotic acid, penicillin is

HIV- Human Immuno-deficiency Virus.

AIDS- Acquired Immuno-Deficiency Syndrome.

Yeast- A substance used in fermentation in such processes as baking, wine making or

Abortion- The process of removing a foetus (developing baby) by deliberately inducing

Pesticide – a substance or agent used to get rid of pests.

In vitro – Outside a living body (as in In- vitro fertilization)

Cloning – The process of obtaining desired individuals asexually through manipulation

1.7. Further Reading

Broad J. (1988). Science and criminal detection. London: Macmillan Education

2.3. General purposes for teaching biology

As a science, biology participates in the realization of two broad objectives through

(a) the production of a community of scientific community whose principal role is to

The promotion of employing human welfare by employing biological knowledge is an extrinsic

What kind of skills should students learn?

• ability observe accurately

Respect for evidence

Why is evidence necessary in biology education?

(a) List at least one more basic principle of biology.

How can students study and appreciate biological principles?

Through observation, experimentation and library research biology students begin to

(a) Draw a food chain and a food web.

• Carrying capacity- the ability or extent to which an ecosystem can support a

(a) List three biological terms together with corresponding descriptions/definitions.

2.6. Further reading

Green T.L (1965) The teaching of biology in tropical secondary schools.

By the end of this lesson you should be able to:

a) State the goals and objectives of the new biology syllabus

3.3 GOALS OF THE NEW BIOLOGY SYLLABUS

• It is recommended that the teachers use discovery method in achieving the

1.Communicate biological information in a precise, clear and logical manner.

2. Develop an understanding of interrelationships between plants and animals and

7. Demonstrate resourcefulness, relevant technical skills and scientific thinking

9. Create awareness of the value of cooperation in solving problems.

5. Nutrition in plants and animals 59

6. Transport in plants and animals 52

9. Excretion and homeostasis 42

12. Reproduction in plants and animals 50