Life Skills Textbook 2022

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Life skills
My journey, my destiny
Second edition
Elmarie van Heerden-Pieterse

EDITOR
Van Schaik
P UB L I SH E R S
Published by Van Schaik Publishers
A division of Media24 Books
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First edition 2005

Second impression 2006
Third impression 2006
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ISBN 978 0 627 02953 0
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Introduction
If you hear a voice within you say “you cannot paint” –
then by all means paint and that voice will be silenced.
Vincent van Gogh vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv
Vincent van Gogh, a renowned artist whose work is priced way beyond the means of the vast
majority of us, is not known so much for his wisdom as his exceptional art and – perhaps – his
absolute humanity. Yet how profound is this statement that he made when he was still battling
to sell his paintings, and was neither famous nor rich! Yes indeed, you do need to listen and be
acutely aware and realistic about what the voice within tells you. Your self-talk and self-feed-
back, those things you believe about yourself, are critical to how you conduct yourself and how
you behave. It is the source of your confidence, or lack thereof.
This book will most certainly challenge you in terms of what you think and feel about your-
self. It will assist you in defining what the voice within tells you and understanding how you
respond to it.
As a practical workbook it endeavours to provide you with opportunities to reflect, define,
construct and determine what actions to take regarding your skills and behaviours. The con-
tent and exercises are focused on time management, improving your self-motivation, evaluat-
ing your interactions with yourself and others, and determining your efficiency in your study
techniques (from how you listen, to how you memorise and much more). The book will also
provide you with some fundamental guidelines on the skills to deal with some of the very hard
issues in life, such as loss and bereavement, drug addition, HIV and AIDS, and so on.
The authors do not primarily attempt an exposition of new knowledge and skills, but rather
provide a collection and expert selection of the core and essential topics and things you can DO
towards developing and enhancing your knowledge, skills and understanding of yourself and
the world in which you live. All of the authors are experienced in teaching, educating, training
and development activities and offer a thorough understanding of what may be helpful and
developmental to the learner and the student, or even serve as a guideline for the educator.
Apart from working on your life skills in an attempt to become the best you can be, you should
take note that all the published research on what employers expect of employees indicates
strongly that in order to be a productive and functional human being, there are specific skills
you have to work at, particularly in preparing yourself for the world of work. Without excep-
tion, employers expect employees to have good communication and general life skills. All the
research (and interestingly, it is consistent across cultural and ethnical lines) confirms that
when job interviews are conducted, employers place the highest emphasis on self-management
skills and relationships with others. You need to be a good and effective communicator, be
able to interact with others, work in a team, deal with stress and conflict and at the same time
be able to manage your time and motivate yourself. You need to be able to cope with change
and diversity, and deal effectively with the massive volume of information available to you.
As schooling, training and educational programmes do not always include formal modules on
these issues, you might even have to master this on your own and in addition to your main
academic studies or training.
This book provides you with a synopsis on the practical application of the above range of
topics. If you make serious business of working through the chapters you will gain skills, v
knowledge and understanding that could help you to achieve your true potential and be the
very best you can be, to be happy and live a better, productive and fulfilled life, to establish a
voice within that says “yes, I’m okay and yes, by all means of course I can”.
A note about the metaphor of a journey: this powerful analogy is meant to demonstrate the
flow of personal decisions and actions and how developing your skills will play a determining
role in your destiny. A journey also suggests growth and forward movement. You need not be
a victim of your current circumstances or lack of certain skills. Even if you are reasonably good
at certain things, you can equally make some progress and become even better skilled.
After all, it is your journey and it is your destiny.
By all means, start painting.
Only you can.
The Editor
vi
About the editor
Dr Elmarie van Heerden-Pieterse is a former student counsellor, head of department and dir-
ector at the Tshwane University of Technology. Her areas of expertise include career coun-
selling, psychometrics, life skills programme development, teaching and lecturing. She is
a specialist in student development and support and postgraduate training in curriculum
development.
About the contributors

Francette Bedford works in a private practice and is a specialist life skills trainer and design-
er of training material and skills development programmes. She manages peer support and
social outreach projects, and has developed protocols for alcohol and drug abuse and rape on
campus. She is also involved in training peer supporters and resident leaders as lay counsel-
lors. She is the coordinator and writer of a manual in basic helping skills and referral of risky
students. Her areas of expertise include student counselling, social support, career counselling
and psychometric assessment.
Melissa Brokensha holds a Master’s degree in Human Resource Development from the Tsh-
wane University of Technology. She has a private practice in Cape Town and has focused her
work within academic institutions, private practice and corporate business. Her role is to facili-
tate life skills, study skills and language proficiency programmes (English and Writing Skills)
and she trains mentors and administers LASSI and brain profile assessments. Research is also
one of her responsibilities. She was previously a study advisor and a student development
and support (SDS) practitioner. Melissa has published papers in accredited and peer-reviewed
journals and chapters in books. Her interests lie in training, coaching and supporting learners
for success.
Mmalesweu Gift Chweu is a practitioner in student development and support at the Tshwane
University of Technology. His areas of expertise include facilitation, development and teaching
of life and study skills, language proficiency programmes (English and Writing Skills), mentor-
ship training, brain profiling and research work. In the past he has been a study advisor and
also a student development and support (SDS) practitioner. He has published various papers
and co-authored several books.
Shafeeka Dockrat is a specialist in student development and support, online learning, study
guidance and life skills facilitation at the Tshwane University of Technology. She has extensive
experience in facilitating life skills and study skills programmes aimed at enhancing academic
literacy.
Marilein Heyns holds a PhD with specialisations in creativity, creative problem solving and
whole-brain teaching and learning. She has more than 10 years’ experience in curriculum/pro-
gramme development and evaluation, lecturing/training and assessment with creativity as
basis. She is also involved in facilitating learning and thinking styles, transfer of learning, dif-
ferentiation in assessment, authentic assessment, quality management, and academic and life
skills. vii
Helena Kriel is an entrepreneur working as a human resource consultant. She presents work-
shops on CV writing, job search strategies, job/placement interviews, job profiling and grad-
ing assessments against job profiles. She is also experienced in career counselling and psycho-
metric services.
Lynne Malan is a registered counselling psychologist and a practitioner at the Tshwane Uni-
versity of Technology. Her roles include being a life skills lecturer, mentorship trainer and
supervisor. She has over 10 years’ experience in personal, career, bereavement and trauma
counselling, and has also been involved in internship supervision and management. As a
programme manager at the Student Development and Support (SDS) Learning Centre at the
Tshwane University of Technology, she also understands the value of ethical and professional
behaviour.
Jack Mashiapata is a director at the University of South Africa with extensive experience in
counselling and career development. He specialises in psycho-educational therapy, career
guidance and counselling, psychometrics and academic development support to students. His
Master’s degree was on psycho-educational intervention for students experiencing post-trau-
matic stress.
Henry Mason is a practitioner at the Tshwane University of Technology focusing on trauma,

rehabilitation of addiction, higher education development and student counselling as well as
research training and development. He also does academic writing and editorial work. His
areas of expertise include life skills, counselling, mentorship training, positive psychology
and logotherapy. He has been working with young people, mostly students, since 2003. Much
of this work has been centred on skills development and training, specifically in the areas of
self-esteem, self-efficacy and optimism. He has published 13 scientific articles in peer-reviewed
journals, read 34 papers at conferences and co-authored three life orientation textbooks. His
work is grounded in empirical research and he has won numerous research awards over the
years.
Ivy Sarah Morulane is a practitioner at the Tshwane University of Technology specialising in

life skills programmes, remedial teaching, training of student mentors and study support as
well as reading and language skills development. She is a life skills lecturer, disability officer
and mentorship supervisor.
Cindy O’Reilly is a practitioner at the Tshwane University of Technology where she assists
students to improve academic performance and manages an extensive computer-based assist-
ance programme. She is a programme manager at SDS Learning Centre, where she plans,
organises and implements all language skills and development programmes for the learning
lab. She also facilitates and gives lectures as well as providing one-on-one guidance to students
to improve individual performance in all fields of study. Her areas of expertise include men-
toring, academic support and study guidance. She is also a specialist in computer-based study
support, reading and language development.
Stephan Potgieter is a psychologist specialising in student counselling who provides special-

ist support and study guidance. He has 10 years’ experience in study skills development at
the Tshwane University of Technology, as well as a further three years’ experience at an inter-
viii national skills development company specialising in academic proficiency and support. His
areas of expertise include study skills such as memorisation, mentor training counselling, and
art and drama therapy.
Serole Selina Ramapela is a lecturer for Life Orientation and General Subject Didactics in the
Faculty of Humanities, Educational Studies Department (Soshanguve North Campus) at the
Tshwane University of Technology. Her qualifications include a BA (English, Psychology and
Biblical Studies), a University Education Diploma (UED), a BA Honours (Psychology), a Mas-
ter’s Diploma in Human Resource Management, a Master’s degree in Curriculum Studies and
Teaching Studies, and a doctorate in Education. On two occasions she received the Vice Chan-
cellor’s awards. She has presented various papers at international and national conferences.
She is a registered psychometrist and educator.
Lynette Vermaas works at the Tshwane University of Technology. She has a Master’s degree
in Clinical Social Work and is currently busy with her PhD. She has 23 years’ experience as a
social worker and has specialist knowledge in the fields of substance abuse, trauma, depres-
sion, life skills, hypnotherapy and general counselling.
Maretha Visser has been a lecturer in psychology at the University of Pretoria for the past
20 years. She is a skilled researcher, project manager and curriculum developer. She studies
behaviour patterns in the community and develops large-scale interventions to assist people
to develop healthy lifestyles, particularly among young people. She has also done extensive
research on various aspects of HIV in the South African context, from prevention, care and
support, to community stigma.
ix
Contents
PART I A JOURNEY TO PERSONAL SUCCESS

Section 1 Determine the itinerary
1 Setting goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Goals and motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Some golden rules for smart goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Myths about goal setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5 The link: motivation plus goal setting plus learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
References and additional reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Websites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2 Time management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Ivy Morulane
2.1 What is time management? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Time vs money . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3 Self-assessment – time management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.4 Students’ experience of their own time management skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.5 Saving time / wasting time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.5.1 Misuse of time: time wasters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.5.2 Clever moves: time savers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.6 Successful time management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.6.1 How to plan your study time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.6.2 Study timetable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Additional reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Section 2 Obstacles on the journey

3 Student life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.2 Possible adjustment problems – hurdles on the journey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
x 3.2.1 Establishing identity and independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2.2 Relationship problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.2.3 Stress and anxiety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.2.4 Depression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.2.5 Developing purpose and integrity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.3 Understanding your adjustment problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
3.4 Managing your emotional adjustment problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.5 A note on finances and student life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Websites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4 Diversity and change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.2 Understanding mental diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.3 Understanding cultural diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.4 Diversity and change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5
Overcoming the challenges of conflict management, problem solving and
decision making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Melissa Brokensha
5.1 Conflict management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.1.1 Understanding conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.1.2 Identifying the stages of conflict development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.1.3 Conflict management styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.1.4 Gathering tools to manage conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.2 Problem solving and decision making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.2.1 Recognising the problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.2.2 Defining the problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.2.3 Generating possibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.2.4 Decision making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.2.5 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.2.6 Quick tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.3 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Section 3 Enjoying the journey

6 Your best travel companion – you! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

Henry Mason
xi
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.2 Success . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6.3 Self-esteem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6.4 Completing the success puzzle: optimism, emotional intelligence and self-efficacy . . . . . . . . . 60
6.4.1 Optimism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.4.2 Emotional intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.4.3 Self-efficacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
7 Travel companions: interpersonal relationships that work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Lynette Vermaas
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
7.2 Why are relations with others important? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
7.3 Common interpersonal problems and essential skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
7.3.1 Fear of approaching someone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
7.3.2 The first few minutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
7.3.3 How do I start a conversation? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
7.3.4 Being a “people addict” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
7.3.5 Fear of self-disclosure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
7.3.6 Hunches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
7.3.7 Empathy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
7.4 Types of interpersonal relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
7.5 Building and maintaining healthy interpersonal relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
7.5.1 Personality types and traits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
7.5.2 Emotional needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
7.5.3 Communication in relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
7.6 Traits of a mature, self-actualising person . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
7.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
8 Healthy living . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Maretha Visser
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
8.2 Healthy living and choices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
8.3 Dating and intimate relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
8.4 Sexual relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
8.4.1 How do I know when I am ready for sex? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
8.5 Sexually transmitted infections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88
8.6 HIV and young people . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
8.7 The facts about HIV and AIDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
8.7.1 Transmission of HIV and AIDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
xii 8.7.2 Effect of HIV on a person’s body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
8.7.3 Effect of antiretroviral treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
8.7.4 Community stigma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
8.8 The experience of being HIV-positive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
8.8.1 HIV diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
8.8.2 Emotional reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
8.8.3 Coping with HIV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
8.8.4 Experience of stigma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
8.8.5 Disclosure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96
8.8.6 Legal rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
8.9 How to care for people living with HIV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
8.10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
9 Substance abuse: detour or dead end . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

Maretha Visser
9.1 Substance use and abuse among young people . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
9.2 What can be defined as substances / drugs and drug abuse? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
9.3 Viewpoints about substance use and abuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
9.4 Why young people use alcohol and drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
9.5 Learn about different drugs and their effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
9.5.1 Depressants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
9.5.2 Stimulants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
9.5.3 Hallucinogens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
9.5.4 Over-the-counter medication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
9.6 Dangers of substance use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
9.7 Experiences of people who use substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
9.8 How to deal with drug use in your life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
9.9 How to help your friends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
9.10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
PART II FIRST DESTINATION – ACADEMIC SUCCESS

Section 4 Pit stop: sharpening the thinking tools
10 Discover your creative potential: creative living and creative learning . . . . . . . . . . 117

Marilein Heyns and Elmarie van Heerden-Pieterse
10.1 Introduction: the quest for dragons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
10.2 Thinking “out of the box” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
10.3 Understanding creativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
10.4 Developing and nurturing creativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
10.4.1 Parallel thinking as a creative thinking and problem-solving strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
10.4.2 The process of creative problem solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
10.4.3 Brainstorming as a creative thinking and problem-solving strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 xiii
10.4.4 Mind-mapping as a creative thinking and problem-solving strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
10.5 Creative learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
10.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

Additional reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
11 Critical and analytical thinking in higher education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

Shafeeka Dockrat
11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
11.2 What are critical and analytical thinking skills? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
11.2.1 Critical thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
11.2.2 Analytical thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
11.3 Why is it important to be a critical analytical thinker? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
11.4 Components of critical and analytical thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
11.4.1 Perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
11.4.2 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
11.4.3 Emotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
11.4.4 Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
11.4.5 Argument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
11.4.6 Fallacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
11.4.7 Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
11.5 Develop your critical and analytical thinking skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
11.5.1 Identify and analyse arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
11.5.2 Clarification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
11.5.3 Credibility of evidence and sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
11.5.4 Judge inferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
11.5.5 Attribute implicit assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
11.5.6 Reasoning about causation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
11.5.7 Decision making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
11.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Section 5 Pit stop: check your classroom skills

12 Note taking: writing down the right things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

Selina Ramapela
12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
12.2 What is note taking? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
12.2.1 Reasons for taking notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
12.2.2 Listening and taking notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
12.2.3 Strategies and styles of taking notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
12.3 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
xiv
13 Effective listening and concentration skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

Gift Chweu
13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
13.2 What is effective listening? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
13.2.1 Basic listening modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
13.2.2 What the listener does when listening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .156
13.3 Listening and hearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
13.4 The noise factor: barriers to listening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
13.5 On-road and off-road travelling: communication enhances listening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
13.5.1 Guidelines for good listening when communicating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
13.5.2 Guidelines to effective listening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
13.6 The role of effective listening in study groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
13.6.1 Keys to effective group listening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
13.7 What is concentration? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
13.8 Concentration blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
13.9 Basic concentration control strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
13.10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
14 Manage the workload: summarising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

Cindy O’Reilly
14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
14.2 What is summarising? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
14.2.1 Why do you need to summarise your work? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
14.2.2 Basic principles to follow when making summaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
14.3 Methods or strategies of summarising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
14.3.1 Identifying key points or main ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
14.3.2 The A3 empty skeleton method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
14.3.3 The card method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

14.3.4 The T-column method ( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
14.3.5 Conventional method of summarising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
14.3.6 Summarising using mind maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
14.3.7 The column method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
14.3.8 The photostat method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
14.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
References and additional reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
15 Memorising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

Stephan Potgieter
15.1 introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
15.2 What is memorising? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
15.2.1 Short-term memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
15.2.2 Long-term memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 xv
15.2.3 The memorisation process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
15.3 Increasing information retention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
15.4 Memorising linked to the learning senses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
15.5 Mnemonics for academic work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
15.5.1 The link method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
15.5.2 The number/rhyme mnemonic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
15.5.3 The number/shape mnemonic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
15.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
References and additional reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
16 Managing assignments and assessments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

Gift Chweu
16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
16.2 Getting started (on your marks!) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
16.3 Understanding your assignment title (get set!) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
16.4 The structure of your assignment (go!) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
16.4.1 The title page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
16.4.2 Table of contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
16.4.3 Writing the introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
16.4.4 Text – the body of your essay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
16.4.5 Conclusion of your assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
16.4.6 Appendices and addenda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
16.4.7 Graphs, maps and tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
16.4.8 Bibliography or references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
16.5 Stages in assignment writing (run your race!) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
16.5.1 Select a topic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
16.5.2 Prepare an outline/analyse the topic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
16.5.3 Collect information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
16.5.4 Organise your notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
16.5.5 Write a draft of the assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
16.5.6 Revise and rewrite the draft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
16.5.7 Put the assignment in its final form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
16.5.8 Submit your assignment (break the tape!) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
16.6 Reference techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
16.6.1 Referring within the text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
16.6.2 The reference list/bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
16.7 Quotations in an assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
16.8 Writing a project report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
16.8.1 Different forms of project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
16.8.2 Stages in writing a report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
16.8.3 Format of a project report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
16.9 Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
16.9.1 Managing exam/test stress and anxiety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
xvi 16.9.2 Glossary of exam terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
16.10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
PART III A TOOLBOX FOR THE HELPING PROFESSIONS
Section 6 Personal and interpersonal skills for health and related
professionals
17 Basic helping skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

Francette Bedford
17.1 Introduction: Getting to know the helper within you . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
17.2 the different faces of helping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
17.2.1 The rescuer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
17.2.2 The preacher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
17.2.3 The protective mother . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
17.2.4 Superman / superwoman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
17.2.5 The debater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
17.2.6 The believer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
17.3 Monsters that suck the life out of helping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
17.3.1 Monsters that scare us from being helped . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
17.3.2 Monsters that interfere with the communication process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
17.4 Your best friend in the helping process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
17.4.1 Meeting empathy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
17.4.2 The voice of empathy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
17.4.3 Enemies of empathy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
17.4.4 Treasuring your friendship with empathy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
17.4.5 Meeting empathy’s buddies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
17.5 Positive helping strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
17.6 Referral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
17.7 The role of ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
18 Trauma debriefing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

Jack Mashiapata
18.1
Introduction: what is trauma? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
18.2
The face of trauma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
18.3
Post-traumatic stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
18.4
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
18.5
How traumatic memory gets stored . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
18.6
Association and dissociation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
18.7
Secondary trauma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
18.8
Identifying a person who has been traumatised . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
18.9
Psychological debriefing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
18.9.1 Why is debriefing necessary? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
18.9.2 Steps in the debriefing process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 xvii
18.10 Dealing with your own trauma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
18.11 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
19 Coping with loss and bereavement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

Francette Bedford
19.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
19.2 Meeting death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
19.2.1 Death has a thousand faces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
19.2.2 Conversations about death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
19.2.3 A conversation with death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
19.3 Grief and bereavement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
19.3.1 A metaphor for grief and bereavement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
19.3.2 There is no way out of the desert except through it . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
19.3.3 The journey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
19.3.4 Resources on your journey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
19.3.5 Enemies that will keep you in the desert (complicated or prolonged grief) . . . . . . . . 244
19.3.6 What waits on the other side of the journey? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
19.4 An oasis in the desert – helping people grieve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
19.5 Self-care strategies for the caregiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
19.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
PART IV BON VOYAGE

Section 7 Pause a moment … check your travel documents
20 Getting your passport and travel documents ready: building a portfolio . . . . . . . . 251

Helena Kriel
20.1 Introduction: portfolio, CV, résumé . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
20.2 Know what you want and how to get it . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
20.3 Compiling your portfolio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
20.3.1 What is on offer? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
20.3.2 What do you need? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
20.3.3 Putting it all together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
20.4 Writing your knock-out CV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
20.4.1 Understanding your target . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
20.4.2 Horses for courses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
20.5 Create an effective résumé . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
20.6 Writing a covering letter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
20.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
21 Job search and self-marketing strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266

xviii

Helena Kriel
21.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
21.2 The ever-changing world of work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
21.3 Planning your job search strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
21.3.1 Newspaper advertisements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
21.3.2 Recruitment agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
21.3.3 Advertisements in professional or trade journals or special interest magazines . . . . 269
21.3.4 CV mailing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
21.3.5 Electronic job boards and career websites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
21.3.6 Identify companies where you would like to work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
21.3.7 Volunteering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
21.3.8 Do not ignore small firms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
21.3.9 Networking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
21.3.10 Using a combination of reactive and proactive strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
21.4 Making a checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
21.5 Networking: your most powerful tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
21.6 Job hunting on the internet: facts and myths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
21.7 Conclusion: the dos and don’ts of job hunting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Websites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
22 Making the job interview work for you . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

Melissa Brokensha
22.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
22.2 Interview preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
22.2.1 Know yourself . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
22.2.2 Know the employer and the field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
22.2.3 Practise for the interview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
22.3 The interview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
22.3.1 Dressing for the interview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
22.3.2 Establishing rapport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
22.3.3 Non-verbal communication and body language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
22.3.4 Interview etiquette . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
22.4 Types of interview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
22.4.1 The screening interview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
22.4.2 The selection interview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
22.4.3 The group interview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
22.4.4 The panel interview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
22.4.5 Behaviour-based interviews – targeted selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .280
22.4.6 Psychometric testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
22.5 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
22.5.1 Guidelines for handling the questions in a job interview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
22.5.2 Answering questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 xix
22.5.3 Asking questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .284
22.6 Post-interview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
22.6.1 The follow-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
22.6.2 Interview afterthoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
22.6.3 Factors that can cost you the interview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
22.7 Interview planner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
22.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
23 Work ethics and professional behaviour in the workplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

Lynne Malan
23.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
23.2 Ethics at work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
23.2.1 Definition of ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
23.2.2 Where do my ethics come from? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
23.2.3 Definition of “work ethics” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
23.3 Professionalism at work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
23.3.1 How can you encourage professional behaviour in others? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
23.3.2 How do you promote professional behaviour in yourself? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
23.3.3 What is unprofessional behaviour? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
23.4 What are the grounds for dismissal? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
23.5 Expectations at the workplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
23.5.1 What do employers expect of you? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
23.5.2 What are your expectations of your employers? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
23.6 How do you learn what the organisation’s ethics are? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
23.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
xx
1
PART I
A JOURNEY TO
PERSONAL
SUCCESS
Section 1
Determine
the itinerary
SLIDES
1 Setting goals
EL MARI E VAN H E E RDE N-PIET ERSE
THE C H APT E R AT A G LA N C E
1.1 Introduction O U T CO MES
1.2 Goals and motivation After working through this chapter, you should
1.3 Some golden rules for smart goals
n be able to identify aspects of your life that require
1.4 Myths about goal setting planning and direction
1.5 The link: motivation plus goal setting plus n understand how to formulate smart and effective
learning goals
1.6 Conclusion n be able to develop a basic goal sheet that works
References and additional reading for you.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
In this first chapter, we focus on goal setting. Understanding the value of proper goal setting,
how to apply the principles and how to go about formulating goals that will enhance your
personal life, your studies and your career is an essential skill that should never be underesti-
mated. Goal setting is not only relevant to work or study, but to all aspects of your life.
The important question to ask yourself is this: are you achieving what you are supposed to
achieve and what you want to achieve? This applies not only to the longer term (i.e. the year or
the phase at university), but also for every day (i.e. have I done the things that I needed to do
today?). Goal setting is core and basic to success.
A philosopher once said that goals are merely dreams with deadlines. This is true because for-
mulating a goal for your life is all about developing and defining your dream. Goal setting has
to do with stating clearly what you want to achieve: formulating what you see as success and
then formulating the steps or process to get to that point. Most successful people (be it in sport,
marriage, business, work or any aspect of human life), have one thing in common – they knew 3
what they wanted to achieve and set out to do just that (i.e. they had a clear life goal).
In this chapter we will look at some practical steps for you to take to formulate your own goals
and set yourself up for achievement and success.
µ BACK TO CONTENTS
SECTION 1 DETERMINE THE ITINERARY
1.2 GOALS AND MOTIVATION

An archer cannot hit the bulls-eye if he does not know where the target is. This is true for
every single one of us in all dimensions of life. If we do not know what it is that we want to
achieve, then how will we ever achieve it? Think of it this way: if you leave your home town,
driving by car, and you get to a crossroad, which way do you turn? Unless you know where
you are going, you would not know how to decide which way to turn. Goals work the same;
they give us purpose and direction. If you leave your home town and you get to the crossroad
and you know for sure you want to go to Sunny City, you will know exactly which route to
take and which turn-off is relevant to you. Similarly, if you know what you want to achieve in
your studies (your destiny), you will know exactly what to do today (your crossroad). When a
challenge comes up and you must decide between going to the restaurant (this way) or to the
library (that way) you will know which way to go and what decisions to make. Goals give us
purpose and direction.
Because goals give us direction, they are the basis and anchor for our motivation. If we have a
clearly defined and well-formulated goal, we will automatically work harder to achieve it.
1.3 SOME GOLDEN RULES FOR SMART GOALS

Mindtools (2013) provides five golden rules for setting goals. Let us consider these rules and
apply them to your goal setting:
Rule 1: Goals must motivate us.
We must formulate our goals based on those things that are important to us. For a goal to
motivate us, it needs to be about something we value.
Example Your response
“Acquire an excellent job with good remunera- What is your goal?

tion.”
___________________________________
For me to achieve this there are specific object- ___________________________________
ives:
___________________________________
a) I must get my qualification.
___________________________________
b) To get my qualification, I must pass this
semester. What are the objectives to achieve in
c) To pass this semester, I must pass my examin- order to achieve your goal?
ations. ___________________________________
d) To pass my examinations, I must pass my ___________________________________
semester tests.
___________________________________
e) To pass my tests I must study hard and have a
firm grip on the material. ___________________________________
f) To have control of the study contents I must ___________________________________

attend my class today. ___________________________________
4
µ BACK TO CONTENTS
SETTING GOALS
1
Rule 2: Goals must be smart.
For goals to be powerful and have the required impact, they must be
S Specific Clear, well defined, precise and specific (not vague)
M Measurable Linked to time, date, amount, result so that you can measure prog-
ress / achievement
A Attainable Not easy, but achievable; realistic, but challenging
R Relevant Linked to the direction and dream for your life, set on improving your
life or moving forward
T Time bound A desired result / outcome by a certain date (i.e. a deadline), so the goal
can be re-evaluated and adjusted if necessary (cannot be open-ended)
This then implies that a smart goal will have a specific target or focus; you will be able
to determine / measure the achievement of this target and it is realistic. Further to this
a smart goal must relate to what you want to achieve and your life and what it is that
you need to do. There will be a timeline associated for when you need to achieve it.
Be very clear about this as a key part of effective goal setting: your goal must be smart or it will
not work and have the required impact for you. It will not help you make progress in life if it is
not achievable, is not relevant and attainable or vague and not specific.

Go back to your goal as written down above in rule 1. Is it smart? Edit the goal if necessary.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Rule 3: Goals must be written down.
“Write it down and make it happen.” Just the simple act of putting the words on paper or
typing them into a document on your computer gives them substance and a sense of reality
and gravity. The goal becomes “established”.
Mindtools (2013) gives two tips on writing a goal:

1. Frame the goal positively (i.e. “I will pass my six subjects this semester”). 5
2. Use your goal as the heading of your “to do” list – this helps to ensure that your action
plan (steps to be taken to achieve your goal) is relevant to your goal.
µ BACK TO CONTENTS
Rule 4: Develop an action plan.
An action plan is your “to do” list – the practical things to be done towards achieving your
goal. For any goal to happen, you need objectives (specific smaller achievements along the
way). The HOW must also be considered carefully and preferably written down, because a
goal without a plan is simply a wish.
Let us look at an easy way to develop an action plan. The following is a structure you can
use to help you write a good action plan that will help you achieve your goals:
Consider for a moment: As the word indicates, an action plan is your “to do”-plan – the
practical things to do towards achieving your goal. But a good plan also stipulates and plans
for who and what and when so that you do not leave things to chance but plan in detail.
Consider the example of Tebo: Tebo wants to complete his engineering diploma so that
he may get a good job in five years’ time and support his family. He has to think and plan
cleverly. Think again of our metaphor at the beginning of the chapter: Tebo has to establish
which route to take so that he fulfills (reaches) his dream (destiny). He needs to reflect on
and be honest about his strengths and what he has in place to assist him, both within him-
self and his environment:
Strengths How to sustain By whom? When? Review date

strengths
Disciplined Keep working on Tebo Daily Weekly review of

time-planning sheet tasks achieved
Motivated Keep focus, visit Tebo End of first After predicate

workplace Consult with semester day – visit com-
employment pleted
officer
Healthy Continue with daily Tebo Daily and End of every

exercises weekly month – check
Avoid junk food weight and fitness
Keep my shape!
Good in Study the tables to Tebo Three-hour Practical exam on

practicals apply Use assistant session every 5 May
Weekly practice in lab to learn week
from
Parental Regularly give them Tebo Parents During every Year end – private
support feedback and listen to weekend visit conversation with
their advice parent(s)
Q
6
µ BACK TO CONTENTS
SETTING GOALS
1
Using this structure, write down your own strengths and those things in favour of your
achieving your dream:
Strengths How to sustain By whom? When? Review date

strengths
Now Tebo must develop his action plan, or “plot his road to success”. This action plan
should be updated regularly to ensure that it remains smart and effective.
Objectives Actions to take Others Achieve by Review date

towards realising the involved? when?
objectives
Achieve Pass subjects Self November of Year end

qualifica- this year
tion
Hand in assignments Group March 15 March
Do in-service training Self Second June

Employment semester
unit
Secure a Update CV Self January next November this

position year year
Improve teamwork Self

skills Mentor _________ _________
Important note: If Tebo cannot execute his plan for some reason (if he suffers a setback), he
must not give up altogether, but rather update his plan and set either alternative actions or
alternative but more achievable target dates (e.g. repeat a subject, new target date) just as if
he is travelling to a specific destiny and encounters roadworks with a detour. He needs to
keep going and still plot a route to ensure he is still on his way to his destiny.
Q
7
µ BACK TO CONTENTS
Plot your own route to success using the table below (think of both study and personal
objectives):
Objectives Actions to take Others Achieve by Review date

towards realis- involved? when?
ing the object-
ives

Rule 5: Stick with it!
You have to see it through. As you reach each smaller objective, you should celebrate your
progress. Adjust your action plan regularly to ensure that you stay on track. Remember: you
may have to change your route along the way, but it does not matter, as long as you keep
making progress towards your goal.
This section dealt with five simple but essential rules towards developing goals that will
work for you. Apply them diligently and you will experience the positive result – success.

1.4 MYTHS ABOUT GOAL SETTING

Tracy (2013) calls goal setting “the master skill of success” and points out the following
so-called myths of goal setting (i.e. those ideas or thoughts we use to fool ourselves into not
setting goals):
•
Myth 1: “I already have goals, I don’t need to work on that”. Are you sure? Are they smart
goals and are they already bearing fruit in your life?
•
Myth 2: “I don’t need written goals”. This is like hitting the road to go somewhere with only
vague instructions on how to get there and no road map. Always write down your goals.
Let your brain go through the exercise of formulating your goals properly and noting them
down. The experience of seeing them makes them real. This reinforces and strengthens the
goal.
•
Myth 3: “I don’t actually need goals, I am doing fine”. You do not need any goals unless you
actually want to achieve nothing.
•
Myth 4: “I don’t know how to set goals”. Think of times when you did well in personal or
study matters. Consider the fact that those were the times when you had clear goals in mind
8 and knew what you wanted to achieve.
•
Myth 5: “Goals don’t work, life is too unpredictable”. Then predict the unpredictable and
plan for it. Successful people take what comes their way and make it work towards achiev-
ing their goals – but they have to have the goals to begin with.
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SETTING GOALS
1
1.5 THE LINK: MOTIVATION PLUS GOAL SETTING PLUS LEARNING

Recent research in educational psychology has shown that the type of goal towards which a
person is working has a tremendous impact on how he or she pursues the goal (Tracy, 2003).
This theory is called “achievement goal orientation” and focuses on the link between goals,
motivation and achieving learning success.
The research suggests that if a student wants to achieve a certain goal merely to avoid
appearing incompetent, the goal is far less powerful and has far less impact than if the student
wants to achieve mastery. In other words, if the student only wants to pass the immediate test
(short-term goal), it is less motivating than if he or she wants to be good at the skill (long-
er-term goal). Having clarity in your life and specific career goals turns the short-term goals
into objectives towards achieving the longer-term goal.
Test yourself against the framework of this model and find out the category into which you
fall:
Mastery-oriented students Performance-oriented students

Main interest is in learning the Main interest is in appearing competent or better
skill / content than others regardless of level achieved
Willing to take on difficult tasks beyond Sticks to tasks that are familiar, known quantities
present capability
Views mistakes as learning opportunities Views mistakes as evidence of lack of compe-
tence and therefore to be avoided
If you do fall in the first category (mastery oriented), you have or require much clearer
medium- and longer-term goals, while if you fall into the second category (performance ori-
ented), your goals are short-sighted or even absent.
What are we saying? Only this: your goals should be so smart (remember the S M A R T rules)
that they become a driving force in your life – a focus and a power that motivates you.
As far as motivation goes, psychologists identify two types, namely intrinsic and extrinsic.
Intrinsic motivation comes from “within” (and is controlled by you), while extrinsic motivation
is anchored outside of you (and not always controlled by you). For example:
•
Internal / intrinsic: I want to be successful so that I may feel fulfilled by the knowledge that I
have made the best of my abilities.
•
External / extrinsic: I want to be successful so that I may have an expensive car.
Externally linked goals have a higher risk factor, as other people or circumstances can have a
significant effect on them and if they change, so too must the goal.
1.6 CONCLUSION
We have looked at goal setting in a short and simplified manner. You should now have a good
overview of how to set smart goals that will work for you, should understand why this is
important and should also know how this links to your success (or failure). 9
Be smart – set your goals, make the effort and write them down. Keep the SMART rules in
mind and you will be surprised by how this gives you a sense of purpose and direction, even
in the small routine things you may need to do.
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R E FE R E N C E S A N D A DDI T I O N A L R EA D I N G
Ikalafeng, T.A. 1996. The next step after high school. Tracy, B. 2003. Student goal orientation, motivation
Cape Town: Nasou. and learning. Available at: http://www.educa-
Wilkinson, B. 2003. The dream giver: following your tion.com/reference/article/Ref_Student_Goal
God-given destiny. Oregon, USA: Multnomah. (accessed on 29 August 2013).
Tracy, B. 2003. Setting goals and objectives: myths. Mindtools. 2013. Personal goal setting. http://www.
Blog. Available at: http://www.briantracy.com mindtools.com (accessed on 13 August 2013).
(accessed on 13 August 2013). Van Heerden, M.S. (Ed.). 2005. Life skills: my journey,
my destiny. Pretoria: Van Schaik.
W E BS I T E S
http://www.mindtools.com/page6.html
http://www.wikihow.com
http://www.sparkpeople.com/resource
10
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SLIDES
2 Time management
IV Y M O RULAN E
2.1 What is time management?
2.7 Conclusion
2.2 Time vs money
References
2.3 Self-assessment – time management
Additional reading
2.4 Students’ experience of their own time
management skills
2.5 Saving time / wasting time O U T CO MES
2.5.1 Misuse of time: time wasters After working through this chapter, you should
2.5.2 Clever moves: time savers n be able to set specific goals within a time frame
2.6 Successful time management n be able to differentiate between time-wasting and
2.6.1 How to plan your study time time-saving actions
2.6.2 Study timetable n be able to manage time effectively.
2.1 WHAT IS TIME MANAGEMENT?

You will remember that in Chapter 1 we discussed the issue of setting goals and deciding
“where you want to go”, or within the context of our theme, what you want to achieve in
life and your studies. Closely related to this is the skill to manage your time properly. Time
management can be a crucial factor on your journey to success. If you just cruise along without
setting the pace, you may also not reach your destination. In this chapter we will look at ways
to manage your time.
Many different things can potentially influence how you spend your time. Attending a higher
education or further training institution and being confronted for the first time with the diverse
cultures of our country, being free to do what you want, making new friends and associating 11
with new people, are all wonderful experiences, but can become quite a challenge in terms of
time. All this means is that you need to apply some skill to ensure that poor time management
does not hinder your progress towards reaching your goals.
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Typical time-management pitfalls

Test yourself to see if you waste your time (procrastinate):
• Have you ever said to yourself, “If I ignore this assignment, maybe it will go away?”
• Have you ever told yourself, “I’ll just watch TV (or do something else enjoyable) for
five minutes and then get back to my homework?”
• Have you ever underestimated the amount of work or time an assignment was going to
take?
• Have you ever done something else “very important” to avoid working on an assign-
ment?
• Have you ever done part of an assignment, the part you were good at, and not done the
part you had problems with?
• Have you ever spent so much time deciding what to do (e.g. which topic to write about)
for an assignment that you did not get anything done?
Answering “yes” to any or all of these questions is a sure sign that you procrastinate. Procras-
tination means putting things off until a future time, postponing or deferring something. Most
people procrastinate at some point.
There are many reasons for procrastinating, including the following:
• You are overwhelmed by too many things to do, and you know that you cannot get them all
done.
• You do not think that you have the skills or knowledge to handle the task.
• You are not clear about what is expected.
• The task seems irrelevant; it has no meaning for you.
• You are not interested in the task.
• You are afraid of getting a low grade or failing.
The major problem with time wasting / procrastination is that your productivity decreases.
This can make you feel useless and unworthy, and sap your energy, enthusiasm or motivation
for a task. This draining of enthusiasm can easily lead to further procrastination, which drops
your productivity and progress even more.
The only way to address this is through good time management, which depends on the ability
to organise and plan time effectively. It involves a set of related common sense skills that help
you to use your time in the most productive way possible.
2.2 TIME VS MONEY

Think of time as a valuable resource. It affects the way we use our other resources and interest-
ingly it is the only resource that every human being has equally – we all have a 24-hour day no
matter who we are or what our circumstances. Whether time is used or not used, it is gone for-
ever. Unlike many of our resources, it cannot be stored until we have a plan for it, so we cannot
manage it in exactly the same way as, for example, we would manage money.
12 Time management is more about considering which activities we engage in, and how and when,
and it is an important part of self-management. Managing oneself, just like any other form of
management, involves certain special skills – planning, organising, implementing and control-
ling. We have to master it if we want to achieve anything in this life.
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TIME MANAGEMENT
2
Time management further means the efficient use of our resources in such a way that we are
effective in achieving important personal and academic goals. The efficiency we constantly
refer to can be defined as “doing things right”.
Efficiency in time management always involves the following key components:
•
Commitment. There are no gimmicks or shortcuts. Sloppy time management is just like a
bad habit. You must be committed to your studies, in the same way as to losing weight,
stopping smoking or beating the drug habit.
•
Analysis. You must have data on where you spend time, what your problems are, and their
causes. Time logs and other forms of analysis are essential.
•
Planning. You may be saying, “I don’t have time to plan”. But effective time management
always requires planning, whether you are managing your family budget, business, studies
or your church activities. An hour of planning will save you many hours of doing the wrong
things, fighting crises and avoiding the unimportant.
•
Follow-up and review. A plan will not work very well, no matter how good it is, if you do
not monitor results, detect problems and check if it is maybe essential to modify the plan.
2.3 SELF-ASSESSMENT – TIME MANAGEMENT

As discussed above, time management is a self-management skill or activity. In order to bal-
ance your studies with your personal and social life, you have to be able to do a few basics:
• Make a list of your daily activities.
• Compile a weekly timetable.
• Prioritise your activities.
• Set specific goals.
• Focus on only one task at a time.
• Study at regular times.
• Put some time aside for relaxation.
Have you organised your time in accordance with this list? If not, you already have a clear sign
that you are not planning your time effectively.
2.4 STUDENTS’ EXPERIENCE OF THEIR OWN TIME MANAGEMENT SKILLS

In the introduction to this chapter, we looked at the reasons for managing time effectively and
why it is essential for success. Use the following to get you started:
• Have an adequate study plan.
• Make room for entertainment and relaxation.
• Try to combine activities to focus your efforts.
• Distinguish between important and unimportant tasks.
• Have clear and realistic goals.
• Have targets to aim for.
13
• Establish a routine.
• Motivate and encourage yourself to keep up the routine.
• Save time for decision making.
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What do you want to accomplish during your study years (if you wrote a proper goal in
Chapter 1, you can copy it here)?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
What is your timeline on this goal? Did you formulate / determine that?
A thought on time
Time is the only
If needed, re-write the goal with a time / date attached to it.
coin you have in
life ... and only you ____________________________________________________________________________________
can determine how
it will be spent. Be ____________________________________________________________________________________
careful how you let
other people spend
____________________________________________________________________________________
it for you.
Carl Sandburg
Exercise 2.1: Time wasters

List time wasters you have experienced in the last few weeks. Be honest. How did these
time wasters affect your productivity? What can you do to improve this?
Time waster How did it affect your How will you improve?
studies?
1.
2.
3.
4.
2.5 SAVING TIME / WASTING TIME

Here are some of the actions you can identify that often save or waste time.
2.5.1 Misuse of time: time wasters

•
Procrastination. Always putting work aside when it needs to be done will lead to your
workload increasing as your time decreases.
•
Disorganisation. Working in a haphazard way will leave you not knowing what to do or
when to do it.
•
Gossip. Do not spend time talking about others. Instead, mind your own business and focus
on the task at hand.
14 •
Telephone calls. Do not spend too much time chatting on the phone rather than studying,
working or constructively relaxing.
•
Unproductive meetings. Meetings that are not focused and productive are great wasters of
everybody’s time and energy.
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TIME MANAGEMENT
2
2.5.2 Clever moves: time savers

•
Get started. Gather information and the necessary tools for a project on time, and get going
as soon as possible.
•
Make a “to do” list. Know what you have to do daily, weekly and monthly. Tick off a task
as soon as it is done and carry on with the following task. This list should be written down at
the beginning of each week.
•
Prioritise. Divide your work into different categories (e.g. important and less important
tasks).
•
Use your diary. Schedule all your tasks and appointments in your diary so that you do not
lose track of time.
•
Do only one task at a time. Do not overload yourself with too many tasks. This may lead to
fatigue or sleepless nights.
•
Establish deadlines for every task. Know when to start and when to finish a project. Make
sure to hand in assignments on the due date. Extensions just make everything pile up, so
whenever possible it is best to have things done by the deadline.
2.6 SUCCESSFUL TIME MANAGEMENT

The following are a few tips to make the best of the time you have available:
•
Set priorities. Write a “to do” list, starting with the most important and the urgent matters.
•
Self-monitoring. Monitor your use of time by the hour for a week or so, and analyse it in
terms of the SMART principles.
•
Scheduling. Schedule task goals so that they serve your larger goals and are achievable
within the available time and circumstances.
•
Breaks and rewards. Build time for breaks into your schedule and reward yourself if you
have studied diligently for a whole week.
•
Reviews. Provide regular and periodic review time. Revise your study time if necessary.
•
Maintenance. Provide time for exercise, relaxation, sleep and meals.
2.6.1 How to plan your study time

Planning properly for study time may just make the difference between success and failure.
Here are a few things to keep in mind:
• Use daylight hours.
• Study as soon after a lecture as possible.
• List and do tasks according to priorities.
• Start long projects well ahead of time.
• Determine how long it takes you to study.
• Plan blocks of time.
• Have an agenda (list of tasks) for each study period.
• Use spare time blocks for reviewing notes and for active study groups.
2.6.2 Study timetable

If you know or suspect that you do not plan your time well, then now is the time to do some-
thing about it. Design your own study timetable. Use the draft below to schedule your weekly 15
activities. Knowing how you spend and waste your time will help you plan the schedule that
works best for you – keep a detailed record that spells out exactly how you spend every minute
of every day, or at least use five-minute increments.
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From the time you get up in the morning until the time you turn the light out at night, write
down every single activity, so that every minute is accounted for. Once you see everything
down in writing, you will be able to get an accurate picture of where your time goes, and where
you need to make corrections. Write it all down!
Compile a list of all your academic activities.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Compile a list of all your social activities.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Subtract the amount of time for your activities from the daily 24 hours. Then take the number
of subjects for which you are enrolled and divide by the hours left. Decide which subject you
want to study first. Do not forget to check when you prefer to study. Consider the hints and
tips for planning your time. Look at the following example:
TIME MON TUES WED THURS FRI SAT SUN

06:00 Wake up Sleep in Sleep in
and get
ready
07:15 Leave for
varsity
08:00 Subject A Subject C Gym Semester test Church
09:00 Subject B
10:00 Break Break Subject A
10:30 Practical 2 Review test Submit Sport Free time
material assignments
11:00 Leave for
home
12:00
13:00
14:00 Subject C Subject A Subject B Library
15:00 Lab work Free time
16 16:00 (exercises) Practical 3
17:00 Shops / Youth
movie group
Q
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TIME MANAGEMENT
2
18:00 Go home
19:00 Relax, sup- Youth Complete Team practice
per, TV meeting assignment
20:00 Revise test
material
21:00 Revise, file Type Revise test Prep for
notes on A, assign- material Mon
B+C ment practical
(materi-
al)
The preceding was an example of a planned timetable. Now, fill in your own time factors,
using the grid provided below. Plan some of your activities and goals for the next week.
Remember the SMART goals, and the importance of distinguishing between urgent / essen-
tial / important vs not urgent / nice to do / not important. Remember to plan for all the dimen-
sions that require time in your life, for example studying, attending classes, socialising, spirit-
ual pursuits, sport and relaxation.
TIME MON TUES WED THURS FRI SAT SUN

06:00
07:15
08:00
09:00
10:00
10:30
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
17:00
18:00
19:00
20:00
21:00 17
22:00
23:00
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Do your own CRITICAL EVALUATION of your plan:

• Hours available for studying ______
• Number of subjects ______
• Number of hours available per subject ______
Is this number of hours per subject per week sufficient for

• doing your homework?
• making notes and summaries?
• preparing for tests?
• working on assignments and projects?
Have you planned well to be sure you provide for the goal you want to achieve, or do you
need to rethink and rework your time plan?
2.7 CONCLUSION
Recall what we said at the beginning of this chapter: we all have 24 hours a day at our dispos-
al. How effectively and efficiently we use our time depends on ourselves. Yes, it is influenced
by circumstances, but we can largely control this. There is a magic mix: good study methods
go hand in glove with a good study plan, effective time management and the application of a
study method that suits us.
To ensure that you have good learning habits, revise your timetable and identify those hab-
its and time wasters that influence your studies negatively – such as watching too much TV,
postponing studying or leaving it until the eleventh hour. Monitor your performance in order
to determine your workload for time management purposes. By acquiring good time manage-
ment skills, you also establish good learning and living habits and by continuously applying
them, you are sure to be successful in your studies and all other goals you set yourself.
R EFE R E N CE S
BBC online. 2002. Time management principles. Avail- Silber, L. 1998. Time management for the creative person.
able at: http://www.d.umn.edu/student/loon/ New York: Three Rivers.
acad/strat/time_man_princ.html (accessed on 19 Smith, H.W. 1995. The 10 natural laws of successful time
May 2004). and life management: proven strategies for increased
BBC online. 2003. Planning study time. Available at: productivity and inner peace. New York: Warner
http://www.coun.uvi.ca/learn/Planning%20 Books.
Study%20Time.html (accessed on 24 May 2004). Van Schoor, W.A. 1994. Study management. Pretoria:
O’Hara, S. 1998. Study at university and college. Lon- J.L. van Schaik.
don: Kogan Page.
AD DI TI O N A L R E A DI N G
Adair, J.E. 1984. Concise time management and personal Haynes, M.E. 1987. Personal time management. Los
development. London: Thorogood. Altos: Crisp.
18
Forsyth, P. 1994. First things first: managing your time Scharf-Hunt, D. 1984. Studying smart: time manage-
for maximum performance. London: Pitman. ment for college students. New York: Harper Peren-
Amos, J. 1998. Managing your time: what to do and how nial.
to do it in order to do more. Oxford: Kogan Page.
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2
Section 2
Obstacles
on the
journey
SLIDES
3 Student life
E LM ARI E VAN H E ERDEN-PIET ERSE
T HE C H A P T ER AT A G LA N C E
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Possible adjustment problems – hurdles
References
on the journey
Additional reading
3.2.1 Establishing identity and inde-
pendence
3.2.2 Relationship problems O U T CO MES
3.2.3 Stress and anxiety After working through this chapter, you should
3.2.4 Depression n understand the challenges of adjustment on the
3.2.5 Developing purpose and integrity higher education campus
3.3 Understanding your adjustment problems n know the practical steps that may be taken to-
3.4 Managing your emotional adjustment wards adjustment into student life
problems n understand when you should seek help for an
3.5 A note on finances and student life adjustment problem.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Most people leave school at the age of 18 or 19 years, ready to enrol at a tertiary institution.
For many, it coincides with a move away from home: the security and familiarity of family
life, as well as the support of well-known teachers, friends and the community at large, are
left behind. This is also the age at which you have to make the transition from late adolescence
to young adulthood. It is the time you have to learn to stand on your own two feet, to take
responsibility for your own actions, plan your own future and to ensure that you reach the
goals you set for yourself.
Does it sound like a huge transition and a mountain of new responsibilities? It is. Does it feel
like an insurmountable challenge? It is not. Accessing an institution of higher learning or train-
ing (or even the work place) after your formal schooling years can pose quite a challenge in
adjustment. This can be even harder if it entails leaving familiar surroundings (e.g. the parental
home) and your support system (e.g. parents, gaurdians, family and friends) to, for example,
20 move into a school, college or university residence. It can affect you emotionally, and can
become a hurdle on your journey to adulthood and success. The good news, however, is that
there are many small, simple but practical things that you can do to help yourself through this
period of change and adjustment.
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STUDENT LIFE
3
You probably know the expression forewarned is forearmed. This is exactly the purpose of this
chapter, which aims to
• explain the possible adjustment problems or hurdles you might encounter in your first year
or later as a student (because understanding what is happening to you helps you to take
charge of the problem)
• inform you about strategies to overcome or manage these adjustment problems (because
there are many options and actions to take to deal with adjustment).
3.2 POSSIBLE ADJUSTMENT PROBLEMS – HURDLES ON THE JOURNEY

Students often experience the following adjustment problems:
• Establishing identity and independence (you will mostly need to redefine and determine
who you are within your new environment – also see Chapter 6)
• Dealing with a multicultural environment (or even an environment where the values and
culture are different to what you were used to – also see chapters 4 and 5)
• Relationship problems (making new friends, dealing with people from varied backgrounds
and value systems – also see chapters 4 and 7)
• Stress and anxiety, mainly caused by fear of failure (especially when everybody at home or
in the family, or even you yourself, has extremely high expectations of you – also see chap-
ters 1 and 2)
• Depression (a natural and typical human response to a situation of dramatic change)
• Developing purpose and integrity (this includes clearly formulating your personal goals and
means to achieve those – also see Chapter 2)
We will now look at these elements in more detail.
3.2.1 Establishing identity and independence

In our families, most of us do not need to think about who and what we are. It is when we are
away from our families and we have to set up relationships with strangers that we suddenly
become aware that we may differ from others. The problem starts when we begin comparing
ourselves negatively to others.
Establishing an identity begins during adolescence. Many teenagers still find themselves
among their own people while they attend school and this gives them a feeling of belonging.
Moving on to a different school, a college, university or even workplace, you might find your-
self among many different people who speak different languages, belong to different cultures
and / or religions, and who look and behave differently. You may no longer understand the
language and traditions, and this can make you feel strange and out of place. You may have
difficulty re-establishing an identity and a feeling of belonging.
Most of us feel this way to some degree when entering a new environment. It only becomes
unhealthy when such feelings persist and become severe, affecting our behaviour and deci-
sions, and making it difficult for us to “fit in”.
Our ability to feel at ease in our environment is key to our identity or how we define ourselves.
It is therefore not abnormal to go through a phase of such feelings but unhealthy if it does not
improve and if you keep feeling like an outsider / stranger. 21
The institutional environment in which you find yourself will affect your identity, especially if
you try to integrate fully into both the academic and the social system. A clear understanding
of who you are within a cultural and historical context will assist the adjustment process.
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SECTION 2 OBSTACLES ON THE JOURNEY
Try to answer the following questions as honestly as possible:
Yes / No
• I am uncomfortable with my body and appearance ______
• I seem to know less than the other students ______
• I cannot express myself so well in English ______
• I am totally different from the other students ______
• I often feel excluded and lonely ______
• I try to be like the other students ______
• I think my fellow students do not approve of me ______
Total: ____ Yes answers ____ No answers
If you have more “yes” than “no” answers, you must accept that you need to obtain a better
sense of who you are and where you fit in. Your uncertainty about yourself in your new situ-
ation affects your self-image and confidence negatively. This will impact on your confidence
and happiness and can make you very vulnerable to bad influences.
We will now discuss a few developmental tasks that you need to complete in order to establish
a clear identity. The tasks are mainly based on Chickering’s theory of student development as
researched by Exner (2003), under the following headings.
3.2.1.1 Comfort with body and appearance (physical identity)

Your body is the physical manifestation of your being and you need to accept it, care for it and
nurture it. Physical appearance differs from person to person, and we should learn to respect
such differences. In our modern society, much emphasis is placed on how we look (physical
appearance) and often unrealistic images of the ideal of what we should look like are promoted
in the media. If you constantly compare your body and appearance negatively with those of
other students, you will make yourself unhappy and uncomfortable. Some individuals become
so obsessive about this that they develop eating disorders, either overeating or starving them-
selves to try to compensate.
What you can do to deal with this

The most important thing to do is a “reality check”. Is your self-evaluation realistic? Critical
to your reality check is always to verify how others see you (even if you have to ask parents,
siblings or a friend). The best you can do is to eat healthily and get enough exercise in order
to establish and maintain your ideal body weight. Make use of the facilities available at your
training institution to aid you in fitness and wellness. Make peace with your height and the
genetic shape of your body. In time, learn to make the most of your appearance with clever
dressing (which does not mean expensive!) and a flattering hairstyle. Never try to change your
body and appearance into something it was not meant to be and can never be. Accept who and
what you are.
Always remember that you are more than merely a body. You may have a sunny disposition,
be a loyal friend, witty, bright, determined or hard working, to mention just a few. You may
22 be a talented athlete, soccer or netball player. Develop and use your natural talents. It will con-
tribute towards a positive self-esteem. With adequate development of identity, your obsessions
with your body and appearance should fade. However, if you recognise that this may be an
ongoing problem for you, it is best to consult with a professional for some assistance.
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STUDENT LIFE
3
3.2.1.2 Sense of self in a social, historical and cultural context (social identity)
Developing your identity implies that you find your place in your family, identify with your
ethnic origins and see yourself in the context of your social and historical background, as well
as your culture and religion. Learn to appreciate your roots and how they shaped you. Once
you have a firm sense of your own being, you will better be able to appreciate and respect the
roots of your fellow students and their differing values and attributes.

Join a cultural and / or religious group or society, not to isolate yourself from different cul-
tures, but to serve as a support for your own cultural identity. None of us want to function in
isolation and it is natural for human beings to want to belong to a group. Cultural activities
will help you to establish and strengthen your sense of self in that context. The right to asso-
ciate with any group of your choice is firmly entrenched in the South African constitution. If
this aspect of your identity development is neglected, it may lead to feelings of inferiority and
uncertainty, which in turn may lead to intolerance, racism and isolation. Feeling positive about
your own roots helps you to become generous enough to allow others to be positive about their
roots as well.
The roles you play in your community, group or society are very important. As a student you
should try to find roles and styles in your everyday life at university, at home and at play, that
allow you to express yourself and be true to yourself. This will help you to establish and define
your identity. This means taking an active part in whatever student life offers in order to cre-
ate opportunities for yourself to develop your various abilities – your strengths. You will find
out what your strengths are if you open yourself to various life experiences, take on different
roles and try out different lifestyles. The secret, however, is to be honest with yourself. Avoid
situations where you feel that you are compromising your principles. You should take part in
activities that have the potential of bringing out the best in you, even if it takes hard work and
perseverance to master the various and maybe unusual situations. Remember practice makes
perfect.
By taking up your responsibility as a student and actively participating in different activities,
others will help you to shape your identity. Your family members, friends, lecturers, coaches
and classmates, as well as your test results, will give you feedback on how you are doing. This
feedback will contribute towards your picture of yourself and needs to be given on a regular
and honest basis. Do not isolate yourself and so deny yourself opportunities to develop your
strengths. If you do not expose yourself to feedback, you will be forced to rely on your own,
subjective and sometimes unnecessarily negative opinions about yourself.
Subjective means it is all in your head and based on your own thoughts and opinions.
Objective means a true picture, not influenced by emotions.
More ideas about what you can do to deal with this

We often do not see ourselves objectively. Much can be learned from other people’s honest
feedback about our efforts and actions. This feedback might inspire us to improve our efforts
and get to know aspects of ourselves that we were not consciously aware of before.
Feedback from valued others may seem to play an all-important role in your life at first. How- 23
ever, you will notice that as you gain more and more confidence in your own abilities and
self-knowledge, you will still appreciate the feedback, but will not rely upon it or need it so
much anymore.
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3.2.1.3 Self-acceptance and self-esteem (personal identity)

Your self-esteem is the degree to which you value yourself. It has to do with the way you
feel about yourself and see yourself, and the value you feel that you have as a person. This of
course has everything to do with self-acceptance. Self-acceptance is the result of accepting and
appreciating yourself. This can present a serious problem for many individuals. Negative, sad
or traumatic life experiences can make you define yourself in negative terms or give yourself
negative labels. Such negative thinking will impact heavily on your self-esteem and cause you
to feel less confident and valuable.

With lots of varied life experiences, you should begin to appreciate your positive attributes
(your strengths) and to see how they can contribute to and direct you to lead a worthwhile,
purposeful life. You should begin to realise that you do not have to be perfect and that you do
not always have to concentrate on your mistakes – or to be your own worst critic. By paying
more attention to your positive attributes, you can boost your self-esteem and self-confidence.
This seems logical and easy, but can be a complex challenge for some. It is always wise to seek
the assistance of a professional if you realise that you may have a problem in this regard. Con-
stant negative thinking about yourself will most certainly lead to worse symptoms and depres-
sion, so if you find yourself in this position, it would be wise to contact your campus counsel-
ling services to help you deal with it effectively.
3.2.1.4 Personal stability and integration

By allowing yourself to get to know who you are, accepting yourself as you are and living by
your own values and beliefs, you become a more integrated person. Once you have made these
values and beliefs your own, you will no longer need the constant reminders of parents and
other figures of authority to tell you how to behave, what to believe, how to feel and what to
decide and do. You will behave and act from your own inner convictions. Such integration is
important for general psychological wellbeing. It is essential for you to be at peace with both
your positive and negative traits, and to have a clear sense of how you harmonise these attrib-
utes.

Your inner certainty about who you are and your integrated personal values and beliefs
become the convictions that guide your decision making on small, but especially on serious
and important life decisions. Inner stability provides the ability to lead a purposeful, stable
and independent life. Your personal convictions in fact enable you to function independently,
which is essential for you to be or become a mature person.
3.2.2 Relationship problems

As human beings, we always live in relation to others, whether they be relatives, friends,
acquaintances or strangers. To relate to another person, we need to communicate, as this is
what establishes some sort of understanding about our intentions, meaning, activities and so
on.
24 To develop mature, healthy relationships, you therefore need the ability to communicate your
feelings, needs and thoughts effectively and honestly. You also need to learn to manage your
emotions, to connect with others on a deeper level, to resolve differences in a mature way and
to realise that your behaviour always affects the people around you.
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STUDENT LIFE
3
To establish a mature interpersonal relationship, you need to learn (1) tolerance and the appre-
ciation of difference, and (2) how to build intimacy.
3.2.3 Stress and anxiety

During your first year at the training institution, you might find that the educators, due to vari-
ous factors, are not necessarily closely involved with their students. Their style of instruction
may differ totally from that to which you became accustomed in high school. You will find that
you have to function far more independently here than at school.
If at first you perform inadequately at the tertiary institution, you will feel anxious and it will
lead to stress. Stress and anxiety are counterproductive and negative emotions. If you are living
away from home for the first time, the fact that you feel lonely and unsupported might make
it worse. Living in a residence could have an isolating effect, but on the positive side, there
is also a ready-made community of peers with whom you could identify and to whom you
could turn for support. This, however, requires of you to participate and freely associate with
fellow residence members. Students frequently report at the support centre of their institution
just before test and examination periods. They fear failure! The possibility of failure can lead
to feelings of shame, guilt and helplessness. Their common complaints are that they are tense,
cannot concentrate, cannot remember what they studied, and have a fear of examinations and
tests. They are afraid of disappointing their people at home – some even hide their failures by
telling their family that the course has been extended by an extra year or similar stories. Stress
and performance anxiety can be intensified by isolation and feelings of desolation.
Practical assignment: Attend a local sporting event and write a reflective essay on the
things you observe (see, hear, feel) that indicate how people associate with the sporting
team or event.
Alternative: In a small group, watch the movie Invictus. Make individual notes on your
observations and then have a group discussion to report back on what observable behav-
iours indicated the natural tendency to associate with a group.

To manage the stress that comes with thoughts of possible failure, it would be wise to attend to
your study habits and attitudes. In other words, you purposefully need to manage your time
effectively, cultivate good study habits and methods, pay close attention in class and attend all
lectures as from day one. Make use of the academic support your institution offers to students,
and study Section 5 (from p. 149) in this book carefully and avoid the pitfalls. When you take
charge of your situation and make some meaningful effort, it makes a world of difference to
your stress levels. However, you should consult your campus counselling service if you find
that this is an ongoing problem for you.
3.2.4 Depression
Just the same as with stress and anxiety, counsellors find that many students report symptoms
of depression. These include a range of negative behaviours (e.g. passiveness, irritability, social
withdrawal, and problems with decision making, concentration and motivation) and emotions 25
(e.g. feelings of sadness, worthlessness, helplessness, hopelessness, failure and disappoint-
ment, and pessimism). Depression often goes hand in hand with sleep disturbances, headaches
and stomach aches.
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A quick self-evaluation
Did you read the above range of emotions and are you experiencing negative emotions? If
your answer is “yes”, list your emotions.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Now identify and list your (negative) behaviour patterns that go with such emotions, i.e.
what do you do when you feel these emotions?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Look at the lists you have made and be honest with yourself: do you think you are depressed?
This is important, because if you suffer from depression it will affect your academic perform-
ance. You need to identify these emotions and behaviours in yourself as soon as possible and
find help.
Many of the above-mentioned emotions and behaviours may well be the consequence of
insufficient adjustment to your student and academic life. This means that there are still hur-
dles you have to overcome. Look again at the first section of this chapter where we dealt with
the adjustment issues. Familiarise yourself with these so that you can recognise them in your-
self and get professional help if necessary.

Never feel that you are the only one experiencing these problems. Once you start expressing
these feelings, you will be surprised to find how many others are in the same situation. The
answer is to seek help immediately. There is always help available and there are ways to over-
come your problems. It is the smart thing to do.
3.2.5 Developing purpose and integrity

Try to answer the following questions about your choice of course and / or career as honestly
as possible:
Yes / No
• My parents advised me to follow this course. ______
• I am really interested in this course. ______
• I chose this course because most of my friends are taking it. ______
• I will earn a huge salary when I finish this course. ______
• Everybody says it is a good course to take. ______
• This course is all I ever wanted to do. ______
• I think I am in the wrong course. ______
26 • This course is not what I expected it to be. ______
• I would love to change to another course. ______
• I took this course because I was not admitted to the one of my choice. ______
• It is an easy course. ______
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STUDENT LIFE
3
After answering as honestly as possible, can you truly say that you chose this course because
you were convinced that this was the course you were really interested in? That it is the most
suitable course for you? (If you answered questions 2 and 6 with a “yes”, you can be sure that
you are in the right course.)
Every individual has to find direction and purpose so as to feel that he or she is living a mean-
ingful life. No one can do this on your behalf – it is your own responsibility and task. Fulfilling
your purpose also has to do with doing what comes naturally to you and what you do best.
It is only when you reach such a state that you will feel content. At this stage of your life, you
are preparing yourself for a career that should satisfy you intellectually and emotionally. Once
you start working, your career must be able to give you a sense of purpose. Your interests must
become focused and balanced. Too many students choose a course of study for the wrong rea-
sons, or because they really do not know what their purpose in life is yet. A student may enrol
for a course that is popular, available, easier to handle than others, recommended by someone,
affordable or that will lead to a big salary in future. To be enrolled for a course that does not
really interest and satisfy you is soul-destroying and will lead to a total lack of motivation.
3.3 UNDERSTANDING YOUR ADJUSTMENT PROBLEMS

You are now familiar with the possible emotional adjustment problems faced by students, and
understand that you have to go through various developmental tasks to adapt to student life
and become a well-adjusted young adult. You understand the tasks involved with the identity
problem and the necessity for you to
•
accept your own body and appearance
•
accept your gender role and sexual orientation
•
experiment to find your own lifestyle and discover your strengths
•
become aware of your authentic self through honest feedback from valued others
•
integrate your positive characteristics and strive to live a balanced life.
Furthermore:
•
You understand and can identify feelings and behaviours associated with depression and know that
it affects your studies negatively. You therefore understand that it is of utmost importance to
find help to identify the causes of your depression and to overcome them.
•
You realise that fear and anxiety in your student years are often associated with a fear of failure.
These negative emotions cripple you. You have to master your fears by finding ways to
work effectively and diligently from day one.
• You understand that you have to take responsibility for your own life – your mistakes and suc-
cesses.
• Last but not least, you are aware that you have to find your purpose in life – that which comes nat-
urally to you and gives you joy. This will motivate you to achieve your goals through hard
work and self-discipline.
3.4 MANAGING YOUR EMOTIONAL ADJUSTMENT PROBLEMS

It is now time to take stock of your adjustment to student life. To manage your emotional
adjustment problems, you should put yourself through the following steps: 27
•
Step 1: Make a list of adjustment problems you still experience. Leave an open space
underneath each heading so that you can make further notes when you come to steps 2–7.
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•
Step 2: Study your specific problems under the relevant heading(s) in section 3.2. Make
notes under each heading as set out in step 1.
•
Step 3: Make sure that you understand your problems. Decide what and how you would
like to change; discuss it with a very good friend, your parents or a counsellor. Last, but not
least, find more information on the internet, in books and in magazines, in order to become
fully informed.
•
Step 4: Find ways to overcome your problems. Using what you wrote down in step 1, refer
back to the What you can do to deal with this sections above and make a note of what applies to
you or suits you. Also make a note of the advice of your friends and parents, and ideas from
your additional reading.
•
Step 5: Work out a plan of action. Make a list of all your goals – what you want to achieve,
why and how. Remember to set realistic, achievable goals. Write down the strategies you are
going to use to achieve each goal. (Step 4 refers.) Choose ideas and / or actions with which
you feel comfortable and that you think will work best for you.
•
Step 6: Work on your goals every day. Every night, write down what you achieved that day.
Do not hesitate to give yourself credit for the smallest achievements. It would be a good idea
to give yourself a 3 next to each applied strategy, to make your progress visible.
•
Step 7: Revise your plan of action after a week. What worked for you this week and what
did not? Find new strategies to replace the unsuccessful ones. Do not hesitate to approach
friends, lecturers and student counsellors for more ideas and encouragement. Help is always
available for those who ask and strive to improve themselves.
•
Step 8: Make use of positive self-talk. Keep reminding yourself how hard you are trying
and how well you are doing. Train your mind to block out negative thoughts. Instead of
saying, “I am so stupid! Look what I did again”, say, “I really tried. It will be better next
time”. You know the expression like attracts like. Positive thoughts and feelings attract posi-
tive thoughts and feelings. Positive people attract positive people. Become one of them!
3.5 A NOTE ON FINANCES AND STUDENT LIFE

We cannot conclude a conversation about student life without acknowledging the very import-
ant role of financial planning. In our modern day society, many students are dependant on
bursaries and study loans. Students also loan money from relatives or family friends and then
have financial obligations.
To ensure that finances are not a major stumbling block and that constant worry and stress
about funding does not impact negatively on your academic performance, it is essential that
we mention a few points on this topic:
•
Sources of funding. Consult with the financial aid division or officer of your institution to
determine exactly what options for funding are available to you. It goes without saying that
you have to perform well enough to qualify for such funding, although the national student
funding scheme in South Africa does not have extreme academic requirements. It is import-
ant, though, that you do not depend on this alone and look at further options. The govern-
ment has implemented learnerships, employers offer bursaries and training schemes, and
you could even consider part-time work to generate income. If you do take up a part-time
28 work opportunity (check with the employment office), it is critical that you pay extra spe-
cial attention to your scheduling and time management so that the work does not interfere
with your studies. That will defeat the purpose. Skills and abilities developed while working
part-time jobs can be positive items for future job applications. Lastly, you can approach
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STUDENT LIFE
3
commercial banks, as some of them offer student loan schemes. Just remember that you will
need a gaurantor for such a loan, i.e. somebody that will co-sign for you.
•
Planning, planning, planning. Whatever the source of your funding, there cannot be
enough emphasis on the importance of planning. Many students make the mistake of spend-
ing all their bursary or loan money early in the year, and then run into financial trouble
when further and continued expenses occur. Draw up a proper short-, medium- and long-
term budget. Good budgeting will ensure that the money lasts, and will allow you to con-
centrate on your studies. Budgeting also requires that you anticipate what study-related
costs you may have until you next receive funding. It is a skill you will need for the rest of
your life.
•
Payback has limits. Of course, you need to take responsibility for the repayment of your
study fees acquired through loans. However, some students, both male and female, find
themselves in a compromised and vulnerable position because of loans and funding secured
from relatives or people associated with the family. Remember that nobody may demand
additional favours – be they work, social or sexual – in return for a loan. You have rights and
even more than that, along with achieving a proper qualification, you have a responsibility
to yourself. Consult with your campus counsellors if this becomes a problem as they will
know how to deal with the situation in a confidential, diplomatic and professional manner.
3.6 CONCLUSION
Student life can be an exciting and joyful experience. If you are able to study at a college or
university, you are a privileged individual. It can potentially be a happy time in your life. But it
can also be complicated by many factors and in this chapter we dealt with some of these issues,
including personal issues (in terms of your own development and identity), social interactions,
stress and anxiety, and monetary factors.
There is a lot you can do to ensure that you make a healthy transition into student life and then
again into working and adult life. Being made aware of the issues and adjustments you could
face empowers you to avoid the pitfalls and to recognise when you need help and professional
support.
R E FER E N C E S
Chickering, A. & Reisser, L. 1993. Education and iden- Exner, R.J. 2003. The identification of psycho-edu-
tity. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. cational factors that inhibit first year student per-
Chickering, A. & Reisser, L. 1997. The seven vec- formance. Doctoral thesis. Pretoria: Unisa.
tors. In Arnold, K. & King, I. (Eds), College student Woodman, M. 2003. Personal purpose: an invitation
development and academic life: psychological, intellec- to search for and find your life’s purpose. New York:
tual, social and moral issues. New York: Garland, Understanding Books.
2–20.
ADDI T I O N A L R E A DI N G
29
Cohen, J. 2001. Create your self. Johannesburg: Word Woodman, M. 2003. Personal purpose: an invitation
Out. to search for and find your life’s purpose. New York:
McGraw, P.C. 2001. Self-matters: creating your life from Understanding Books.
the inside out. London: Simon & Schuster.
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W E BS I TE S
http://www.cityu.edu.hk/arro/studguide/lifen- http://www.projects.jou.ufl.edu/ktrammell/pro-
experience/adjustment.html ject1/silverman/smouse2.htm
http://www.drexel.edu.cchc/studentlife/Student http://www.ub-counseling.buffalo.edu.adjustin.
Handbook/adjustments.html html
http://www.projects.jou.ufl.edu/ktrammell/pro-
ject1/subjectslist.htm
30
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SLIDES
4 Diversity
change
and
E L MARI E VAN H E E RDE N-PIET ERSE
O U T CO MES
4.1 Introduction
After working through this chapter, you should
4.2 Understanding mental diversity
n understand the key issues of diversity and change
4.3 Understanding cultural diversity
n understand mental diversity
4.4 Coping with change
n have some insight into communicating across
4.5 Conclusion cultures
References n understand that cultural diversity comes from
Additional reading individual diversity.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Our journey now takes us to the next theme to discover – diversity.
This chapter explores the idea of diversity, and offers some insight into how and why people
are so different. For the purposes of this chapter, diversity simply represents differences
between individuals. Diversity is a complex phenomenon, and you will learn that it does not
only mean cultural or racial differences, but includes more personal and individual issues such
as why some people like to work alone and others prefer to be part of a group; why some
people respond emotionally to situations and others rationally, and why some people are
orderly and organised, while others are more easy-going and relaxed. As individuals, we are
unique and diverse. This chapter highlights some of these varying characteristics and proposes
a model or framework for understanding individual and cultural diversity.
Our differences are found in both our nature (genetic predisposition and our physicality) and
our nurture (upbringing, schooling, socialisation, environment and culture) and how these
two domains interact. It is well accepted that our behaviour is a result of complex interaction 31
between the two. This means that although our mental and emotional preferences are strongly
influenced by genetics, the environment in which we live also influences our personality traits
and practices. Our cultural identity is formed by where and how we live, our community (the
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people in our environment) and the degree to which we assimilate (internalise and own) all
the values, rules and behaviours of our environment. The way we do things depends large-
ly on the degree of “social programming” we receive from our parents, peers, significant role
models, the media and so on. Culture is often expressed through descriptions of the things that
are important to us. Examples of such descriptions are “we love sonskyn, braai and biltong”,
“ubuntu”, “children should be protected”, etc. It is also true of all other groups we find our-
selves in. Even at your school, college or university you can hear such expressions as mani-
festations of the institutional cultures. Perhaps you can listen carefully from now on and iden-
tify such statements.
If diversity is such a natural phenomenon, why then is it such a problem in today’s society?
As the world has now become a global village, interactions between people of different cul-
tures is increasing and intensifying. Some people or groups lead their lives in ways that seem
strange to others, with values that outsiders to that group cannot understand or that may seem
strange to them. They may eat different foods, listen to different music, have different types of
social events or have different spiritual activities. Our perceptions and imaginations often raise
fears and prejudices about what we do not know or understand and this can lead to tension
and even conflict.
For us to understand the essence of diversity, we need to look at individual diversity first. This
chapter aims to help you understand diversity and your own responses to people who behave,
think, feel or respond differently to you, help you to interact, negotiate and enjoy your time in
higher education, your society and your country better.
4.2 UNDERSTANDING MENTAL DIVERSITY
Figure 4.1 Diversity and differences
Is it possible to get beyond the conflict which diversity at times brings about? The straight-
forward response is yes, if we focus on our personal strengths and the traits that make us
unique, and we learn to accommodate strengths and traits that make others unique. Once we
learn to appreciate diversity it often helps us also to deal better with change.
For a long time, psychologists and educators have been using “profile inventories” to measure
personality factors, cognitive (thinking) abilities, personal motivation and how the individual
manages change and conflict. More recent approaches also measure emotional intelligence,
brain dominances and associated thinking, and communication style preferences. This profes-
sional trend indicates how important it is to focus on the unique traits of every individual and
32 emphasises the importance of interpersonal behaviour and skills as well as communication
between individuals across cultural and other divides.
Many years ago, Roger Sperry, a professor in neurology (science of the brain and nervous
system), determined that the two halves of the human brain have different functions (Van
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DIVERSITY AND CHANGE
4
Heerden, 2011) when he observed that surgically separating the two halves of the brain caused
“disintegrated” behaviour. He further observed how removing different parts (in the case of
tumours or epilepsy, for example) had different results and came to the conclusion that, unlike
what had been believed up to that point, the various sections of the brain had particular tasks.
These days we know much more about which centres of the brain control which functions.
Interestingly, medical research has also revealed that not only do each of us look unique, but
we also have a unique brain with a unique personality and ways of thinking and interpreting
what we experience.
Various researchers have studied the human brain and its unique qualities in terms of human
functioning. Paul Torrance (2014), an American psychologist, dedicated his life’s work to
enhancing the recognition, acceptance and development of the creative personality in both edu-
cation and the workplace. It was his passion to have people acknowledged as unique, diverse
and creative beings (also see Chapter 10). Torrance is quoted as having said that creativity is a
part of intellect, but that there are many abilities involved in intellect. (University of Georgia,
College of Education, 2014) All the work on creativity that was done by Torrance and many
other scholars to follow was based on a premise of individuality and subsequently diversity.
In South Africa, the renowned entrepreneur and academic, Dr Kobus Neethling also took up
the theory that the human brain has different segments and that we each have a section that
tends to be dominant, particularly when we are under pressure. He developed a model for
application of the brain dominance principles and an array of test and profiling instruments
that measure unique brain functioning in business, work, relationships, communication, teach-
ing, sport and so on (Neethling, 2000). Neethling acknowledges the work of Hermann, Won-
der, Donnovan, Moore and others and after studying with Torrance continued to develop the
concept of brain dominances and in particular how it affects and manifests as a critical element
of diversityIn the early 1980s, he developed the brain profiling test known as the Neethling
Brain Profiling Instrument (NBI).
The NBI assists individuals in determining their personal brain dominance through a model of
four quadrants. The basic premise is that each of us has a unique profile of preference in how
our brain functions. This preference (or what he calls dominance) is so important in our divers-
ity that it affects and mostly explains our role in any team we form a part of, how we conduct
ourselves in our family, social and work circles, how we communicate and most particularly
how we learn or process information. The dominance theory states that when we are under
emotional pressure / stress, this preference will be particularly strong and tend to determine
the way we hear, think and respond (i.e. our behaviour). Table 4.1 provides a basic description
of the thinking preferences of the four brain quadrants.
It is important that you be reminded at this point that although an individual may favour cog-
nitive activities associated with a specific quadrant,the whole brain contributes to effective
functioning, but there are differences in the power of the contribution of the various quadrants
(both in intensity and style), giving every person a unique combination of cognitive activities.
As Ornstein (1997: 23) put it, “both hemispheres contribute to everything, but contribute differ-
ently”. All of this means that each person has a unique profile and although we all have a sim-
ilar organ, namely the brain, it functions in a unique manner for each of us. This is the core of
diversity, namely that we are all unique in our feelings and thinking patterns. This uniqueness
is often called individualism and it is this individualism that underlies all forms of diversity. It
is therefore the mental, rather than physical, aspects of humanity that differentiate us. 33
From this, we can see that it is necessary to understand the impact of individual thinking pref-
erences before we can even attempt to understand humans in group context, for example ethnic
or cultural groups.
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Table 4.1 Four quadrant brain dominance model
Top Left (L1) Top Right (R1)
• Focus • Factual memory

Flexible Risk taking
Experimental
• Essence • Concrete
Curious
• Precise • Mathematical Artistic
Bigger picture
• Accuracy • Financial Strategic
• Factual reasoning • Performance driven Simultaneous (many

Synthesising
things at once)
• Logic • Rational
Looking for Investigative
• Objective • Realistic
alternatives
• Diagnostic • Quantitative
Integrating ideas
Unstructured
• Analysis • Important to do it right
Imaginative Visualising
• Critical • Control Fantasy
• Clinical Speculative Idea-intuition
Preference for change
Bottom Left (L2) Bottom Right (R2)
Organised / orderly Punctual / time-

Planned conscious Involved
Non-verbal cues Playful
Structured Steadfast
Touch Respectful
Step-by-step Sequential Cooperation
approach Sociable (one-on-one
and / or in groups)
Accessible
Security / safe Thorough Approachable
keeping Reliable People focus Expressive
Detail Responsive Empathic
Result driven
Receptive Teamwork
Traditional
Drive / task driven People awareness
People perceptive
Neat
Sensitive
Support
34 Exercise 4.1
Look at the lists of words in the table that follows and tick the words you most common-
ly use in your own conversation (Israel, Whitten & Shaffran, 2000: 144).
Q
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4
A B C D
accountable applied belong adaptable
accurate assignment care anticipate
analytical boundary celebrate big picture
competition bureaucracy coaching breaking rules
focused caution communicate change
invest controlled cooperate conceptual
leverage credit courage creative
numbers dominant employees design
perform evaluate encourage different
power examine grass roots diverse
pricing forge harmonious dynamic
rational framework interactive enhance
reality insurance mentoring enterprise
research integrity partnering explore
revenue meticulous relationships holistic
reward operations satisfaction synthesiser
standard proactive self-esteem vision
technical prudent teamwork
validation tenacious understand
Total the number of ticks in each column and see whether you have dominance in one
particular area. You may interpret the columns as A = L1; B = L2, C = R2 and D = R1.
Although this exercise is far too simple to determine your exact profile, it may provide
some insight. You will find that you have ticked words in all four columns, which is nor-
mal and should be the case. Further to this, those things you have ticked are not neces-
sarily all you can do – you may have extremely well-developed skills or abilities in other
areas. Dominance is just about what comes naturally or “automatically” for you, as
opposed to those things that you do purposefully.
When working with people from different cultures and nationalities, you need to understand
your own unique mental preference in order for you to learn to value the unique preferences
and contributions of others, even if you find their way of communicating and behaving confus-
ing and sometimes even alien to yours. Surprisingly, it is often the people whose way of think-
ing, communicating and behaving is most unlike our own who can take our ideas to higher
and more creative levels. Such exposure to diversity may be uncomfortable at times, but it does 35
encourage our own development and insight as it pushes us out of our comfort zones (natural
style, preference and dominance) to spaces where we need to put in more effort. This is essen-
tial for our personal growth and wellbeing.
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4.3 UNDERSTANDING CULTURAL DIVERSITY

A social group of people who share patterns of behaviour and beliefs are said to belong to or to
have the same culture. These patterns are usually unconsciously learned as a result of the natur-
al human need and tendency to conform or to be accepted by the social grouping. Some social
groupings are small, like a family or a team, and others are larger, such as ethnic, racial or reli-
gious organisations or nations to which we belong and with which we naturally associate.
Let us look at culture as a specific domain of diversity. Culture is often described as the
“shoulds, musts or oughts” within groups (Zimmerman, 2013). It guides us in what we are
expected to do in order to be accepted as a member of a society. Acculturation (our conform-
ation to a culture) starts from the moment we are born. It shapes how we should or should
not behave. It provides the unwritten rules that guide our consciousness. It includes our early
socialisation from our parents, teachers, role models and peers. A specific group-culture may
share language, music, religion, food and / or clothing that tell an outsider that they belong to
the group. To understand a culture, we have to be able to identify the cultural practices that
are learned or were programmed into us, often from birth. These practices are based on a set of
values and underlying assumptions that will differentiate one group of people from another.
“Diversity” then also applies to groups where different cultural values and norms exist. But
interestingly, and to make the world even more complex, we may again find individual divers-
ity represented by differences in gender, age or personality within a group that is bound by
some element of commonality. From an organisational viewpoint, we also have groups that
are similar within themselves, but different from other groups in the same organisation. For
example, the culture of the arts faculty can be very different from the culture in the education
faculty within the common university culture.
Human beings tend to associate (group) with individuals with similar preferences, habits, con-
victions, interests, and so on, as they are inclined to communicate more easily and more effect-
ively with those that are “the same” as themselves. But there can never be perfect sameness
because even if we share the same ideas, individual diversity still exists, even within a strongly
bound group. From the point of view of brain-dominance theory, this means that there will be
a multitude of different profiles in every group.
All major ethnic groups – native Americans, black South Africans, Caucasians, Hispan-
ics, Asians – have preferences that are essentially equally distributed across the whole
brain model and therefore represent, in each case, a well-balanced composite whole brain
group. There is no evidence that specific cultures have typical profiles. Brain profiles are
unique to individuals and therefore there is an equal distribution within cultures.
Still important is that despite all the unconscious rules that influence us, we are to a large
extent in charge of our own mental processes – more so than we like to admit. This challenges
us with the fact that individual diversity is found in all levels of our lives: in our families, in
our circle of friends, at church, at school, college or university, etc. Diversity is such a constant
that it makes us realise that it becomes essential in this life to be able to deal with diversity, and
change means our behaviours can change as a result of changes in thinking.
36
4.4 DIVERSITY AND CHANGE
Dorothy Leonard and Susaan Straus (1997) point out that in an environment where people
think in different ways, a message sent is not necessarily the message received. Some people
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4
respond well to facts, figures and statistics, while others prefer anecdotes. Information must be
delivered in the preferred “language” of the recipient if it is to be received at all.
Say, for example, you have been divided into groups by your teacher / lecturer and you have a
specific idea on how to tackle the assignment. For you to persuade the group to do the assign-
ment in this specific manner, you will need to speak to all profiles in the group. You may need
to tackle it as follows:
• Arguments appealing to the analytical mind (A-quadrant) would rely on statistics from
well-documented research conducted by objective experts that proved that for this specific
task an unstructured approach would be appropriate.
•
Arguments geared toward the action-oriented type (B-quadrant) would answer specif-
ic questions about implementation: how long will the process take? Exactly what kinds of
actions are required? What are the implications?
• Arguments aimed at people-oriented individuals (D-quadrant) would focus on such ques-
tions as: how does an unstructured approach affect relationships? How would this affect
morale?
• Future-oriented people’s perspectives would include graphics as well as artists’ renderings
of the proposed environment.
How we communicate is important if we want to deal effectively with diversity. Regardless of

how you personally would prefer to deliver a message, you will be more persuasive and better
understood if you acknowledge diversity and formulate your message to speak to the “hear-
ing” style of the recipient.
Your individual cognitive preferences unconsciously shape your communication patterns,
learning style, conflict style and leadership style. You need to acknowledge diversity and be
as comfortable with people thinking, hearing, feeling or responding differently as you are with
the fact that they have different eye colour.
4.5 CONCLUSION
Diversity is far more than race or gender. In this chapter, we took a look at individualism or
uniqueness as the basis of diversity. We learned how we should not and cannot judge people
based on their group association, race, religion or such similar group associations, but should
rather treat people as individuals and respect their individuality.
Diversity lies in our individuality and uniqueness.
R E FER E N C E S
Bunderson, C.V. 1988. The validity of the Herrmann Neethling, K. 2000. Discovering your 4 and 8 dimension
Brain Dominance Instrument. Appendix A. In Herr- brain – a workbook. Pretoria: Solutionsfinding Pty
mann, N., The creative brain. Lake Lure, NC: Brain Ltd.
Books. Ornstein, R. 1997. The right mind: making sense of the
Israel, R., Whitten, H. & Shaffran, C. 2000. Your mind hemispheres. New York: Harcourt Brace & Com-
at work. Developing self knowledge for business success. pany.
London: Kogan Page. Shephard, P. 2002. Leading diverse and multi-cultural
37
Leonard, D. & Straus, S. 1997. Putting your com- teams: the whole brain way. Brain Dominance Tech-
pany’s whole brain to work. Harvard Business nologies Malaysia: Sendirian Berhad.
Review, July–August.
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University of Georgia, College of Education. 2014. E. Zimmerman, K. 2013. LiveScience contributor. Avail-
Paul Torrance. Available at: http://www.coe.uga. able at: http://www.livescience.com/21478-what-
edu/directory/units/torrance-center (accessed in is-culture-definition-of-culture.html (accessed in
July 2014). August 2013).
Van Heerden, E. 2011. Presentation to the training
group in student mentorship, Tshwane University
of Technology, Pretoria, unpublished.
AD DI T I O N A L R E A DI N G
Moir, A. & Moir, B. 1998. Why men don’t iron. New York: Harper Collins.
38
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SLIDES
5 Overcoming the
challenges of conflict
management,
problem solving and
decision making
ME LI S S A BRO K E N S H A
THE C HAPT E R AT A G LA N C E O U T CO MES

5.1 Conflict management After working through this chapter, you should
5.1.1 Understanding conflict n be able to define conflict and identify some of the
5.1.2 Identifying the stages of conflict most common issues that lead to conflict
development n be able to identify and discuss the development
5.1.3 Conflict management styles phases and various types of conflict
5.1.4 Gathering tools to manage conflict n be able to critically evaluate your own conflict man-
5.2 Problem solving and decision making agement style
5.2.1 Recognising the problem n be able to demonstrate the ability to use conflict
management tools
5.2.2 Defining the problem
n be able to identify and define problems in various
5.2.3 Generating possibilities
areas of your life
5.2.4 Decision making
n be able to gather and interpret information
5.2.5 Implementation
n understand the way you perceive a problem
5.2.6 Quick tips
n be able to generate various possibilities in solving the
5.3 Conclusion problem
References n be able to make informed decisions
Additional reading n be able to put your plan into action.
5.1 CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

5.1.1 Understanding conflict
Among the many challenges that you will face on your journey, not only as a student, but
through life, are the numerous occasions that conflict will come to visit you. We are in constant
interaction with people and as long as we are establishing or maintaining relationships, we will 39
sooner or later have to deal with conflict.
You probably have negative associations with the word conflict. Perhaps some of the words
that come to mind when you think about conflict are arguing, fighting, lawyers, tears, raised voices,
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swearing, war, difference of ideas, low self-esteem, insecurity, no compromise, irritation, emotional tur-
moil, dislike, inconvenience, disruption, avoidance and loss.
The reason why we often associate negative words with conflict is because we do not always
feel comfortable after being involved in a situation where conflict has taken place. However,
conflict in itself is not bad. In fact, conflict simply stems from differing viewpoints.
The reason why we do not feel comfortable is not because conflict is bad, but because we
do not know how to manage it.
Think of what we discussed in Chapter 4 regarding differences in thinking and approach. Since
no two people view the world exactly the same way, disagreement is quite normal. In fact,
anyone who agrees with you all of the time is probably telling you what you want to hear, not
what he or she actually believes.
Conflict can have both a positive and a negative impact on us:
• It can destroy our sense of self, our confidence and self-value.
• It can hurt those who are very dear to us and damage friendships, work relationships and
partnerships.
• It can bring forth our most vulnerable moments, leading to states of fear and anxiety.
• It can encourage growth and understanding, allowing us to become aware of our opinions,
beliefs and values.
• It allows us to question where we got these values and beliefs and why and how we use
them, how they might be different from others, when they work for us and when they do
not.
• It can open up other ways of seeing our world, introducing us to different ways of inter-
preting our experiences.
• It can encourage us to be empathetic, giving us the opportunity to see the world through
someone else’s eyes.
• It can facilitate healthy competition, resulting in increased productivity, the improvement of
the individual, the company, or even the world.
• It has the potential to intensify our experiences, as aptly put in the saying the sweet isn’t as
sweet without the sour.
Conflict is when two or more values, perspectives and opinions are contradictory in
nature and have not been aligned, or no compromise has been reached yet.
It is the emotional aspects of conflict that may give it its negative connotations. However, con-
flict is itself not necessarily a bad thing. It is when we do not manage it well that we give it
the power to cause harm. Conflict is caused when there is a strong disagreement between two
or more individuals, usually in relation to interests or ideas that are personally meaningful to
either one or all of them. Conflict does not only take place between individuals; it also takes
place within us, when it is often referred to as inner conflict.
40
Possible issues that invite conflict into our relationships with friends, as mentioned in Du
Plooy-Cilliers and Olivier (2000), are the following:
• Power (e.g. inequality, marginalisation)
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OVERCOMING THE CHALLENGES OF CONFLICT MANAGEMENT, PROBLEM SOLVING AND DECISION MAKING
5
• Social issues (e.g. politics, personal values)

• Personal flaws (e.g. drinking, smoking, manner of driving)
• Distrust (e.g. previous relationships, lying)
• Violating a friendship rule (e.g. not keeping a secret)
• Sharing activities (e.g. disagreeing about which party or nightclub to go to)
• Sharing space and possessions (e.g. disagreeing about whose turn it is to buy bread, or using
the other person’s things)
• Personal ideas (e.g. debating religion)
• Rival relationships (e.g. your friend spends more time with his new girlfriend)
• Annoying behaviours (e.g. your friend talks to you while her mouth is full of food)
Do you have mismanaged conflict in your life? Conflict is a problem when it

• hampers productivity
• lowers morale
• causes more and continued conflicts
• causes inappropriate behaviours.
Conflict is unavoidable. However, if we learn how to manage it in a positive way, it can have
more benefits than disadvantages. How we manage interpersonal conflict deeply affects our
relationships. If such conflict is approached constructively, the relationship is likely to grow
rather than deteriorate.
5.1.2 Identifying the stages of conflict development

Conflict is not something that suddenly happens to people or relationships. It is a process that
develops over time. We can identify various stages within this process:
•
Potential conflict refers to a situation where different preferences are forced to share the
same space. For example, your roommate does not keep the place as tidy as you would
keep it. You are an extremely neat and organised person who has a specific place for every-
thing. Your roommate, however, is a messy person and does not put things back where they
belong, or puts things in a different place. There is potential for conflict to enter this relation-
ship, as the two of you are different in this regard.
•
Conscious conflict occurs when you become aware of these differences and realise that a
disagreement could take place. For example, you realise that you get angry and frustrated
with your roommate when you cannot find something that is not in its place.
•
Experienced conflict happens when you start to feel and experience the effect that these
differences are starting to have. You experience tension or an uncomfortable atmosphere.
Perhaps you make subtle remarks to your roommate or avoid conversations, or even avoid
being at home.
•
Visible conflict happens when the actual conflict takes place. It is at this stage that you may
try to resolve the conflict by arguing about or discussing the situation. Sometimes it can even
lead to a physical fight. It is during this stage that you have a choice as to how you would 41
like to handle the conflict and which management style you would like to use. For example,
you might sit down and explain to your roommate how you like to put things away where
they belong, that it irritates you when he does not put things away and that together you
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would like to resolve this issue; or, you could scream and shout and attack your roommate,
calling him a dirty slob.
• The conflict route depends on how you handle the conflict. If you use good management
skills, both parties involved are usually left with a positive experience and future areas of
conflict will be handled with ease. However, if you did not manage the situation well, it will
more than likely be difficult to handle future conflicts.
Conflict route
Conflict management will
determine future of relationship
Visible conflict
Full-blown conflict
Experienced conflict
Conflict waiting to happen;
tension building
Conscious conflict
One/both parties become
aware of potential for conflict
Potential conflict
Potential for conflict to exist
Figure 5.1 Stages of conflict development
5.1.3 Conflict management styles
Knowing your own style and motives as well as the style and motives of the person you
are in conflict with will help you handle the situation more effectively.
If you have a look at your family members and friends, you will notice that they handle conflict
in different ways. The reason for this depends on many things, including our culture, person-
ality, upbringing and experience. Everyone uses a variety of styles in conflict situations. It is
important to identify your own conflict management style so that you can have a better under-
standing of other people’s styles and how to interact with them, especially the more negative
ones.
There are two key factors to consider when resolving conflict: first, willingness to be
cooperative, and second, assertiveness. You need to be open to helping others get what they
want, at the same time as you try to get what you want.
Everyone uses five styles, to some degree, when dealing with conflict. These are discussed
below.
42
Avoiding
When we avoid a conflict, we often withdraw and detach ourselves from the issue. We are
not willing to assert our own wants, nor do we want to help others get what they want. For
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example, you are unhappy with the way a certain friend behaves in your circle of friends.
Others in the group are also unhappy with the behaviour. When you hear them discussing
what to do about it, you tend to look the other way, or mind your own business. You do not
help in getting what you want, nor do you help them (by giving suggestions) to get what they
want. When we engage in avoidance it weakens relationships.
An “avoider” hopes the problem will go away. Usually it does not!
Accommodating
When you accommodate others in order to avoid conflict, you will do whatever you can to help
the other person get what he or she wants, often to your own detriment. You find yourself giv-
ing in to demands, even unreasonable ones, to avoid disagreement. For example, you are busy
working on an assignment with a group of friends. You realise that one person is not doing his
part and you choose to do his work rather than suggest that he complete it. Perhaps you like
action movies, but your friend or partner likes comedies. To avoid a conflict you always give in
and end up seeing a comedy and never an action movie. Many people prefer to give in rather
than assert themselves. They are very quick to give the other person what he or she wants, but
do not get what they need in return. Why do we do this? Sometimes we like being a martyr,
sometimes we are scared, sometimes we are seeking appreciation. This approach often gener-
ates no creative solutions and usually the accommodator remains unhappy.
Often an accommodating person remains unhappy.
Competing
When you compete to be “right”, your primary interest is in resolving the conflict your way.
You have no interest in helping others to get what they want. You defend your position and
have difficulty understanding why others do not see things your way. For example, two room-
mates received their electricity bill, which was almost double its usual amount. One of them
wanted to come up with ways to reduce their electricity consumption and suggested that they
switch off lights that were not being used at night, such as the bathroom light when it was
unoccupied. The other roommate said that the lights had a minuscule effect on the bill and that
he was not prepared to make the effort. He believed that he was right and refused to carry on
with the discussion.
Those who compete often take advantage of those who accommodate others. This approach
often stops all constructive thinking, is unfair and produces lasting hostility.
A competitive person wants to get his way, no matter what the cost.
Compromising
When you compromise in order to resolve a conflict, you are willing to “give and take” with 43
others. Both parties may be satisfied or dissatisfied with the outcome. Compromise is frequent-
ly used because it is quick and both parties “win” a little. On the other hand, of course, you
both also “lose” a little. For example, you are doing a group marketing assignment with the
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marketing department of a company. Your group and the department agree on the logo for
the sales initiative, but disagree on the colour. So you both give up your first choices and select
a third colour that you both marginally agree upon. Sometimes this approach can be a gentle
way of trying to win more ground in the argument or discussion.
Compromise is often used to get past the issue and move on.
Collaborating
When you use collaboration, you all have the same goal: to achieve the best result and
maximise everyone’s satisfaction by working together creatively. The outcome is often one
that neither person expected prior to the collaboration. The goal here is to meet as many cur-
rent needs as possible by using mutual resources. For example, you only have one computer
at home that the whole family uses. You and your brother are constantly fighting over it. You
struggle to come to a compromise, each believing that the other always gets more time. You
sit down together and look at ways to resolve this issue. You could allocate time slots, but you
know that this has not worked well in the past. Your brother recalls that there is a special run-
ning at the store on notebooks, and you remember that you can buy second-hand computers
online. You then realise that together you can afford to buy another computer.
Collaboration is about trying to achieve a resolution that meets each person’s needs as much as
possible. This is called a win-win system.
A collaborative approach sometimes raises new mutual needs.
Below are some of the reasons we use different styles:
Avoid Accommodate Compete Compromise Collaborate

We often avoid We accommodate We compete We comprom- We use collab-
when we do when we want when we ise when nei- oration when
not want to get others to like us strongly believe ther side is pre- we want every-
involved or or we like things in our ideas or pared to give one involved
we decide that to run smoothly, have a strong in completely, to feel “owner-
the problem is or we feel as if we conviction or sometimes ship” for and
not worth the do not have the about our pos- when we are in commitment to
effort. right to remind ition. a hurry. the outcome.
others of their
responsibilities.
It takes more skill, effort and commitment – and at least in the short run, more stress – to face a
dispute with the other person. Sometimes it seems as if it would be easier to fight, withdraw or
give in. Yet in the long run, working through difficulties together will help us live a less stress-
ful and more fulfilling life.
44 5.1.4 Gathering tools to manage conflict
If the only tool you have is a hammer, you will treat everything like a nail.
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We are often too quick to assume that a disagreement has no possible mutually acceptable
solution. Talking about disagreements may result in opportunities to strengthen relationships
and improve productivity. Obviously it is not always easy to talk these problems through.
Confronting an issue may require
• exposing ourselves to ridicule or rejection
• recognising that we may have contributed to the problem
• a willingness to change.
”Win-win” negotiation or collaboration is a complex process for resolving conflict, and a way
of settling a dispute fairly. It is not about getting the best deal for me; it is about finding the best
solution for us. The conflict could involve a partner, children, a parent, a friend, a colleague, a
lecturer, a boss, or almost anyone. Collaboration involves respectfully discussing the situation
with the other person as equals, in order to understand his or her situation and interests. It is
about gathering information from the other person, suspending your judgement, and under-
standing his or her viewpoints and needs. It involves understanding your own viewpoints
and needs. Conflict management is about identifying differences and similarities within these
needs. It is about finding optimal, creative and desired solutions for all involved, the “us”.
Tool 1: Start with the right attitude

Being in conflict does not necessarily mean being angry with each other. It can present an
opportunity to show your wisdom, to create a better situation and to help both of you be win-
ners. Having a negative, distrustful attitude is detrimental to this process; believing you must
“win” the argument or otherwise you lose face is a bad attitude; feeling superior or being stub-
born, or feeling inferior and being a “softie” both create problems. Start by seeing the person
you enter the conflict with as a decent, reasonable person who wants to arrive at a fair solution
(until proven otherwise). Bring respect with you to the conversation.
Tool 2: Understand both sides’ problems, conflicts, needs and preferred outcomes
The most important thing you can do at this stage is to listen to the other person. Everyone
needs to feel heard before they will listen. Find out what they want. Get all the information the
other person has to offer. Ask for any additional information you feel you need. Do not try to
offer solutions at this point. First just listen to their side, gather all the information and start to
try and understand their point of view. “Seek first to understand, then to be understood” was
introduced by Steven Covey (1989) in The seven habits of highly effective people. If we encourage
others to explain their side first, they will be more likely to listen to ours.
Example 5.1: The Covey principle at work

I really could not afford my rent going up by the usual 10 per cent, so I decided to ask
my landlord if he could raise the rent by 5 per cent instead. When I initially asked him
he was less than enthusiastic about my idea. It was clear from his words and tone that
I would not be getting the 5 per cent, so I switched my focus to listening. The landlord
shared concerns on a number of troublesome issues, cost of living, other personal
issues, and we parted in a friendly way. A few days later, my landlord called and said
45
that even though times were tough for him, he realised that they may be tough on me
too. To my surprise, he responded by saying the rent will be raised by 7 per cent.
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Problems are likely to increase, however, if we put all our needs aside to focus on another per-
son’s perspective. The other party may think we have no needs and be quite taken aback when
we introduce them all of a sudden. To avoid such unproductive surprises, it is helpful to say
something along these lines: “I see that we look at this issue from different perspectives. While
I want to share my needs and views with you later, let me first focus on your thoughts, needs, and
observations.” At this point, we can now put our needs aside and attempt to truly listen, saying,
“So, help me understand what your concerns are ...”
That is the easy part. The difficulty lies in resisting the tendency to interrupt with objections
no matter how unfounded some of the comments may be. Instead of telling someone that we
understand (just so he or she will finish and give us a turn to present our perspective), we can
be much more effective by revealing exactly what it is that we understand. All along, as we listen,
we must resist the temptation to bring up our viewpoints and concerns. In trying to compre-
hend, we may need to put our understanding in terms of a question, or a tentative statement.
This way we show true awareness.
We may have to refine our statement until the other person approves it as a correct under-
standing of his position or need. It is necessary not only to understand, but for the other person
to feel understood. Only now can we begin to explain our perspective and expect to be fully
heard. Once we have laid out our concerns, we can focus on a creative solution.
“May I tell you my perspective?” This sets the other person up to give you permission to state
your view.
Go slowly in order to go fast.
Once you have heard the other person’s story, in a non-judgemental and respectful way, you
can then tell your story. It is important to use “I” statements and avoid “you” statements. For
example, “I get really angry and feel disrespected when you arrive late for an appointment”, as
opposed to “You have no respect for other people and are always late for appointments”.
Special attention must be given to the causes of the conflict, as seen by both people. List the
things each of you do that have not helped to resolve the conflict. Consider what you have
both already attempted to do in order to resolve the conflict. At the end of this discussion, both
people should understand the exact nature of the disagreements. Be sure you do much more
listening than defending or “explaining”. Do not, at this point, disagree with the other person’s
ideas and certainly do not attack or insult him or her. Listen carefully, and especially listen
for points of agreement and for similar goals. It is these agreements that will form the basis for a
cooperative plan.
Recognise that there are probably many possible solutions that would meet both your “interests”
and those of the other person. Talk about your shared interests. This helps you to avoid think-
ing that you will accept only one solution. Also, avoid feeling competitive and that you must
come out on top or get some concession to save face. All of this takes time.
When describing your hopes for the future, do not just express the benefits you want; describe
the benefits you hope the other person receives too.
Tool 3: Brainstorming several options and plans to satisfy shared interests

Drawing upon the things you both agree on, and upon your shared goals and interests, draft
some plans for change and for greater cooperation which will maximise the desired outcome
46 for both of you. Have several plans or ideas (to demonstrate your flexibility).
One party may simply ask the other to join in a rational, adult effort to resolve a difficulty
between them. They are respectful of each other as equals; both contribute to the solution.
There is no force, no threats, no crying or whining or other pressure to get one’s way, just logic,
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respect and consideration of each other. Both accept in advance that the final “solution” must
be suitable to both. No one is put down; everyone wins as much as possible.
If the problem involves a relationship, think about the changes desired by both of you. Also, try
to describe the behaviour you want very specifically. Avoid vague comments. For example, do
not say, “I want to be heard”. Instead, say, “I want to have at least 30 minutes together every
night so we can share our days. If we do that, then I think we will understand more about each
other’s daily lives and not put too much pressure on the other, which you and I both want”.
The idea is to invite the other party to contribute his or her ideas and cooperation in planning a
better future. So, do not throw in insults and criticism like “you are so uncommunicative”.
If you are negotiating for a promotion or trying to sell an idea, obviously you must amass all
the evidence supporting your points. For the promotion, list all of the strengths you bring to
the company, what extra responsibilities you will shoulder, how your salary can be increased
in line with your productivity, how much support you have from colleagues, etc. Put together
your best arguments and present them well. Do not just assume the decision makers will “con-
sider your achievements”, even if you say nothing.
If you cannot think of good solutions to the conflict, try brainstorming with friends, colleagues,
or with the person with whom you are in conflict. Both of you are looking for ways you both
can win. Do some reading. Try to be creative.
Tool 4: Both present plans for resolving the conflict

Do not present your ideas as the “ideal solution”. Try to integrate the best of both plans. Wel-
come different or better ideas. Make it obvious that you have considered the other person’s
needs and preferences. Word your ideas or proposals so they seem well justified and are easy
to agree with, for example: “If I check with you first and then make all the arrangements,
wouldn’t you like to take one night off each week so we can have some fun time together?”
Rather than, “It’s so boring around here, can’t we do something?” Another example: “We are
overdrawn again this month. Can we cut down on your beer and my junk food, or is there
something else you would rather cut?” Rather than, “Do you realise you drink R50 to R100 a
week in alcohol?”
It may be wise to present your two best alternatives and then ask the other person which one
he or she likes best or if he or she can see ways to improve on your proposals. This shows
your flexibility. If the other person seems unhappy with your suggestions, ask: “What would
you do in my shoes?” or “What don’t you like about my suggestion?” These kinds of discus-
sions may disclose the other person’s interests and motives, which can perhaps be integrated.
For example, “I know you don’t always like going out with my friends, but perhaps you can
choose two of my friends that you are okay to hang out with or perhaps we can go out together
with my friends once a month and I’ll go out alone with them the rest of the time? What do you
think of these options? Or is there another option where you would feel more comfortable?”
It is often to your advantage to consider what your alternatives are if you do not get your
“interests” met through this negotiation process. If you have other acceptable options (besides
the one for which you are negotiating), this will give you some security and some power,
because you can always walk away from unproductive negotiations. Also – not always, but
sometimes – you might be wise to reveal to the other person that you have other choices. For
example: “My father wants me to take over his kitchen installation business, but I’d rather
work with you.” (Do not lie: the employer may just wish you luck in installation work!) If you 47
have no good alternative (like another job opportunity), present your best case, appeal to the
other person’s sense of fairness, and use the opinion of others or factual information to support
your proposals.
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It is often in the trying that we find solace, not in getting the best solution.
Normally, the other person will have his own plan or will make a counter-proposal. Do not
immediately attack the plan. Instead, earnestly ask “why” and “how” these changes will help
him or her and you (you are looking for a mutually beneficial solution); this discussion will
uncover the other party’s basic “interests”. Give him or her support and encouragement when
he or she proposes solutions that address your shared interests. Then the best of both plans can
be integrated, the remaining disagreements can be discussed and compromises sought.
Every relationship has conflicts. However, conflicts do not have to end with someone los-
ing and with both parties hating each other. Many do end this way. That is why we have so
many wars, political fights, divorces, lawsuits, business break-ups, and time- and money-wast-
ing arguments. Wise people are able to resolve disagreements with both parties satisfied and
respecting each other. It takes real skill.
5.2 PROBLEM SOLVING AND DECISION MAKING

Every day of our lives we are faced with having to make some kind of decision. These deci-
sions include small, insignificant matters such as what to eat for breakfast, and important,
life-changing decisions such as what career to follow. The question is: are you a good deci-
sion maker? Decision making and problem solving are skills that can be learned by anybody.
Although some people may find them easier than others, everyone applies a similar process.
Wise decisions may or may not follow societal norms and expectations. However, they
are right for you if they are based on what you know at that point in time about yourself
and your options.
Wise decisions are decisions that are made using a specific process. They are based on the val-
ues and perception of the decision maker and include carefully considered alternatives and
options along with periodic reassessments of the decision and its effects.
5.2.1 Recognising the problem
Try substituting the word “problem” with the word “opportunity”.
The first step is to decide if there is indeed a problem – and perhaps the first question to ask
yourself is exactly this: is there a problem? There is no need to worry about something that may
never happen. People often waste a lot of time and energy on worrying about something that is
not happening to them, or that may never happen to them. Another question you can ask your-
self is: am I exaggerating or minimising the problem? If in doubt, ask someone else. If there are
likely to be serious difficulties, then ask yourself: are there solutions to this problem? Do I have
time to do something about the problem? In short, is it a manageable, solvable problem?
48
There are two sides to recognising the problem:
1. Some people refuse to acknowledge that they are facing a problem or have a decision to
make, and therefore never make decisions or solve problems. They just sail past them as if
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they do not exist. What they do not realise is that their lives could be far more meaningful
and rich if they at least recognised there was an issue. As soon as you acknowledge some-
thing, you have a choice of what to do about it.
2. Some people search continuously for problems, and even create problems for themselves.
Owning problems that are not yours takes away from your enjoyment of life.
It is important to find a balance between these two poles on the continuum.
5.2.2 Defining the problem

This is often where people struggle. These questions will help you to define a problem better.
Ask for input from others as well:
• What can you see that causes you to think there is a problem?
• Where is it happening? In which areas of your life? In which relationships?
• How is it happening?
• When is it happening?
• With whom is it happening? (Do not jump to who is causing the problem.)
• Why is it happening?
• Give the problem a name. For example, the problem involves your feeling demotivated,
tired, unenthusiastic, unable to study, unable to concentrate and you are not sleeping well.
You could name this problem “the dark cloud”, and then ask the questions using this name:
when does the dark cloud visit me, or enter my life?
At this stage it is also important to understand your role in the problem. How have you con-
tributed to its existence and how do you engage or react to it?
5.2.3 Generating possibilities

A common difficulty at this stage is the defeatist notion: “I can’t find any good solutions, noth-
ing will work”. The idea is to create as many approaches as possible without being concerned
as to whether they will work, or be approved or criticised:
• Brainstorm and write down as many different alternatives as you can imagine. Let your
imagination run free and try not to censor anything. It could be crucial to involve other
people who notice the problem and who are affected by it. Write down what your opinions
are and what you have heard from others. This is not the time to be judgemental: just write
them down as you hear them.
• Think where you could find more information about possible alternatives. Additional infor-
mation usually leads to more alternatives. Places where you can look for the information
you need include friends, family, co-workers, professional organisations, online services,
newspapers, magazines, books, and so on.
• Avoid thinking in terms of either / or. For example: either I go to university or I don’t; either
I get married or I don’t; either I buy a car or I travel, and so on. In reality, there are always
alternatives: studying part-time; postponing marriage or living together or dating for a
while; buying a cheap car and taking a shorter trip, and so on.
5.2.4 Decision making 49
Never regret a decision. It was the right thing to do at that time.
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Sort through and carefully consider each of your alternatives. There are two aspects to consid-
er. Firstly, the facts about each choice, and secondly, how you feel about the future implied by
each choice.
5.2.4.1 The facts

There are always logical, rational arguments for and against each choice:
• You must seek out facts (technical data and personal experiences) from many sources,
including people who have similar problems, insightful persons and others.
• You should consider your assets and resources (and limitations and disadvantages) that
could be used to overcome the problem and the opposing forces.
• You must decide if a certain course of action is in keeping with or in conflict with your val-
ues. For example, how would you feel making good money by selling a shoddy product? Is
sex early in a relationship against your morals?
It is important to write down all the facts for and against, as well as your clear, predictable,
emotional reactions to each alternative.
5.2.4.2 The emotions

Your decision cannot be based just on facts; you must also consider your subjective, intuitive or
“gut feeling” reactions. Do this by thinking hard about each choice:
• Daydream about the likely outcome for each alternative – how does each possible future feel
to you? Some will feel “right” and others “wrong”, some exciting and some scary.
• Ask yourself: what is the best that could happen if I make this choice? What is the worst
that could happen? Are there ways to improve the “wrong” alternatives or to overcome the
fears? For example, many people considering medicine or psychology say, “I couldn’t stand
to see people bleed or die” or “I would get too emotionally involved in the patient’s prob-
lems” and decide against a profession that might be an excellent choice for them. What if
you could find ways of handling the disadvantages of a certain choice?
• Guard against making impulsive decisions. Give yourself time to thoroughly imagine what
each choice would be like – how satisfying, how boring, how irritating, how comfortable,
how ashamed or proud you would be, and so on.
• Use your intuition. No matter how logical a choice may seem to be, you may not be able to
live with it. Millions of people have said to themselves, “I know he is a nice guy, but I just
don’t want to live with him for the rest of my life” or “I know accounting is a good career,
but I couldn’t be happy doing that all day every day”. Your feelings, needs and wants must
be given serious attention too. Know yourself, and do not deny your feelings.
5.2.4.3 Common decision-making mistakes

We get into trouble when we fail to realise that many of the perceptions we hold are based on
what society (parents, teachers, the church, institutions, etc.) teaches us, and not on what we
actually know to be true of our experience.
Below is a list of the most common decision-making mistakes. By learning about these pitfalls
50
now, you will be able to avoid them in the future (Woman’s Business Centre, 2001):
•
Relying too much on “expert” information. Often, people have a tendency to place too
much emphasis on what “experts” say. Remember, experts are only human and have their
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own set of biases and prejudices just like the rest of us. By seeking input from a lot of differ-
ent sources, you will get much better information than you would if you focused all of your
energy on only one source.
•
Overestimating the value of information received from others. People have a tendency to
overestimate the value of certain individuals in our society and underestimate the value of
others. For instance, experts, authority figures, parents, high-status groups and people we
respect have a way of swaying our opinion, based simply on the fact that we believe they
know more than we do. When you find yourself doing this, ask yourself: do they know as
much about this problem as I do? Are their values the same as mine? Have they had any
personal experiences with a problem like mine? In other words, keep their opinions in per-
spective.
•
Underestimating the value of information received from others. Whether we realise it
or not, we also have a tendency to discount information we receive from individuals such
as children, low-status groups, women, the elderly, labourers, artists, and so on. This is
unfortunate, since often these groups can paint a good picture of the “other side” of our
problem. In other words, these groups may use entirely different values and perceptions in
their answers to our questions. The result is a “bigger picture” perspective of what the issues
really are. Remember: if you find yourself rejecting the information you receive from any-
one, make sure you ask yourself why.
•
Only hearing what you want to hear or seeing what you want to see. Try this exercise: ask
a friend to look around and make a note of everything that is green. Now, have your friend
close his eyes and tell you what around him is red. Almost everyone you ask will not be able
to tell you what was red because they were focusing on what was green. Our perceptions
work the same way. If we have expectations or biases that we are not aware of, we tend to
see what we want to see. Likewise, if someone tries to tell us something we do not want to
hear, we simply do not hear them. This is a common mistake. The key is to be aware of your
own prejudices and expectations, while at the same time staying open to everything that
comes your way.
•
Not listening to your feelings or gut reactions. Have you ever made a decision only to
have it followed by a major stomach ache or headache? This is your body talking to you. In
moments when we need to make a decision, our bodies provide clues to the answer through
feelings or “gut reactions”. Unfortunately, our society teaches us to ignore these feelings. But
by tuning into your intuition, you will find that you will make much better decisions in the
long run.
5.2.5 Implementation
Now it is time to get started. Once you have made your decision, get moving on it. Worrying
or second-guessing yourself will only cause you grief. You have done your very best for the
present. You always have the option of changing your mind in the future. Remember, no deci-
sion is set in stone.
It is important to monitor the process. Be sure to review your decision at specified points along
the way. A good question to ask yourself is: how will I know if the problem has been solved?
You need to write down what the indicators will be. Other questions you can ask yourself are
the following:
51
• Are the outcomes what you expected?
• Are you happy with the outcomes?
• Do you want to let the decision stand, or would you like to make some adjustments?
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• If the decision did not come out the way you planned, go through the complete deci-
sion-making process again. In the process, answer the following questions: did I not have
enough information? What values actually came into play? Were they my values or someone
else’s? Remember, you can always change your mind!
5.2.6 Quick tips

• Do not make decisions that are not yours to make.
• When making a decision, you are simply choosing from among alternatives. You are not
making a choice between right and wrong.
• Avoid impulsive decisions.
• Choosing the right alternative at the wrong time is not any better than the wrong alternative
at the right time, so make the decision while you still have time.
• Do your decision making on paper. Make notes and keep your ideas visible so you can con-
sider all the relevant information in making this decision.
• Be sure to choose based on what is right, not who is right.
• Write down the advantages and disadvantages of a decision. It clarifies your thinking and
makes for a better decision.
• Make decisions as you go along. Do not let them accumulate. A backlog of many little deci-
sions could be harder to deal with than one big and complex decision.
• Consider those affected by your decision.
• Recognise that you cannot know with 100 per cent certainty that your decision is correct
because the actions to implement it are to take place in the future. So make it and do not
worry about it.
• Remember that not making a decision is a decision not to take action.
• Trust yourself to make a decision and then to be able to deal with the consequences appro-
priately.
• Do not waste your time making decisions that do not have to be made.
• Before implementing what appears to be the best choice, assess the risk by asking: what can I
think of that might go wrong with this alternative?
• As part of your decision-making process, always consider how the decision is to be imple-
mented.
• Once the decision has been made, do not look back. Be aware of how it is currently affecting
you and focus on your next move. Never regret a decision. It was the right thing to do at the
time. Now focus on what is right at this time.
• Brainstorming alternative solutions with others will give you fresh ideas.
• Discontinue prolonged deliberation about your decision. Make it and carry it through.
• Once you have made the decision and have started what you are going to do, put the “what
ifs” aside and do it with commitment.
(Liraz Publishing, 2003)
52 5.3 CONCLUSION
In conclusion it is important to realise and accept that differences of opinion, feelings or experi-
ence will always occur. But it is critical to know that with a little bit of effort one can often
avoid such differences escalating into or becoming a harmful conflict.
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R E FER E N C E S
Covey, S.R. 1989. The seven habits of highly effective McNamara, C. 1999. Basics of conflict management.
people. London: Simon & Schuster. Available at: http://www.managementhelp.org/
Du Plooy-Cilliers, F. & Olivier, M. 2000. Let’s talk intrpsnl/basics.htm (accessed on 6 May 2004).
about interpersonal communication. Johannesburg: Woman’s Business Centre. 2001. Are you a good deci-
Heinemann. sion maker? Available at: onlinewbc.gov/docs/
Liraz Publishing Co. 2003. Decision making tips. Avail- manage/decisions.html (accessed on 6 May 2004).
able at: http://www.liraz.com/tdecision.htm
(accessed on 6 May 2004).
Isenhart, M.W. 2000. Collaborative approaches to resolv- Levine, S. 1998. Getting to resolution: turning conflict
ing conflict. California: Sage. into collaboration. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.
Borisoff, D. 1989. Conflict management: a communica- Kolt, R. 1992. Managing interpersonal conflict. Califor-
tion skills approach. Boston: Prentice-Hall. nia: Sage.
Crawley, J. 1992. Constructive conflict management:
managing to make a difference. London: Nicholas
Brealey.
53
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Section 3
Enjoying
the journey
SLIDES
6 Your best travel

????
companion – you!
????
HE N RY M AS O N
T HI S C HAPT ER AT A G LA N C E L EARNI NG O U T CO MES

6.1 Introduction After working through this chapter, you should
6.2 Success n be able to explain and define the terms success,
6.3 Self-esteem happiness, self-esteem, optimism, emotional intelli-
6.4 Completing the success puzzle: optimism, gence and self-efficacy
emotional intelligence and self-efficacy n be able to apply strategies to enhance and facilitate
6.4.1 Optimism the development of success, happiness, self-esteem,
6.4.2 Emotional intelligence optimism, emotional intelligence and self-efficacy
6.4.3 Self-efficacy n be able to develop awareness about the fundamen-
6.5 Conclusion tal objectives of your life
References n know how to enhance self-respect.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Thousands of people have been interviewed worldwide and asked the same question: what is
the fundamental objective of your life (Kashdan, 2009)? The response of up to 90 per cent of people
has been: “To be happy!” (Johnson, 2010).
We can define happiness as a general sense of satisfaction with life and experiencing more posi-
tive than negative emotions (Lyubomirsky, 2008). However, happiness does not imply the
absence of negative emotions. It means that we acknowledge and deal with negative emotions
while embracing an attitude of excitement about our lives.
As the human species, we all want to feel enthusiastic about our lives; we want to know that
our lives have been destined for a specific purpose. In essence, we want realise our fullest
potential and become everything that we are capable of becoming (Tracy & Tracy-Stein, 2012).
Psychologists have been attempting to help people reach this seemingly elusive goal for quite
56 some time.
In the 1980s, psychologists unearthed what they thought to be the foremost discovery of the
time: self-esteem. Nathaniel Branden, one of the leading figures in the self-esteem movement,
stated that he could not “... think of a single psychological problem – from anxiety to depres-
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YOUR BEST TRAVEL COMPANION – YOU!
6
sion, to fear of intimacy or of success ... that {was} not traceable to the problem of low self-es-
teem” (1984: 12). Moreover, the development of self-esteem was regarded as the universal rem-
edy that would reduce stress levels, as well as raise society’s levels of happiness and enhance
success in life.
Self-esteem was subsequently welcomed into mainstream society and became a popular topic
for self-help books. The concept even inspired the music industry, with artists such as Lady
Gaga reminding fans that “You’re a superstar no matter who you are or where you come from
– and you were born that way!”
While the aim of the self-esteem movement may have been to enhance people’s perceptions of
themselves, it also brought about an unintended consequence: society realised that too many
people were unhappy and not feeling successful. Hence, the logical conclusion was that too
many people were suffering from low self-esteem. The solution: boost people’s self-esteem and
they would become happy and successful.
However, recent research has suggested that most people actually do score towards the high end
on self-esteem measures (Baumeister, Campbell, Krueger & Vohs, 2003). A study of 844 South
African university students conducted by Mason (2012) also found that the majority of partici-
pants reported high to very high levels of self-esteem. However, Mason (2012) also reported that
the majority of participants experienced relatively high levels of stress. The concept of stress
can be defined as the body’s reactions to any demands made upon it. Demands refer to aspects
such as exams, arguments with meaningful others and even positive experiences such as fall-
ing in love. Subsequently, we can conclude that most people do in fact have relatively high lev-
els of self-esteem, but they also tend to experience high levels of stress. So, why is this the case?
The answer is, similar to human nature, rather complex. Self-esteem appears to have two major
positive effects, namely to enhance (1) initiative, and (2) positive emotions. Both of these effects
can encourage personal growth, strengthen coping, enhance life satisfaction, and serve as
psychological protective factors against stress. However, stress can never be fully eliminated
from life (Kashdan, 2009). Hence, self-esteem appears to be important and it can potentially
enhance happiness and success in life. But, human beings are intricately complex and to try
and explain their behaviour by means of just one concept, in this case self-esteem, seems naïve
(Baumeister et al., 2003).
It seems more likely that self-esteem is but one of a number of psychological factors that work
synergistically to enhance both happiness and success in life, and protect people against stress
(Tracy & Tracy-Stein, 2012). Thus, self-esteem ought to be regarded, in conjunction with other
equally important psychological factors, as a possible avenue towards the happy life – even
though the happy life does not imply a stress-free life.
As humans we should develop skills to deal effectively with stress. These skills include, but are
not limited to, self-esteem (Branden, 1984), optimism (Seligman, 2002), emotional intelligence
(Goleman, 1995) and self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997).
The happy
Self-esteem + Optimism + Emotional
intelligence + Self-efficacy = and
successful
life
57
Figure 6.1 Psychological factors that synergistically promote life success and protect
against stress
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SECTION 3 ENJOYING THE JOURNEY
The purpose of this chapter is to introduce the aforementioned concepts as a means of empow-
ering you to pave the way towards a happy and successful life. More specifically, the aim is
to support you to develop the skills, knowledge and abilities to enhance your success in life
through studying the concepts, and applying the strategies, related to self-esteem, optimism,
emotional intelligence and self-efficacy. By focusing on developing your innate skills and
thereby contributing to society, happiness and success will ensue and, hopefully, perceptions
of stress will diminish in comparison (Frankl, 2008).
6.2 SUCCESS
How do you define success? Use the space provided below to define what you understand
success to mean.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Earl Nightingale, a world-renowned author and speaker, defined success as the progressive
realisation of a worthy goal or ideal (Proctor, 2003). What this definition communicates to us is
that we should not necessarily aim at success. We should rather focus on dedicating our time
(see Chapter 2) and energy on the pursuit of worthy goals (see Chapter 1) – success flows from
effectively achieving important goals (Tracy, 2007).
Furthermore, we should set goals that are worthy of us, i.e. goals that are worthy of our time
and attention. Moreover, success is not just about achieving our goals; it is about the people we
become, the values that we realise, the lessons that we learn, the friendships formed (see Chap-
ter 7), and the life skills developed while engaged in the process of pursuing our goals.
Subsequently, success is not something that we can directly attain. It can only be achieved by
focusing on something else; and that something else refers to meaningful and worthy goals. If
you have not done so yet, return to Chapter 1 of this book and set goals for yourself in terms
of your physical, emotional, mental and personal life. Then, come back to this chapter and con-
tinue your studies.
6.3 SELF-ESTEEM
How do you see yourself? Use Figure 6.2 to reflect, by noting down ideas, about the kind of
person that you currently are (section A) and the person that you want to be (section B).
Sec t
ion A Sec t
ion B
58
Figure 6.2 Your view of the self
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Self-esteem is defined as the value that people place on themselves (Baumeister et al., 2003).
High (positive) self-esteem therefore refers to a favourable evaluation of the self. In contrast,
negative self-esteem describes an unfavourable evaluation of the self.
We can also distinguish between current and ideal self-esteem. The concept, current self-esteem,
refers to the value that people place on the way that they currently evaluate themselves.
In section A of Figure 6.2, you reflected on your current self-esteem. How would you clas-
sify your current self-esteem? Positive? Negative? Use the space below to reflect on your
thoughts.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
A person’s ideal self-esteem refers to what they want to be. In other words, it reflects their pre-
ferred reality; a world where they may, for example, be practising their favourite sport, occu-
pation or even already have attained their university degree. Essentially, the ideal self-esteem
points to things, experiences, feelings and thoughts that make people happy – remember, hap-
piness is the ultimate success currency in life (Johnson, 2010).
In section B of Figure 6.2, you reflected on your ideal self-esteem. Use the space provided
below and note down what the key differences are between your current and ideal self-es-
teem.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
The way people move from their current to the ideal self-esteem is by setting and then progres-
sively realising worthwhile goals. In addition, research has shown that certain practices could
enhance self-esteem (Tracy & Tracy-Stein, 2012). Make use of the following practices to move
from section A to section B as they relate to your life:
•
Acceptance. One of the most powerful ways to enhance self-esteem is by accepting reality
for what it is. That does not mean one needs to become a passive victim of circumstances.
To the contrary, it means that if, for example, a person has a negative self-esteem it would be
beneficial to accept it, rather than denying the obvious truth. Only when accepting the truth,
can one begin to set goals to change the situation.
•
Achievement. Researchers have found that students who perform well academically tend 59
to develop higher self-esteem (Baumeister et al., 2003). However, when students attend pro-
grammes to enhance their self-esteem in isolation, academic performance declines. Thus,
self-esteem development should be based on reality and actual accomplishments; not on
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heaps of unwarranted praise (Baumeister et al., 2003). Self-esteem can subsequently be

developed by setting and pursuing academic goals (chapters 12, 13 and 14 will assist you
with developing positive learning and study habits).
•
Practice self-management. The law of control states that people feel good about themselves
relative to the degree of their sense of control over their lives (Tracy, 2007). In other words,
people who feel in control of their lives, tend also to feel good about themselves. One way to
enhance a sense of control is to practice daily self-management. Develop a strategic plan that
outlines what is most important to you in life, for example determine what the values are
that you believe in; then base your life on the realisation of those values.
•
Journaling. The act of keeping and writing in a journal allows one to reflect on daily experi-
ences. Over time it then becomes possible to identify themes, ideas and typical reactions to
experiences. This will enhance self-knowledge, which has been shown to increase self-es-
teem (Lyubomirsky, 2008).
•
Foster healthy interpersonal relationships. The capacity to build and maintain meaningful
interpersonal relationships, such as special friendships, is one of the most important factors
that can enhance self-esteem (Johnson, 2010). So, treasure your friendships – Chapter 7 will
provide more information on how to establish interpersonal relationships.
6.4 COMPLETING THE SUCCESS PUZZLE: OPTIMISM, EMOTIONAL

1.INTELLIGENCE AND SELF-EFFICACY
Bob Proctor introduced the notion that success in life can be described as a puzzle (Proctor,
2003). This metaphor implies that we require diverse pieces, or perspectives, to achieve suc-
cess in life. In the context of this chapter, these pieces are optimism, emotional intelligence and
self-efficacy.
6.4.1 Optimism
Do the following experiment:
• Fill a glass with water up to its halfway mark.
• Look at the glass of water.
• Without thinking about it, respond to the following question: “Is the glass half-full or
half-empty?”
Use the space to write down your answer to the above and reflect on what you think it
means.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
60 If you answered half-full, you are most likely an optimist. However, if you answered half-empty,
you are probably more pessimistically inclined.
Martin Seligman (2002) defines optimism as the tendency to be hopeful and confident about
oneself and the future. People can be regarded as optimistic when they describe problems
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in their lives as temporary, specific and external (Seligman, 2007). In other words, optimists
believe that negative experiences are brief (temporary – this too shall pass), will not affect all
aspects of their lives (specific to a situation) and do not occur because of personal shortcomings
or flaws (external factors and not internal flaws).
The term pessimist refers to people who are more inclined to expect that the worst will come
to pass (Seligman, 2002). People are pessimistic when they believe that negative experiences
are permanent (the experience will be long lasting), pervasive (will infiltrate every aspect of
their lives) and internal (negative things happen because the person believes that he or she is
a flawed human being). Compared to the pessimistic style, an optimistic perspective is asso-
ciated with higher levels of self-esteem, motivation and happiness, and a lower incidence of
stress-related illnesses and conditions (Seligman, 2007).
6.4.1.1 Learned optimism

Optimism can be learned (Seligman, 2002). Consider the scenario below:
Peter is an 18-year-old first-year university student. His girlfriend, Zena, has been study-
ing abroad for the last four months. She is returning to South Africa today and Peter
knows that her flight is arriving at 15:00. Peter is anxiously awaiting Zena’s phone call to
tell him that she is finally home.
At 17:00, Peter has not yet received a phone call from Zena. He is becoming worried. Peter
thinks to himself that she must not love him anymore. For if she did, she would have
called him already. Peter feels depressed and angry. He thinks to himself: “How can Zena
do this to me?”
In this scenario, it is obvious that Peter is rather pessimistic in his interpretation of the event.
What we know is that optimists tend to be happier and more successful. Peter decides to use
the ABCDE learned optimism strategy to change his perspective. The first thing he does is to
consider how he feels – this is called the consequence (the C):
C – I (Peter) feel very sad. It feels as if Zena does not love me anymore. She must have for-
gotten about me when she was abroad.
Next, Peter considers the event that caused him to feel this way. This is referred to as the acti-
vating event (the A):
A – Zena was supposed to arrive at 15:00. She said that she would phone me when she
arrived at the airport.
Human beings attach meaning to events due to their beliefs (the B). Peter will now consider
what he believes to be the truth about the activating event (the A):
B – Zena does not love me anymore because she did not phone me.
Peter can now begin to understand why he feels sad: Zena was supposed to call him upon her
arrival at the airport; she has not called him yet; and Peter has interpreted that as a sign that 61
Zena does not love him anymore. As you may guess, at this point Peter is beginning to doubt
whether his beliefs (the B) about the event are correct. That leads to the next step: challenging,
or disputing (the D), his beliefs:
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D – Peter realises that Zena may not have called because her flight may have been
delayed, i.e. she might only be arriving later. Peter also realises that Zena sent him daily
SMSs while she was abroad. He thinks to himself: “Nobody would contact someone else
that often if they did not love and care about the other person.”
Peter now realises that he may have interpreted the event wrongly. He suddenly feels less pes-
simistic and more optimistic. In other words, the exercise had a positive effect (the E) on him:
E – Peter makes the following decision: “I will not doubt Zena’s love for me anymore. I
will wait for her phone call. I am sure that she will phone when she arrives at the airport.
In the mean time I will start cooking dinner for her.”
The ABCDE strategy can have a positive impact in a person’s life (Seligman, 2002). Numerous
research studies have indicated that it can enhance people’s sense of empowerment, happiness
and creativity (Seligman, 2007).
Think about a negative experience in your life. Describe how this experience makes you
feel. This is the consequence (C).
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Explain what the activating event (A) was, i.e. what caused you to feel that way.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
One of the most fundamental discoveries of modern psychology is that human beings can
make choices (Frankl, 2008). In other words, humans can choose how they interpret events.
Describe how you interpreted the activating event (A), i.e. what your beliefs (B) about it
were / are. (Tip: Are your beliefs temporary / permanent, specific / pervasive, or external / inter-
nal?)
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
62
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____________________________________________________________________________________
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6
This is where the magic of this process happens. You can now make use of the uniquely human
ability to challenge your beliefs. Remember, beliefs are ideas about we think the truth is. How-
ever, sometimes we create negative or limiting beliefs that hold us back (Kashdan, 2009).
Challenge, or rather dispute (D), those negative or limiting beliefs by answering the follow-
ing two questions: (1) How do you know that your interpretation is correct? What evidence
do you have? (2) Are there any other possible explanations for what happened?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
The last step in the process is referred to as the effect (E). In other words, what effect did
challenging your thoughts have on you? Did it allow you to identify possible ways of deal-
ing with the negative experience? Were you able to develop a plan of action?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
6.4.2 Emotional intelligence

Emotional intelligence refers to the capacity to reflect and not just react (Goleman, 1995). It is
one of the most important skills that humans have to acquire in modern times. When a per-
son practises emotional intelligence, relationships improve. Essentially, emotional intelligence
encompasses the uniquely human capacity to think about emotions (Goleman, 1995).
While all emotions are valid and may be felt, one should take care to express feelings in a con-
structive and positive way. One of the steps toward becoming emotionally intelligent, is to
understand what emotions are and how they develop.
6.4.2.1 Emotions explained

Emotions are physiological reactions that people experience. Botes (1995) explains that emo-
tions are different from thoughts. More specifically, emotions are caused by thoughts, and
thoughts are related to how people interpret situations. Thus, a person interprets a situation,
develops a thought, and this creates an emotion. Because emotions are energy in motion, they
serve as the fuel for action (Botes, 1995).
By taking responsibility for one’s thoughts, it becomes possible to manage emotions as well as
control behaviour. This is not necessarily an easy task. It requires one to take responsibility for
oneself and to live with integrity. There are definite benefits to being emotionally intelligent. 63
Botes (1995) points out that emotionally intelligent students
• have greater levels of self-confidence
• think, feel and act in positive and accepting ways
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• are able to recognise, understand and verbalise feelings

• can replace negative and self-destructive thinking patterns with more positive, constructive
patterns
• are flexible enough to regard stressors as challenges that they can overcome to become
stronger people.
6.4.2.2 A self-reflection emotional intelligence exercise

Emotional intelligence is not like a switch that can be turned on and off. Rather, it requires
patience, discipline and practice to become emotionally intelligent. One way to achieve this is
through self-reflection. The act of self-reflection allows one to view experiences, interactions,
and thoughts and feelings from different perspectives. Answer the following questions as part
of a self-reflective exercise:
Describe a recent event where you experienced strong emotions. How did you behave?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
How did the situation turn out? What happened?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
What could you have done differently to act in an emotionally intelligent way?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
What will you do next time when you encounter a similar situation?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
64
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
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6
6.4.3 Self-efficacy
Henry Ford is often quoted as saying that “whether you believe you can or you can’t, you are
right”.
What does this quote mean for you?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
One interpretation of the quote is that when people have clarity about what they want to
achieve in life and are willing to pay the price for their success, they are more likely to achieve
their goals. However, if people believe that they are not capable of achieving a certain goal,
they will search for reasons, excuses or even blame others for their lack of success.
Research conducted by Albert Bandura (1997) gave empirical credence to Henry Ford’s ideas.
Among others, Bandura found that when people have confidence in their abilities to complete
certain tasks that they are more likely to be successful, especially when compared to those
who have lower levels of confidence in their own abilities. Bandura (1997) refers to the concept
self-efficacy to clarify his explanation.
Self-efficacy is defined as the belief in one’s ability to complete a certain task or achieve a specific
goal (Bandura, 1997). Self-efficacy plays an important role in enhancing self-esteem. It is one
of the best predictors of authentic positive self-esteem (Bandura, 1997; Baumeister et al., 2003).
An authentic self-esteem refers to a strong sense of internal belief, confidence and trust in one’s
personal worth.
People with strong self-efficacy tend to exhibit the following characteristics:
• They regard stressors as challenges.
• They tend to be committed to their goals.
• They recover quickly from setbacks by regarding such experiences as opportunities to learn
and grow.
6.4.3.1 Strategies to improve self-efficacy

The following strategies can enhance self-efficacy:
• Practising mental imagery / visualisation and rehearsal skills (e.g. imagining yourself sitting
in the exam hall with answers freely flowing into your mind and acing that difficult exam)
• Setting specific goals and regularly monitoring progress towards their achievement 65
• Identifying role models (e.g. people who are personally known or perhaps celebrity icons)
and emulating their most enduring qualities. A wonderful way to learn from legends of the
past is to read and study their autobiographies.
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Exercise 6.1
The following self-study activities are meant to supplement the aforementioned sec-
tions. The activities are focused on enhancing self-knowledge, understanding and
insight. Select the ones that appear most interesting to you, or do all of them.
1. Visit the following website: http://www.youtube.com. Use the SEARCH function and
type in the following keywords: earl nightingale AND strangest secret. You should
now have the option to select any of a number of clips. These clips will share Earl
Nightingale’s message of success. Watch one, or all, of the clips and make notes for
yourself. It is a powerful message, so you may want to view it a number of times.
2. One way to enhance the quantity of positive emotions, i.e. happiness, is by counting
blessings (Lyubomirsky, 2008). Every evening for the next month, use your diary and
write down three positive experiences, meaningful interactions, uplifting emotions or
blessings that you experienced during the day.
3. If you want to build on the aforementioned exercise, visit the following website:
http://www.positivityratio.com and create a free account. Read what the author
says and then begin to track your positive emotions over the course of the next
month. People often experience the act of focusing on positivity as very uplifting and
life enhancing.
4. Indicate whether the following statements are TRUE or FALSE (answers are given at
the end of the chapter):
(a) Self-esteem is the ultimate success currency in life.
(b) Success is about earning lots of money.
(c) Self-efficacy predicts self-esteem.
(d) Emotional intelligence is about suppressing emotions.
(e) Most people in the world want to experience happiness.
5. Develop a lesson plan to teach this chapter to a group of 20 first-year students.
Focus on the following:
(a) What would the outcome (goal) of the lesson be? What would the students
have to know and be able to do after the lesson?
(b) Define the main concepts.
(c) Use creative exercises to teach the aforementioned concepts.
(d) Devise a 30-mark test that you would use to assess the students’ knowledge.
6.5 CONCLUSION
Steve Maroboli, an American behavioural scientist, has been quoted as saying: “You were put
on this earth to achieve your greatest self, to live out your purpose, and to do it fearlessly”.
The aim of this chapter was to raise your awareness about possible avenues that could enable
you to become your greatest self. There are, unfortunately, no quick fixes. Rather, it is important
to understand that realising your fullest potential is a lifelong journey. Study this chapter again
and again. Reflect on the meanings embedded in every sentence. And, even more importantly,
66 practise and apply the skills in the face of life’s stressors. While the journey to success may be
long and hard, remember that it is also filled with scenic views and moments that will take
your breath away. More than that though, it is a journey that you will walk with the best and
most special travel companion that you will ever get the chance of knowing –YOU!
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6
R E FER E N C E S
Bandura, A. 1997. Self-efficacy: the exercise of control. Mason, H.D. 2012. Emotional intelligence profiles for
New York: Freeman. first year university students. Paper presented at
Baumeister, R.F., Campbell, J.D., Krueger, J.E. & the 33rd annual conference of the Southern African
Vohs, K.D. 2003. Does high self-esteem cause bet- Association for Counselling and Development in
ter performance, interpersonal success, happiness, Higher Education, Bloemfontein, Free State, South
or healthier lifestyles? Psychological Science in the Africa, September.
Public Interest, 4(1): 1–44. Proctor, B. 2003. The success puzzle workbook. Phoenix,
Botes, M. 1995. Mind synergy. Unpublished study AZ: Life Success Productions.
guide, Tshwane University of Technology, Pre- Seligman, M.E.P. 2002. Authentic happiness. New
toria, South Africa. York: Free Press.
Branden, N. 1984. In defense of self. Association for Seligman, M.E.P. 2007. What you can change and
Humanistic Psychology, August–September: 12–13. what you can’t. The complete guide to successful
Frankl, V.E. 2008. Man’s search for meaning. London: self-improvement. New York: Vintage Books
Rider. Tracy, B. 2007. Eat that frog: 21 great ways to stop pro-
Goleman, D. 1995. Emotional intelligence. New York: crastinating and get more done in less time. San Fran-
Bantam Books. cisco, CA: Berett-Koehler.
Johnson, B. 2010. Philosopher’s notes. Volume 1. Foun- Tracy, B. & Tracy-Stein, C. 2012. Kiss that frog: 12 great
tain Valley, CA: en*theos Enterprises. ways to turn negatives into positives in your life and
Kashdan, T. 2009. Curious? The missing ingredient to a work. San Francisco, CA: Berett-Koehler.
fulfilling life. New York: HarperCollins.
Lyubomirsky, S. 2008. The how of happiness. A scientific
approach to getting the life you want. New York: The
Penguin Press.
Answers to question 4 of Exercise 6.1

(a) False
(b) False
(c) True
(d) False
(e) True
67
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SLIDES
7 Travel companions:
interpersonal
relationships
that work
LYN E TTE VE RM AAS
T HE C H A P TER AT A G LA N C E
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Why are relations with others important?
7.5.2 Emotional needs
7.3 Common interpersonal problems and
essential skills 7.5.3 Communication in relationships
7.3.1 Fear of approaching someone 7.6 Traits of a mature, self-actualising person
7.3.2 The first few minutes 7.7 Conclusion
7.3.3 How do I start a conversation? References
7.3.4 Being a “people addict” Additional reading
7.3.5 Fear of self-disclosure
7.3.6 Hunches O U T CO MES
7.3.7 Empathy After working through this chapter, you should
7.4 Types of interpersonal relationships n understand the importance and relevance of
7.5 Building and maintaining healthy inter- interpersonal relationships
personal relationships n be able to take practical steps to build and main-
7.5.1 Personality types and traits tain healthy interpersonal relationships.
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The importance of developing and maintaining healthy interpersonal relationships cannot be
emphasised enough as these relationships (i.e. with friends, roommates, classmates, family
members, etc.) play a significant role in defining who we are.
An interpersonal relationship can be described as an association between two or more people
that may range in duration from brief to enduring. This association may be based on inference,
love, solidarity, regular business interactions or any other type of social commitment. Inter-
personal relationships are usually formed in the context of social, cultural or other influences,
which can vary from family, friendship, marriage or relations with associates, clubs or neigh-
bourhoods. These relationships may be regulated by law, custom or mutual agreement and are
the basis of social groups and society as a whole.
Interpersonal relationships are dynamic systems that change continuously during their exist-
68 ence – they normally have a beginning, a lifespan and an end. They tend to grow and improve
gradually, as people get to know each other and become closer emotionally, or they gradual-
ly deteriorate as people drift apart, move on with their lives or form new relationships with
others.
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TRAVEL COMPANIONS: INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS THAT WORK
7
The natural development of an interpersonal relationship generally follows five stages (adapt-
ed and adopted from George Levinger’s ABCDE model of interpersonal relationships, in Nevid
& Rathus, 2005):
1.
Attraction / acquaintance. The attraction stage usually begins at the first sight of someone.
You may be attracted to another’s appearance, dress or body language in a face-to-face
encounter, or by the stories a friend regales you with. With the advent of cyber dating, you
may be attracted to another because of similar interests, life philosophies, personality, or a
photograph or webcam. Becoming acquainted depends on previous relationships, physical
proximity, first impressions and a variety of other factors. If two people begin to like each
other, continued interactions may lead to the next stage.
2.
Build-up. The building stage is where a potential couple (or friends) find common ground
in personality, attitude and interests, or anything with which to continue a conversation in
the hopes of building a foundation for a relationship. The building stage is that in which
relationships are ended before they are even begun because of an inability to find common
ground. During this stage, people begin to trust and care about each other. The need for
intimacy, compatibility, similarity in background or goals, etc. will determine whether or
not interaction will continue.
3.
Continuation. After two people pass the building stage and have determined the relation-
ship is worth pursuing, they enter the continuation stage, in which they put forth the effort
to enhance the positive factors of the relationship. An example of this would be demonstra-
tions of affection, commitment, lack of jealousy, equality in the relationship and mutual
satisfaction. During this phase, “I” is usually replaced by “we”. This stage is characterised
by a mutual commitment to a long-term friendship, romantic relationship or marriage,
and it is usually a long, relatively stable period characterised by growth and development.
Mutual trust is very important for maintaining relationships in this stage.
4.
Deterioration. Not all relationships deteriorate but those that do, tend to show signs of
trouble (i.e. resentment may occur or the individuals may communicate less and avoid
self-disclosure). Deterioration is when one or both parties no longer desire to remain in the
relationship, feel the relationship has declined past the point of saving, or feel the cost is
greater than the reward. This stage is often characterised by loss of trust or betrayal. Main-
taining good interpersonal communication skills, resolving conflicts in an affable manner
or seeking professional help and guidance can prevent or stop the deterioration of the rela-
tionship, thus confirming that this stage, as well as the next stage, is completely avoidable.
5.
Ending / termination. The ending stage is when the deterioration stage has not been
stopped due to a passive response by one or both parties (sitting back and waiting for the
issues to resolve themselves) or an active response that failed to reignite the relationship.
This stage marks the end of the relationship, either by death or separation. Although this
stage can be extremely painful for all parties involved, it is not necessarily a bad thing,
because it allows both parties to grow, mature, and maybe learn from past mistakes. It also
gives each party a fresh start and the chance to seek happiness elsewhere, perhaps with
someone more compatible or with someone with more commonalities.
An understanding of oneself (i.e. Who am I? What are my needs and expectations, goals, hopes
and dreams? etc.) not only aids self-acceptance, but also good relationships. Self-understand-
ing however only comes from interacting with others; we know ourselves in relation to others.
So, the two – self-awareness and insight into relationships – develop together. Indeed, we have 69
a relationship with ourselves as well as with others. Jo Coudert (2003) observes: “Of all the
people you will know in a lifetime, you are the only one you will never lose”. This relationship
with the “me” is therefore crucial; the better we know ourselves, the better we know others,
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since our perception of our own self provides us with our primary means of understanding all
other humans.
7.2 WHY ARE RELATIONS WITH OTHERS IMPORTANT?

The relationships that we establish and maintain with others are important because they help
build our emotions and social interactions. Our behavior, goals and attitudes are influenced by
our interpersonal relationships. We understand ourselves by comparing ourselves to others.
For example, we know how attractive or how irritable we are by noting how good-looking
or grumpy others are. This is especially true when we are afraid or upset, as we tend to then
experience a strong need to compare notes with others, preferably others in a similar situation,
i.e. “misery loves company”.
We overcome loneliness, which can be excruciating, by being with others. Humans are “social
animals” and much of our joy and wellbeing comes from interactions with others. Friendship
and love are both very important, no one would deny that. Why then, is it that so many rela-
tionships are unhappy? Before we look at some of the reasons and explanations for failing rela-
tionships, let us have a look at some of the characteristics of a happy, fulfilling interpersonal
relationship.
A healthy relationship is characterised by the following:

• Respect
• Loyalty
• Trust
• Empathy
• Open, honest communication
• Effective conflict management
• Emotional reciprocation
• Positive reassurance
• Defined boundaries
• Reasonable expectations or demands of each other
• Concern about the other party’s wellbeing
• Freedom for both parties to be themselves
That sounds pretty easy, but is it? In the next section, we will explore some of the factors that
interfere with, and some essential skills for building and maintaining, healthy interpersonal
relationships.
7.3 COMMON INTERPERSONAL PROBLEMS AND ESSENTIAL SKILLS

Each relationship is different and unique, and all relationships change over time as the people
within the relationship grow and develop.
The following factors tend to interfere with healthy relationships:
70 • We often underestimate the changes we need to make, but push hard for other people to
change.
• Not liking / accepting ourselves is usually associated with not liking / accepting other
people.
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7
• Shyness inhibits closeness and intimacy with others.

• Playing deceptive, self-serving “games” will drive others away (e.g. being hostile towards
others or insulting them, expressing self-hatred or self-criticism, and exaggerating one’s
assets or someone else’s faults to boost one’s own ego).
Some relationships may contain unhealthy characteristics, such as the following:

•
Dependency. One person may expect his or her partner to fulfill all his or her needs.
•
Jealousy. This is often the result of emotional insecurity. One person usually demands com-
plete devotion.
•
Control. This is the need of one or both individuals to dominate the other person and / or
the relationship.
•
Selfishness. This involves taking care of one’s own comfort, pleasure or interest without
regard for others.
•
Abuse. This may involve emotional and / or physical mistreatment.
The following are some common signs and symptoms that indicate problems in a relationship:
•
Insufficient / poor communication: failure to communicate with one another as well as fail-
ure to use effective talking and listening skills
•
Unresolved conflicts: usually the result of poor communication
•
Insufficient time spent together: the amount or quality of time spent together is insufficient
to support feelings of closeness and connection between individuals
•
Emotional and / or physical abuse: always a sure sign of a serious problem within a relation-
ship
Other problems associated with making and keeping friends are discussed below.
7.3.1 Fear of approaching someone

Most of us are a little uncomfortable meeting new people. Many of us are lonely, but still we
do not reach out. We may even suspect that others are lonely too, but we do not approach
them, or if we do reach out, we take out “rejection insurance”, i.e. we avoid getting emotionally
involved with someone. This type of behaviour can best be described as a defence mechanism
to protect ourselves from getting hurt. But: how important and necessary is it to protect our-
selves?
A disadvantage with “holding back” is that we might miss an opportunity to develop a rela-
tionship. We do not approach someone or we pretend not to care. True, this will prevent one
from getting hurt, but this decision may result in our staying lonely and without a friend or
partner. Why is it so scary to approach someone? Is it just the fear of rejection? Probably not.
Suppose the person you approach tells you that he or she appreciates your interest, but he or
she is involved in another relationship. Would you feel terribly hurt? You will probably be
disappointed. Even if he or she is less gentle and says, “I don’t want to go out with you”, you
should know he or she doesn’t know you well enough to judge your total worth and attractiveness.
So: the perceived “rejection” should be seen for what it is: a perception that should not be taken
personally. Would the person you approach feel badly? No, he or she will probably feel a nice 71
warm glow inside because your interest will be seen and perceived as a compliment.
So: if rejection should not hurt us, why are we afraid? The following three anticipated emotion-
al reactions might explain the fear many of us have with regard to approaching someone:
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1. When we disclose that we are looking for / need a friend or partner, we are admitting we
do not have one, which is embarrassing and makes us feel vulnerable.
2. Being turned down by a stranger may not mean much, but it arouses our self-doubts and
self-criticism.
3. We may become angry about being turned down, thinking or saying something mean like,
“He or she is so stuck up!”
Unpleasant reactions inside us may stop our reaching out, even though we are aching for
friendship.
Understanding these sources of stress may help you counter and overcome them. Accept
your needs, desensitise your fears, practise your social skills and put an end to the conscious
self-putdowns.
7.3.2 The first few minutes

You commonly have about four minutes to impress someone you are meeting for the first time.
Your actions determine, in part, if you make a friend or merely pass some time with a stranger.
This can cause extreme anxiety.
7.3.3 How do I start a conversation?

Many of us fear not knowing what to say after the first few minutes. Conversing is a skill;
it takes practice and planning. Unfortunately, many young people resist “preparing” to meet
someone – they want to be spontaneous or free flowing. However, for most of us, conversing
takes work.
The major problem seems to be fear of silence. When there is a pause in the conversation, we
start to panic. If we blush or break out in a sweat, it adds to the embarrassment (and enhances
When you speak our fear of silence). How can we reduce the fear? We can prepare.
to people ... smile.
It is a wonderful There are two options when talking:
thing when you see
someone and they
just instinctively Continue on the same topic OR Change it
smile and say “I
am so pleased to
know you”. There is
power in a smile. It A good conversationalist is able to ask questions and may be able to share his or her own ideas
is one of the best and experiences. Practise both, pursue the “finer points” of any topic, ask personal questions
relaxation exercises and tell your own stories. When a topic is exhausted, do not panic – almost any topic will do.
of which I know. Practise having a topic or two ready for instant use. Continuing a conversation is usually a
Henry Miller compliment – you are offering your interest and time. Lastly, practise ending conversations
tactfully: indicate you must do something else, give the person a genuine compliment, and
suggest a specific time to see him or her again.
7.3.4 Being a “people addict”

Some people are literally addicted to being with other people. They may feel lost, lonely,
uncomfortable, afraid, and / or bored when alone. So it is understandable why these people
72 spend most of their time socialising or talking on the phone or planning some social activ-
ity. The problem is that we all need to do some things alone: study, read, keep up with cur-
rent events, plan our future, etc. If we can get good at doing some things alone, we will enjoy
the silence and comfort of being alone. If we have a constant desire to be with someone, it is
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7
important to understand why. Perhaps we irrationally believe that we must be having “fun” all
the time or that everyone must like us?
7.3.5 Fear of self-disclosure

Self-disclosure is a reflection of a healthy personality. It deepens relationships. Showing your
true feelings, your real self, is a part of intimacy. Of course, self-disclosure can be excessive
or premature (e.g. “I thought of killing myself last week” or “I really like the shape of your
butt”) and that might scare off a new friend. Furthermore, we all have thoughts that are best
left unsaid. However, a more common problem is when we assume others will be unimpressed
or will not like us as we really are and thus we think that we need to pretend to be something
we are not. We pretend in order to impress someone or to hide our shame. A better approach is
honesty. Not everyone will like us if we are honest, but those that do will at least like our real
selves, not our phony selves.
Not only is self-disclosure mentally healthy, but “opening up” to others is good for your physical
health too. Holding back your thoughts and emotions may cause physical harm and pain. Talk-
ing about troubling thoughts relieves internal stress. Confessing your secrets to others or just
writing down your feelings, as in a diary, has been confirmed to be very beneficial.
7.3.6 Hunches
How we respond to others depends on how we perceive the situation. There is an old saying
that everyone has three characteristics:
• That which he or she has
• That which he or she thinks he or she has
• That which others think he or she has
The following therefore determine how we behave in a relationship:

• What we think of the other person and our relationship with him or her
• Our assumptions about what the other person thinks of us and our relationship
• What we think he or she thinks we think of him or her and our relationship
We often have hunches about what others think or feel, but ignore them or discount them. Per-
haps we are afraid to face the truth. Perhaps we do not think the other person will tell us the
truth. Perhaps we would rather just suspect the worst, rather than ask and have it confirmed
for sure. However, we need to know what is real in order to act rationally. We have a right to
know where the other person stands and where we stand with them; we should not make deci-
sions on the basis of guesses or gossip.
7.3.7 Empathy
No social skill is more important than empathy. Some people are seen as more accepting and
less critical or judgemental than others. Such people are called “empathic”. They are easy to
talk to and they enable us to “open up”. In order to disclose problems and feelings of which we
might be ashamed, we must feel safe – understood, liked and accepted by the person to whom
we are talking. This is true in therapy, in friendship and in love. So, if you want to get to know 73
other people, be empathic, tolerant and genuinely concerned about their welfare. If you are not
really concerned about their best interests, do not pretend to be. Being empathic – being a true
friend – is a cherished gift to offer; it is offering an open heart.
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Empathy can be described as the ability to

understand and share the feelings of another.
Empathy is most often defined by the metaphors of “standing in
someone else’s shoes” or “seeing through someone else’s eyes”.
STATEMENTS / PHRASES THAT FACILITATE EMPATHY

Responses • “I can imagine that this may feel ...”
• “I completely hear where you are coming from on this ...”
• “I hear you ...”
• “I can see that you are ...”
• “That sounds terrible / wonderful ...”
Queries • “Would you (or could you) tell me a little more about that?”
• “Is there anything else?”
• “Are you OK with that?”
Clarifications • “I don’t want us to continue until I am sure that I have got this right ...?”
• “I’m not sure I understand; am I hearing ...?”
• “Let me see if I understand this ...”
Always put yourself in the other person’s shoes. If you

feel that it hurts you, it probably hurts the person too.
7.4 TYPES OF INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS

Interpersonal relationships can be defined in terms of relational contexts of interaction as
well as the types of expectations that communications have of each other. We can distinguish
between the following types of interpersonal relationships:
•
Friendship. Friendship is an unconditional interpersonal relationship where individuals
enter into by their own will and choice. Friendship generally also is a relationship where
there are little or no formalities and individuals enjoy each other’s company. Transparency
and honesty have been described as the two most essential factors for the development and
maintenance of a stable, fulfilling friendship.
•
Family. Individuals related by blood or marriage are said to form a family. Family com-
munication patterns establish roles, identities and enable the growth of individuals.
•
Romantic / love. An interpersonal relationship characterised by passion, intimacy, trust,
commitment and respect is called love. Individuals in a romantic relationship are deeply
74 attached to each other and share a special bond.
•
Professional relationships. Individuals working together for the same organisation are
said to share a professional relationship. Individuals sharing a professional relationship
are called colleagues. Professional communication encompasses small group communica-
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7
tion and interviewing. You will, once you have completed your studies and started your
career, spend a large portion of your day at work. In today’s information and service-centred
economies, success in your career will be greatly affected by your abilities to relate to others
interpersonally.
7.5 BUILDING AND MAINTAINING HEALTHY INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS

Central to building and maintaining healthy interpersonal relationships is our interpersonal
skills. Interpersonal skills are the life skills that we use every day to communicate and interact
with other people, individually and / or in groups. People with strong interpersonal skills are
usually more successful in their professional and personal lives, and they are generally per-
ceived as optimistic, calm and confident – qualities that are appealing and endearing to others.
We have been developing our interpersonal skills since childhood, a process which usually
occurs subconsciously. Interpersonal skills become so natural that we may take them for grant-
ed, never really considering how we interact and communicate with people. With a little time
and effort, however, we can and should develop and improve these skills, as they can greatly
enhance many aspects of our lives, socially and professionally, and they lead to better interper-
sonal relationships.
Interpersonal skills are also sometimes referred to as social skills, people skills, soft skills, com-
munication skills or life skills and although these terms can all encompass interpersonal skills,
each one tends to be broader and may therefore also include other skills.
Interpersonal skills are used every day and in every area of our lives. We
can develop and improve our interpersonal skills by doing the following:
DEVELOPING AND IMPROVING INTERPERSONAL SKILLS

Task Application
Learn to listen Listening is not the same as hearing! Take time to listen carefully to
what others are saying through their verbal and non-verbal com-
munication.
Choose your words Be aware of the words you are using when talking to others in order
to minimise misunderstanding and confusion. Practise clarity and
ask for feedback to ensure that your message has been understood
correctly.
Understand why Be aware of the various communication pitfalls and barriers (i.e.
communication fails assuming that you know what someone wants to say or how they
feel) in order to prevent misunderstanding.
Relax We tend to talk fast and often less clearly when we are tense or anx-
ious. Try to stay calm, make eye contact and smile. 75
Clarify Show an interest in the person to whom you are talking. Ask ques-
tions and seek clarification on anything that could be misunderstood.
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DEVELOPING AND IMPROVING INTERPERSONAL SKILLS

Task Application
Empathise Try and see things from the other person’s perspective and under-
stand that people have different points of view (refer to the guide-
lines mentioned in section 7.3 about empathy).
Understand stress Although stress is not always bad, it can have a detrimental effect on
your communication and relationships. Learn to recognise, manage
and reduce stress in yourself and others.
Be positive Try to remain positive and cheerful – it attracts people to you.
Be assertive Express your feelings and beliefs in a way that others can under-
stand and respect.
Negotiate Learn how to effectively negotiate with others paving the way to
mutual respect, trust and lasting interpersonal relations.
Reflect and improve Learn from your mistakes and successes! Know that there is always
room for improvement, growth and development.
It has been proven that self-awareness and self-knowledge play a significant role in the build-
ing and maintaining of interpersonal relationships. For the purpose of this chapter, we will
specifically focus on awareness and knowledge with regard to who and what we are, i.e. our
personality type and traits, as well as our emotional needs.
7.5.1 Personality types and traits

Personality type refers to the psychological classification of different types of individuals. Per-
sonality traits, on the other hand, are a smaller grouping of behavioural tendencies. Types are
sometimes said to involve qualitative differences between people, whereas traits might be
construed as quantitative differences. For example, according to type theories, introverts and
extraverts are two fundamentally different categories of people, while according to trait theor-
ies, introversion and extraversion are part of a continuous dimension, with many people in the
middle. Many theories about personality, personality type and traits exist, and you are encour-
aged to do some more reading about this.
Each person is unique and much more than just his or her personality. Although people differ
(there really is no one on earth exactly alike), we do share similarities in terms of behavioural
patterns. The following four basic categories describe different temperaments that exist among us,
specifically with regard to our emotions and behaviours:
The better you know and understand yourself, the better you will
understand the person you have a relationship with.
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UNEMOTIONAL
CHOLERIC PHLEGMATIC
DRIVEN EXPRESSIVE
DOMINATING INFLUENCIAL
NOT EMOTIVELY EXPRESSIVE EMOTIVELY EXPRESSIVE
ASSERTIVE PERSON ASSERTIVE PERSON
Rationals Idealists
Fieldmarshals Teachers
Masterminds Counselors
Inventors Champions
Architects Healers
EXTROVERT
INTROVERT
MELANCHOLIC SANGUINE
ANALYTICAL AMIABLE
COMPLIANT STABLE
NOT EMOTIVELY EXPRESSIVE EMOTIVELY EXPRESSIVE
NON-ASSERTIVE PERSON NON-ASSERTIVE PERSON
Guardians Artisans
Supervisors Promoters
Inspectors Crafters
Providers Performers
Protectors Composers
EMOTIONAL
The following personality temperament test is adopted and adapted from Tim LaHaye’s book
Why you act the way you do and will give you some insight as to which of the four categories
above you might fit into. It is a very simple exercise and should take you about 30 minutes to
complete.
Personality temperament test

INSTRUCTIONS
1. There are four sections below. In each section you will find a series of descriptive
words. You have to read each word and put a number next to it according to how
well it describes the REAL you.
2. To get a more accurate assessment of your temperament, you could ask 3 or 4 77
close friends and/or family members to complete this assessment about your
temperament as well.
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IMPORTANT
It is important that you be honest and objective. Do not mark a box according to how
you want to be seen, rather mark it according to how you really are. If it is NATURALLY
who you are, then it is not something that you are “working on”, nor is it something that
requires a lot of effort in order for you to be that way. It just comes naturally. Some of
the descriptive words below are flattering and some are unflattering. Do not answer
according to how you want to be or do not want to be. BE COMPLETELY HONEST ABOUT
WHO YOU ARE RIGHT NOW AT THIS POINT IN YOUR LIFE.
SCORING CRITERIA
Score how each word best describes you:
1 = That is definitely NOT me! 2 = That is usually NOT me. 3 = That is usually me.
4 = That is mostly me. 5 = That is definitely me!
SECTION 1 SECTION 2 SECTION 3 SECTION 4

emotional optimistic critical very quiet
egotistical determined insecure selfish
interrupts others bossy depressed easily negative
compassionate goal oriented sensitive shy
impulsive decisive indecisive stingy
disorganised self-confident easily offended stubborn
lives in the present sarcastic self-centred worrier
difficulty concen- self-sufficient orderly works well under
trating pressure
forgetful outspoken pessimistic indecisive
easily discouraged leadership ability loner adaptable
easily angered headstrong faithful friend submissive to
others
very positive outgoing analytical easy going
undisciplined domineering considerate content / satisfied
extrovert adventurous suspicious patient
lively / spirited aggressive respectful dependable
weak-willed competitive introspective listener
spontaneous practical planner witty / dry humour
talkative persevering perfectionist pleasant
popular strong-willed detailed hesitant
friendly / sociable resourceful creative slow and lazy
restless unsympathetic unforgiving / resent- teases others
ful
difficulty keeping productive gifted (musically or consistent
78
resolutions athletically)
impractical persuasive moody efficient
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ANALYSIS
After you have completed all four sections, go back and cancel out each description
that you scored either a 1 or 2 by drawing a line through that number. These scores
are too low to apply to your overall scoring. Now add up all of the 3s, 4s and 5s and
write the total at the bottom of each section. The section with the highest score is your
primary temperament and the section with the second highest score is your secondary
temperament. No one is purely one temperament – we are all a blend.
What is my personality temperament?

Each section represents one of four temperaments:
SECTION 1: Sanguine temperament (fun-loving extrovert; outgoing; very social; “the life
of the party”) – EXTROVERT
SECTION 2: Choleric temperament (focused; extrovert; goal oriented; “the achiever”) –
EXTROVERT
SECTION 3: Melancholic temperament (detailed; introspective; artistic; “the naturally
gifted”) – INTROVERT
SECTION 4: Phlegmatic temperament (easy going; stable; consistent; “the loyal friend”)
– INTROVERT
What is my personality temperament “blend”?

Since everyone is a combination of the four temperaments, you need to find out what
your temperament “blend” is by assessing what your primary and secondary temper-
aments are. The section with the highest score is your primary temperament and the
section with the second highest score is your secondary temperament. Now morph
your primary and secondary together. In other words, if you scored highest in section 2
(choleric) and second highest in section 4 (phlegmatic), then your temperament blend
would be “ChlorPhleg”. If you scored highest in section 1 (sanguine) and second high-
est in section 3 (melancholy), then your temperament blend would be “SanMel”. If you
tied in any section, then see which section had the most 5s to determine which section
more accurately represents you. It is also possible to be a tri-blend temperament who
has three dominant temperaments.
What is my personality temperament profile?

Once you know your temperament blend, you can read your temperament profile to
see what some of your potential strengths and weaknesses are.
7.5.2 Emotional needs

How often do you experience a feeling of emotional discomfort? If you were to do some “stock-
taking” today, would you describe yourself as feeling happy and content? If not, do you know
the reason for your discomfort? No? Do not worry, you are not alone! Most of us often do not
feel happy or content, and because we lack understanding of the underlying reason for this dis-
comfort, we tend to choose the “easy way out”, i.e. blame our parents, friends, studies, social
life or the lack thereof, lack of money, or life in general. However, these feelings of general
unhappiness or discomfort very often are the result of unfulfilled emotional needs. 79
We often assume that other people should just know what we need (without us making them
aware) and we have an expectation that it is the responsibility of our friends / partners / family
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The implication of this empowering thought is that we have to take

responsibility for our own emotional wellbeing and by doing that, we
have to be aware of our emotional needs. Ask yourself: do I know
what I need to be OK on an emotional level?
members to meet or fulfil in these needs, when very often we ourselves do not even know what
our emotional needs are, i.e. what we need to be happy or content.
We furthermore tend to forget is that everything in life is a choice: happiness, joy, sadness, depres-
sion. Although we have no control over many of the things that happen to us (like the loss of a
loved one or being involved in a serious motor vehicle accident), we do have control over our
emotions. We can decide how we are going to deal with the loss or the accident, i.e. we can
choose to resort to the use of illegal substances to increase our coping abilities, or we can admit
that we are hurting or struggling and ask for help or seek professional support. (Also see Sec-
tion 6 (from p. 206).)
It has been proven that our emotional needs determine almost everything in our lives: the
course of study and / or career that we choose, our choice of friends, our leisure time activities,
the person we choose to spend the rest of our lives with. Can you imagine the implications of
not being aware and in touch with our emotional needs? We can so easily make misguided
decisions, and then wonder why we are struggling or feeling unhappy in specific situations.
So what exactly are emotional needs? An emotional need can be defined as a psychological
or mental requirement of intrapsychic origin that usually centres on such basic feelings as
love, fear, anger, sorrow, anxiety, frustration and depression, and involves the understanding,
empathy and support of one person for another. Such needs normally occur in everyone, but
usually increase during periods of excessive stress or physical and mental illness and during
various stages of life, such as infancy, early childhood and old age. If these needs are not rou-
tinely met by appropriate, socially accepted means, they can precipitate psychopathologic con-
ditions, or result in dysfunctional behaviour patterns, as per the illustration below.
Behave badly Pretend that we Believe there must

because we are don’t have any be something wrong
determined to get our needs with us if we need
needs met – NOW other people
“I want attention and “Don’t try to offer “I’m always making

you are going to me comfort, I can mistakes and getting
give it to me!” cope on my own.” things wrong.”
Three unhelpful ways to behave when we want our needs met
80 If our emotional needs are met, we feel good; if they are not met, we feel bad. Each of us has
different relational needs in different order of preference.
Below are a few key emotional needs that most of us require to be met if we are to feel good.
Please note that each word will mean something slightly different to different people.
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ACCEPTANCE AFFECTION
SUPPORT RESPECT
ATTENTION
COMFORT
SECURITY
APPRECIATION
RECOGNITION
LOVE ENCOURAGEMENT APPROVAL
The following exercise will assist you with finding out what your primary emotional needs are.
Exercise 7.1: Finding out what your primary emotional needs

are
• Choose your top three needs from the list given above. Then guess what the top three
emotional needs of someone close to you (i.e. a friend or family member) might be.
• Ask the other person to do the same, i.e. list his or her top three needs and guess
what yours might be.
• Compare the results. If you correctly guessed two out of the top three emotional
needs of the other person, you are really doing well as most of us only manage to
guess one correctly.
• Once you have identified each other’s needs, you need to express exactly how you
would want your needs to be met, i.e. if you need affection, do you want it to be
expressed by means of words or touch?
Our emotional needs within any relationship must be met: if these needs are not met in a
healthy manner, it could result in a fractured relationship. Relational needs that are not met
tend to lead to feelings of stress, anxiety, anger, hurt, unhappiness or insecurity, while rela-
tionships that are characterised by a mutual commitment to ensure that the individuals’ con-
cerned emotional needs are met, generally reflect feelings of contentment, security, confidence
and happiness.
Relationship problems are a common result of unmet emotional needs: if you are not aware of
and in touch with your own needs as well as those of your friend or partner, the relationship
will suffer; it might become a superficial relationship characterised by communication difficul-
ties, lack of intimacy and conflict.
Still struggling to identify your emotional needs? The following example serves as an illus-
tration of how an emotional need could develop, i.e. it shows where an emotional need might
come from and how we might become aware of it. Our childhood, i.e. the way we were brought up,
has been proven to be the single most significant factor that determines our emotional needs.
Being aware of and taking responsibility for our emotional needs becomes even more import-
ant when we have decisions to make (like whether or not to marry someone) and makes
important decisions much easier.
A common mistake that all of us tend to make from time to time is this: we confuse our needs 81
with our wants. A “need” is something we have to have, something we cannot do without. We
have physical needs and emotional needs. An example of a physical need is food. If we do not
eat, we will not survive for long.
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“Wants” include everything else we might like to have, but we do not need to survive, for
example designer clothes or expensive, imported perfume.
It can be hard to tell the difference between wants and needs, and sometimes we fool ourselves
into thinking a want is a need. Do a bit of “stocktaking” from time to time. Take a moment to
reflect on your emotional needs: are you aware of what you need to be “OK” on an emotional
level? Are you “in sync” with your needs and are you able to communicate this to the import-
ant people in your life? Are you sure you are not confusing your “needs” with your “wants”?
7.5.3 Communication in relationships

Constructive communication is the foundation of all healthy interpersonal relationships. It is
a tool that enables us to get to know and understand each another, and can be described as a
process by which a message is conveyed from one person to another. It generally is seen as a
two-way process of reaching mutual understanding, in which participants not only exchange
(encode–decode) information, news, ideas and feelings, but also create and share meaning.
Communication therefore can be seen as a means of connecting people or places. (Read more
about this at http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/communication.html#ixzz2bkl
HLpia)
There are two types of communication, namely verbal and non-verbal. Verbal communication
(words) constitutes approximately 40 per cent of the communication process. It is a small but
important part of the process and one therefore has to ensure that it is effectively used. About
60 per cent of the message in the process of communication is conveyed by means of non-ver-
bal factors, i.e. not what is being said, but how the sender / speaker comes across when saying it.
Agreement between your verbal and non-verbal communication is essential. Mixed messages,
for example when you say that you are feeling happy but your tone of voice or facial expres-
sion indicates otherwise, confuse people and lead to misunderstandings. People generally tend
to believe the non-verbal message.
It is important to ensure that your message is conveyed properly and correctly. The following
should guide and assist you in improving your communication skills.
Communication skills
Use the following tips and hints to improve your verbal communication skills in your
relationships:
• Adapt your style of speech by taking into account to whom you are speaking.
• Be sure of exactly what it is that you want to say and convey your message clearly.
• Give the other person enough time to respond to what you are saying.
• If you want to discuss a personal issue, seek out an appropriate time and place to do so.
• Be careful not to let your emotions or a quick temper get the better of you.
Communication barriers
The following communication styles are seen as communication barriers and should be
82 avoided as far as possible:
• Ordering, commanding
• Warning, threatening
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• Preaching, moralising
• Offering solutions, advising
• Lecturing, teaching, arguing
• Judging, criticising, blaming
• Name-calling, stereotyping, labeling
• Analysing, interpreting
• Withdrawing, being sarcastic
It has also been said that every good conversation starts with good listening. Remember: com-
munication is a skill and practice makes perfect!
7.6 TRAITS OF A MATURE, SELF-ACTUALISING PERSON

If you don’t know what healthy adjustment is, how can you ever get there? Part of the process
of getting to know ourselves, establishing our own identity, developing insight in our behav-
ior, realizing our dreams and hopes for the future and establishing happy, healthy interper-
sonal relationships, include an awareness of the ultimate goal we should strive for, namely to
be a mature, self-actualising person. Self-actualisation generally includes being knowledgeable,
emotionally aware, self-directed and at peace with the world.
7.7 CONCLUSION
In conclusion it is important that we understand that it requires effort for relationships to work.
We also understand that in order to live a healthy and well-adjusted life we need to be in rela-
tionship with others. And finally we understand that we need to understand ourselves and
nurture and appreciate ourselves before we can do so for others.
R E FER E N CE S
Collins English dictionary – complete and unabridged. Locke, K.D. 2005. Interpersonal problems and inter-
2012. HarperCollins. personal expectations in everyday life. Journal of
Coudert, J. 2003. Advice from a failure. Lincoln: Stein Social and Clinical Psychology, 24(7): 915–931.
& Day. Mol, A. 1989. Let’s both win – building a partnership for
Cross, J. & Cross, P.B. 1983. Knowing yourself inside life. Pretoria: Femina.
out for self-direction. Berkley, C.A.: Crystal. Nevid, J.S. & Rathus, S.A. 2005. Psychology and the
Dinkmeyer,D. & McKay G.D. 1990. Parenting teen- challenges of life: adjustment in the new millennium,
agers. Minnesota: Circle Press. 9th ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Erikson, E. 1964. Childhood and society. New York: Rogers, C. & Stevens, B. 1975. Person to person. New
W.W. Norton. York: Pocket Books.
Hamachek, D.E. 1987. Encounters with the self. New Stricker, G. & Merbaum, M. 1973. Growth of personal
York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. awareness: a reader in psychology. New York: Holt,
LaHaye, T. 2012. Why you act the way you do. Illinois: Rinehart & Winston.
83
Tyndale House.
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ADDI TI O N A L R E A DI N G
Berne, E. 1968. Games people play. London: Penguin Gray, J. 2003. Men are from Mars, women are from
Books. Venus – children are from heaven. London: Vermil-
Chapman, G. 2004. The five love languages. Chicago: ion.
Northfield. Horner, A. 1990. Being & loving. Northvale, NJ: Aron-
Cirese, S. 1985. Quest: a search for self. New York: son.
Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Newman, M. & Berkowitz, B. 1974. How to be you own
best friend. New York: Ballantine Books.
84
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SLIDES
8 Healthy living
M ARE TH A VI S S E R
THE C H APT E R AT A G LA N C E 8.8.4 Experience of stigma

8.1 Introduction 8.8.5 Disclosure
8.2 Healthy living and choices 8.8.6 Legal rights
8.3 Dating and intimate relationships 8.9 How to care for people living with HIV
8.4 Sexual relationships 8.10 Conclusion
8.4.1 How do I know when I am ready References
for sex? Additional reading
8.5 Sexually transmitted infections
8.6 HIV and young people O U T CO MES
8.7 The facts about HIV and AIDS After working through this chapter, you should
8.7.1 Transmission of HIV and AIDS
n be able to make choices that enhance healthy living
8.7.2 Effect of HIV on a person’s body
n be able to identify the role of sex in an intimate relationship
8.7.3 Effect of antiretroviral medication
n understand how HIV and AIDS is transmitted and how to
8.7.4 Community stigma protect yourself
8.8 The experience of being HIV-positive n know your attitude towards people with HIV
8.8.1 HIV diagnosis n know how to cope with being HIV-positive
8.8.2 Emotional reaction n know how to care for friends or family that are living with
8.8.3 Coping with HIV HIV.
8.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapter we looked at establishing and maintaining healthy relationships with
other people. In this chapter we will take a close look at our own sexuality and leading a
healthy sexual life. We cannot talk about this without a solid understanding of HIV and AIDS.
It is further unavoidable to discuss this topic without emphasising aspects that require us to
make decisions about our sexuality and sexual practices. This chapter builds on the content
and should be read with Chapter 7 on establishing interpersonal relationships as well as Chap-
ter 6 on self-esteem.
8.2 HEALTHY LIVING AND CHOICES

Healthy living depends to a large extent on the decisions you make about how you want to
live: 85
• What would you like to achieve in your lifetime?
• What is important to you?
• How do you care for yourself? What do you eat? What do you drink?
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• How do you schedule your day?

• Who do you want to be friends with?
• How do you deal with intimate relationships?
8.3 DATING AND INTIMATE RELATIONSHIPS

Dating is a way for people to spend time together to get to know each other better. Dating
is exciting. It can also be stressful because people come to know you the way you really are.
Exposing your feelings and insecurities can result in people liking or rejecting you. When dat-
ing, you learn more about yourself.
Before going on a date, it is important to clarify the expectations of both parties:
• Where will you go?
• With whom will you go, i.e. will you bring friends?
• How well do your know this person?
• How safe do you feel with this person?
If you feel that you can trust the person and that your wishes will be respected, you may enjoy
the date and feel safe. If you do not feel safe, you may consider why you feel that way and
decide about the date accordingly.
Group discussion: Think about the dates you have been on. What characterised a
date that made you feel good and what contributed to a date you experienced as a
semi-disaster?
8.4 SEXUAL RELATIONSHIPS

Discovering sexuality and learning about yourself as a sexual being is a major part of becoming
an adult. The development of sexuality means that you learn about yourself in relationships:
what your needs, values, attitudes, emotions and fears are. In relationships, you learn how to
be a partner to someone else and to help the other person to develop on all levels. Being in an
intimate relationship does not necessarily mean to have sex. Intimacy is much more concentrat-
ed on the emotional experiences of being yourself and being honest with another person, and
growing together in a relationship.
Exercise 8.1: Evaluating the functions of a sexual relationship

The messages in the media over the past years have suggested that if you are not sex-
ually experienced, you are not normal and you are missing out. Let us take stock: what
do you think a sexual relationship is for? What is it designed to achieve? Take a few
minutes as a group to list in the left-hand section below what you see as the primary
functions of a sexual relationship.
Functions of a sexual relationship Evaluation
86
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HEALTHY LIVING
8
Now, go to the right-hand column and categorise the purposes you have written down
as either “I” (e.g. “I enjoy it”), “I-it” (e.g. “to pay the bills”) or “I-you”. Your group may
disagree on an item. If this happens, make a note of what would make the purpose an
“I”, “I-it” or “I-you” statement.
Now cross out any purposes that are “I” or “I-it”. What you are left with are the more
valid and meaningful functions of a sexual relationship.
Has this activity helped you evaluate your motives for being in a sexual relationship?
Are you acting with ubuntu or are you sometimes being selfish? Are you using others
with no concern for them? Are you allowing yourself to be treated as an “it”? What kind
of person are you becoming through your sexual choices?
There are three primary functions of a sexual relationship. These are as follows:
• To express a deep and abiding love
• To create a special bond
• To have children
A person’s body and mind are interconnected. For example, when you are feeling ill, it is hard-
er to concentrate; when you are stressed you cannot sleep. Physical, mental and emotional
experiences can be seen as different expressions of the same experience. What you do with
your body becomes part of your identity. This is one of the reasons why your sexual choices
are important.
A sexual relationship is intended to create a bond between two people. The physical connec-
tion should express a closeness that already exists and strengthen that closeness. If you bring
your body to the experience without bringing your mind and heart, there is less of you present.
So you are giving and receiving only a fraction of what you could be. Sometimes, feeling that
something is missing, people try to compensate for what is really a lack of personal connection
by striving for greater physical sensation. Some may even come to believe that that is all there
is, and never experience what could be theirs within a loving, committed relationship. 87
A bond which is purely physical is often short-lived. If a person continuously goes from one
sexual relationship to another and does not ever experience true intimacy, his or her capacity to
establish a lasting, healthy, fulfilling relationship will diminish.
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There is a popular myth that if you abstain from sex for too long, your “brain will rot”. This
is, of course, just that – a myth. It is possible to be happy, healthy and of sound mind without
having sex. You may say, “But I don’t want to miss out on the experience.” The question is,
what is it that you will be missing? What kind of experience can you have outside of a commit-
ted relationship? Physical thrills will be available, as will a temporary illusion of closeness, but
without mutual love and trust, you will feel empty afterwards. The imitation can be stolen, but
the reality comes only with real commitment and love.
The message here is not that sex is “bad”, but rather that it is intended to be something very
good – at the right time, in the right way with the right person. Anything else is selling yourself
and your partner short.
8.4.1 How do I know when I am ready for sex?

The right circumstances for entering a sexual relationship are a stable, loving, committed rela-
tionship that includes mutual respect and concern for each other. That also means that you take
responsibility for each other’s feelings and discuss the consequences of a sexual relationship.
Exercise 8.2: Role-playing saying “NO”

In pairs of two in front of the larger group, role-play a situation where a person on a
date says “NO” to someone that he or she does not feel comfortable about, in such a
way that the relationship is not ruined. The partners role-play how to accept and under-
stand the reply.
8.5 SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS

Sexually transmitted diseases like HIV and AIDS are a reality in South Africa and should be
discussed seriously in any intimate relationship. There are about 20 different sexually trans-
mitted infections, such as gonorrhoea, syphilis and herpes. Some of these can be very serious
and can cause infertility or sterility. Most of the sexually transmitted infections have visible
symptoms such as sores around the genitals, swollen glands or a discharge. Sexually transmit-
ted infections can be treated. If you notice any of these symptoms, you must go immediately
to a clinic for treatment and use condoms so as not to pass the infection on to a sexual partner.
The only real guarantee against picking up a sexually transmitted disease is not having any
unprotected sexual intercourse.
What makes sexually transmitted diseases specifically dangerous is that they increase the risk
of getting HIV because they cause cracks or sores on the sexual organs that allow the virus to
enter the bloodstream more easily. HIV and AIDS is a sexually transmitted infection that is dif-
ferent from the others because there are no visible signs of the infection until a very late stage
of the disease.
People have different ideas about HIV and AIDS. What do people in your community say
about it? Consider these examples:
• AIDS is not my problem. It happens to dirty people who sleep around.
88 • AIDS is caught by poor and uneducated people.
• It is a punishment for bad behaviour.
• I am tired of being told about HIV all the time – what is the big issue?
• I have sex without a condom all the time and I’m fine. What’s the problem?
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8
• There are too many people. AIDS is nature’s way of controlling the population.
• There is medication to keep me healthy if I get HIV, so I don’t have to worry.
Discussion: What do you think about HIV and AIDS? What have you learnt about HIV
and AIDS from talking to other people?
8.6 HIV AND YOUNG PEOPLE

HIV and AIDS is a reality among the young people in South Africa. A study done by the
Human Sciences Research Council (Shisana, Rehle, Simbayi, Zuma, Jooste et al., 2009) found a
decreasing prevalence of HIV among young people between the ages of 15 and 24 years. HIV
prevalence was 10.3 per cent in 2005, compared to 8.6 per cent in 2008. This means that almost
one in ten young people in South Africa is infected with HIV. Women, who are biologically
more at risk, are bearing the brunt of the epidemic: nearly one in 4 (25%) of women aged 20 to
24 test positive, compared to one in 14 men (7%) of the same age (Shisana et al., 2009). Despite
high levels of awareness of HIV, the vast majority of youth do not think they are personally at
risk.
Risk behaviour is common among young people. The youth risk behaviour survey (Reddy,
James, Sewpaul, Koopman, Funani et al., 2010), completed by 10 270 young people from grades
8 to 11 from 23 schools in each province, showed that 38 per cent of these young people were
sexually experienced. Among the sexually active young people, 41 per cent had more than one
sexual partner and only 31 per cent practised consistent condom use. In this group of young
people, 16 per cent had sex after consuming alcohol and 19 per cent had been pregnant or fath-
ered a child.
Discussion: Research shows that 94 per cent of young people know how to protect
themselves from HIV infection. Why do you think young people persist with risky sexual
behaviour despite their knowledge about the risks of HIV?
In a study among 5305 young people, the following factors contributing to risky behaviour
were identified (Visser, Panday, Kumalo & Govan, 2011):
• Perceived social norms (peer group norms – they see other young people are sexually active
or believe that others expect them to be sexually active)
• Current excessive alcohol use
• Negative attitudes towards abstinence
• Current cigarette smoking
• Belief in traditional gender norms (they believe that males have to prove their masculinity
through having many partners, and the girls are passive and want to please their boyfriends)
• Negative relationship with parents or caregivers
• Being male
89
8.7 THE FACTS ABOUT HIV AND AIDS
Here are a few general facts about HIV and AIDS, some of which you may already know. AIDS
stands for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and is caused by the virus called human
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immunodeficiency virus (HIV). This virus breaks down the body’s immune system (the system
that fights germs and keeps the body healthy) so that the body is unable to defend itself against
illness and infection. The person can die because the body cannot recover. Once the virus is in
the body, it stays there forever, regardless of medication taken.
HIV can be passed from one person to another through contact with infected body fluids, espe-
cially blood, semen and breast milk. Let us take a closer look at the transmission of HIV and
AIDS.
8.7.1 Transmission of HIV and AIDS
Exercise 8.3: HIV and AIDS quiz

Indicate if the following statements about HIV and AIDS are true or false (you can find
the answers at the end of the chapter):
1. A person can have HIV for many years without being ill with AIDS True False
2. A person can be infected with the virus by swimming in the same True False
pool as someone with HIV
3. The HIV test can remain negative for months after someone True False
becomes infected with HIV
4. Mothers cannot transmit HIV to their babies True False
5. A person cannot get HIV from using the same dishes as someone True False
with the virus
6. A person can get HIV by having sexual intercourse with a person True False
who has the virus
7. A person can get HIV by touching the blood of an HIV-infected True False
person while giving first aid without gloves
8. Using alcohol and drugs increases a person’s risk of getting HIV True False
9. A person can get HIV by being bitten by a mosquito or other True False
insects
10. A person with HIV always shows signs of illness like sores on the True False
genitals
11. A healthy-looking person cannot transmit HIV True False
12. If you sleep with too many people you can get HIV True False
You can get HIV in the following ways:

• Having sex with an infected person without using a condom for protection
• When infected blood gets into your body through an open wound, injection, body piercing
or blood transfusion
90 • From mother to baby during pregnancy, birth or through breastfeeding
When you understand HIV and AIDS, it is easy to protect yourself from being infected with
the virus. Some people are so scared of getting the virus that they refuse to go near people they
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HEALTHY LIVING
8
think might be infected. Indicate which of the following you think are GOOD or BAD protec-
tion against HIV and AIDS:
1. Taking birth control pills GOOD BAD

2. Having sex only with healthy-looking fellow students GOOD BAD
3. Not having sex at all (abstinence) GOOD BAD
4. Using a condom every time you have sex GOOD BAD
5. Having sex when both partners are uninfected GOOD BAD
6. Sex with many partners, but more than a month apart GOOD BAD
7. Wearing gloves when giving first aid at the scene of an accident GOOD BAD
8. Not donating blood GOOD BAD
9. Making sure that a clean needle is used for body piercing GOOD BAD
10. Having sex and almost always using a condom GOOD BAD
11. Kissing and cuddling GOOD BAD
Numbers 3, 4, 5, 7, 9 and 11 are good ways of protection.

Although there is an increase in condom use among young people in South Africa (Shisana et
al., 2009), there are still some who do not want to use condoms. They think condoms spoil their
pleasure or that their partner will assume that they have HIV or have been unfaithful. Talk to
your partner about HIV and AIDS, and about the use of condoms before considering a sexual
relationship.
Group discussion: How did you or how will you convince your partner that it is neces-
sary to use condoms when having sex?
8.7.2 Effect of HIV on a person’s body

HIV differs from other viruses because it attacks your immune system, which defends you
against infection. The immune system detects foreign cells and forms antibodies to destroy
them. Once the HI virus enters a person’s body, it becomes part of the core of the cells of the
immune system and transmits its genetic material to those cells. These cells then replicate and
invade more cells, damaging them also. In this process, the immune system is reprogrammed
and cannot function efficiently. Over a period of time, the immune system cannot destroy even
the simplest of invaders like the common cold. At this stage, a person is said to have AIDS. The
time from infection to the development of AIDS is variable, but is generally 10 to 12 years with-
out medication.
The natural history of the disease can be divided into four stages. The length of each stage is
unknown and differs from person to person (some people have already lived with the virus for
more than 20 years):
•
Stage 1: Getting infected. The virus enters the bloodstream. The body recognises its pres- 91
ence and within three months produces antibodies that can show up in an HIV test. A per-
son can experience minor illnesses such as flu or headaches and enlarged lymph glands, but
it is a stage of asymptomatic normal activity.
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•
Stage 2: Asymptomatic chronic infections. The virus multiplies in the body. Minor symptoms
develop such as skin infections, thrush in the mouth or vagina, herpes, night sweats, diarrhoea,
spontaneous weight loss, swollen lymph glands, headaches and persistent coughing.
•
Stage 3: Symptomatic HIV infection. The person develops major infections because the
virus has destroyed the cells in the immune system. The immune system becomes weak and
cannot protect the body from illnesses efficiently.
•
Stage 4: Clinical AIDS. The immune system is damaged seriously and the person gets
severe illnesses that can lead to death. A person does not die of AIDS itself, but the break
down of the immune system makes a person particularly susceptible to fatal opportunistic
diseases such as tuberculosis, pneumonia, cancer, neurological deficiencies, meningitis and
Hodgkin’s disease.
Group discussion: How would you explain to a friend or someone that does not know
about HIV / AIDS, what HIV / AIDS is and how it affects a person biologically?
8.7.3 Effect of antiretroviral treatment

AIDS cannot be cured, but antiretroviral treatment (ART) blocks the replication of the HI virus.
This lowers the level of the virus in the infected person’s blood, slows down the progression of
HIV and decreases the risk of transmission to others. Additionally, a person can stay healthy
through a healthy lifestyle such as good food, exercise, rest, not too much stress and a positive
goal in life.
A new risk appeared with the large-scale roll out of ART for people living with HIV. HIV
medication needs to be taken at regular intervals for life. If the medication is not taken as pre-
scribed, the virus may become resistant to the medication. This means the medication is not
effective to control the virus any more. The infected person can then transmit these resistant
viruses to others. The scary part is that about 20 to 25 per cent of people on ART do not adhere
to their treatment for various reasons. This may result in medication not being effective in the
treatment of HIV for a large proportion of the HIV-infected population. This may mean a new
epidemic without any effective treatment.
8.7.4 Community stigma

Stigmatisation occurs when a person or group deviates from an ideal or expectation of the
community and so is ostracised. While HIV in itself is not deviant, the community attaches
negative meanings to it. This stigma is not related to the facts of HIV – on the contrary, stigma
is born from myths, misinformation and fear. But it is a fact that there is stigma related to HIV
and AIDS.
”AIDS-related stigma is defined as prejudice, discounting, discrediting and discrimination
directed at people perceived to have AIDS or HIV and individuals, groups and communities
with which they are associated” (Herek, 1999: 1102). The stigma experienced by people with
HIV ranges from subtle actions to extreme rejection and abandonment as well as physical vio-
lence (Mbonu, Van den Borne & De Vries, 2009).
92 Why is it that the stigma related to HIV is more than for any other comparable illness? The four
main reasons could possibly be the following:
• AIDS is a life-threatening disease, perceived as contagious and threatening to the commun-
ity.
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• Due to lack of information and misconceptions, people are afraid of contracting HIV through
casual contact.
• HIV and AIDS are associated with behaviour that is already stigmatised, such as sexual pro-
miscuity, drug use and in some communities, homosexuality. These behaviours go against
certain religious and moral beliefs. HIV and AIDS are then seen as the result of deviant
behaviour that deserves punishment.
• People with HIV are often seen as being responsible for their own problem, which increases
the attribution of stigma (Alonzo & Reynolds, 1995).
Because people do not understand the effect and transmission of the virus, they are scared of
people who have it and distance themselves from them. The stigma therefore comes from fear,
lack of knowledge and negative social judgement (Visser & Sipsma, 2013). Recent research
indicated that males, older, and less educated people were the most stigmatising. The more
knowledgeable people were about HIV, the lower the stigma they attached to it. Respondents
with more traditional cultural beliefs were again more stigmatising (Visser, Panday, Kumalo &
Govan, 2009).
Exercise 8.4: What is your attitude towards people with HIV?

Answer the following honestly:
YES NO
Do you believe the following?
Getting HIV is a punishment for bad behaviour
People with HIV have only themselves to blame
People with HIV must have done something wrong to deserve it
People with HIV should be ashamed of themselves
I think less of someone because they have HIV
Which of these apply to you?
I would not employ someone with HIV
I feel uncomfortable around people with HIV
I would not drink from a tap if a person with HIV had just drunk from it
I would not like to sit next to someone with HIV in a taxi
I am afraid to be around people with HIV
I would not like to be friends with someone with HIV
I would not like someone with HIV to be living next door

If you said YES to any of these questions, you need to consider why you have stigmatis-
ing attitudes towards people with HIV.
Because people are afraid of being stigmatised, they do not want to test for HIV in case 93
they are positive. Infected people do not want to disclose their HIV status for fear of
being judged and rejected. These behaviours endanger the health of other people.
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8.8 THE EXPERIENCE OF BEING HIV-POSITIVE
Group discussion: How should the young couple in the scenario below deal with their
situation?
Sam and Anna have been together for two years. They were looking forward to the birth
of their first child until Anna was routinely tested for HIV at the clinic. They could not
believe it when she tested positive. Sam feels worried and depressed, but does not want
to be tested himself. They are scared that the family will find out because then they will
not receive financial support from them anymore. Their relationship is deteriorating and
conversation is sparse. There are no other people they can trust to talk to about it. Sam
wants to get a job, but is unsure of what to tell his prospective employers – if they know
that his wife is HIV-positive, they may not want to hire him. There is no laughter in the
house anymore and they feel as if they are living in a morgue.
Group discussion: Read the scenario below. How do you think Rachel feels? Whom
should she tell? What do you think will be the impact on Rachel and Paul’s relationship?
Rachel is a student studying chemistry. She met Paul at a festival and fell in love with
him. Her parents did not like Paul, but she was determined that he was her man. As the
relationship became more serious, she realised that he had had sex with many girls
before her. Knowing about HIV, she became worried. She discussed the possibility of
having HIV with Paul. He was furious that she mistrusted him like that. Although she was
very scared, she went for an HIV test. The results have just come back and she is shat-
tered because she has tested positive.
8.8.1 HIV diagnosis

When in doubt, go for a test. Know your status. An HIV diagnosis can be experienced as a ser-
ious life crisis requiring considerable coping resources. Therefore, HIV testing is often accom-
panied with counselling sessions before and after the testing. In the pre-test counselling, the
person’s lifestyle and concerns are discussed. The person is also prepared for possible conse-
quences of the test results. In the post-test counselling, the counsellor gives the test results and
assists the person in dealing with their emotional experiences and living a healthy life. It has
been found that undergoing pre-test counselling enhances people’s capacity to cope with the
effects of their diagnosis. The person diagnosed with HIV is encouraged to become part of a
support group where they can learn from the experiences of people who have been through the
same life crisis.
Group discussion: Why do you think people are hesitant to go for HIV-testing? Are you
willing to be tested?
8.8.2 Emotional reaction

Research shows that people recently diagnosed with HIV have high levels of depression and
94 anxiety (Freeman, Nkomo, Kafaar, & Kelly, 2007; Kagee & Martin, 2010). When people learn
that they are HIV-positive, it is often an intense, life-changing experience. At first they may
think that their life is over, but with time and support they can come to terms with having a
chronic illness.
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The following reactions have been identified in recently diagnosed people, which follows the
grieving process described by Kubler-Ross (1987):
• At first, the diagnosis may be a shock. Often people cannot hear what the counsellor says.
Sometimes it is difficult for them to believe it is true. It may all feel like a dream from which
they will wake up.
• When they start realising what is happening to them, they start dealing with issues such as
death, HIV-related symptoms, change in life expectancy, change in body image, decisions
about disclosure and trust / mistrust in their relationships, stigma and possible social isola-
tion and rejection. In this stage, people may experience high levels of anxiety and depression
(Freeman et al., 2007).
• After this, there is often a bargaining or questioning stage. People asks questions such as
“why me?” and “what have I done to deserve this?” They try to get out of the situation by
denying the facts or comparing themselves with others.
•
Aggression is also a large part of the reaction to HIV. People get angry with the person who
infected them as well as with the community (who may reject people living with HIV) or
with people who are not infected.
• Eventually, after a stormy and emotional period, people start to accept their diagnosis and
start to plan goals for the rest of their lives. People who have accepted the diagnosis often set
new goals for themselves about what they would like to accomplish in the time they have
and start living a meaningful life. They care for their health by protecting their immune sys-
tem through a healthy diet, exercise and lifestyle.
8.8.3 Coping with HIV

A large number of psychological studies have identified a few healthy strategies to enhance
coping:
• Social support from family and friends enhances positive coping behaviour, especially for
people living with HIV who may experience some discrimination in the community. Good
interpersonal relationships can help a person feel better about him- or herself and provide
practical assistance in difficult situations.
• People living with HIV need to get a sense of self-control. They often feel undeserving and
unworthy of love and care, and tend to blame themselves for contracting the disease. They
need to take charge of life again.
• People need to get information about the disease and ways of staying healthy. In this way,
they take active control of their health.
• It helps to think differently about a difficult situation. One can look for the positives involved
in a situation and focus on that, rather than the negatives.
• People with a purpose or meaning in life often cope better. Many people with HIV start to
help and educate others to get new meaning in their lives.
• People with HIV need to plan for their future. They can set goals for themselves, secure the
future of their children and assure that they have assistance and care in the times when they
may get ill.
Kotzé, Visser, Makin, Sikkema & Forsyth (2013) found that women living with HIV who coped 95
in a positive way experienced less stigma and depression, higher self-esteem and social sup-
port, and were physically more healthy than women who coped in a negative way.
The World Health Organization set the following goals in terms of helping people with HIV:
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encourage self-determination, enhance self-confidence, and improve family and community

relationships and quality of life.
If a person is HIV-positive, life does not end. It just changes. People living with HIV can still
have a healthy and productive life for many years.
Group discussion: What ways do you know that can help a person with HIV to live a
normal happy life? Make a list of these things.
8.8.4 Experience of stigma

People are afraid of what other people might think of them if they have HIV.
Because of the stigma and fear of discrimination, people do not want to be tested for HIV and
do not want to disclose their status. Some do not even want to use condoms, because it may be
associated with HIV. This contributes to the further spread of HIV. In some cases, they cannot
even disclose to close friends and family and thus lose valuable and needed support. Some-
times people are more fearful of the stigma than of the disease itself.
Different people are saying and experiencing different things about HIV:
• “My father said I brought shame to the family.”
• “My friends do not want to visit anymore.”
• “With your lifestyle, it was bound to happen.”
• “My partner said he knew he could not trust me.”
• “Don’t come near us.”
• “He’ll kill me if he finds out.”
Dealing with HIV stigma is difficult, because people judge you without even knowing you.
The best way to deal with it is to be strong and not to believe what others say. If people get to
know you for who you are, they may change their minds. You can also give them about the
facts about HIV. It is not necessary for people to avoid a person with HIV, because HIV cannot
be transmitted through casual contact. These people’s fears are unrealistic. People with HIV
should be treated like all other people. HIV is a medical condition just like any other disease. It
does not disqualify people from living. We cannot start a new kind of apartheid against people
living with the virus. People with HIV need support and understanding, rather than blame and
judgement. In fact, it is illegal to discriminate against anyone with HIV.
8.8.5 Disclosure
It is your own choice whether you want to tell others or not.
Because of the stigma related to HIV and AIDS, it is difficult for infected people to decide
whether or not to disclose it. If a person finds out that he or she is HIV-positive, the person
needs time to accept it and to work through all the feelings. When he or she feels ready, it
is suggested that the person talks to someone he or she feels comfortable with and can trust.
People with HIV have difficulty in deciding who to inform about their HIV status because they
96 are scared people will think badly of them. The community often thinks a person with HIV
is sleeping around and deserves it. However, keeping this secret is difficult because people
need support. Try to talk to a family member or a friend that knows and understands HIV and
AIDS, and who will not tell your secret to others. Find support to help you deal with it.
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It is recommended that people living with HIV inform their sexual partner(s), because sexual
partner(s) may also have the virus and be unaware of it. People with HIV are often scared to
become involved in sexual relationships because they have to tell their partners of their HIV
status, which might be difficult for them. It is your responsibility to disclose your status in such
situations and to insist on condom use to protect your partner from infection and / or yourself
from re-infection. Disclosure can also be important in medical situations to enable medical staff
to protect themselves and give you appropriate health care.
Group discussion: If you were a person living with HIV, to whom would you choose to
disclose your status? How do you think this person would react?
8.8.6 Legal rights

There are many laws that protect people living with HIV and AIDS. People should know about
these laws in order to assert their rights and prevent being discriminated against. The South
African constitution protects the rights of all people regardless of race, gender, age, disability,
religion, belief, sexual orientation, culture, language or marital status. All people have the fol-
lowing rights:
• The right to equity. All people are equal before the law and have the right to protection
and benefits. An HIV-positive person therefore has the right to work and cannot be refused
employment or be unfairly dismissed because of their HIV status. HIV status can also not be
used in decisions about promotion or opportunities for further training.
• The right to privacy. A person’s HIV status is private and confidential. The person who did
the test may not reveal any personal information for any reason without the patient’s per-
mission. Your HIV status is private and you can decide yourself who you want to tell about
your status. It is advisable to tell partners and medical staff to help them to protect them-
selves.
• The right to human dignity. There may not be any unfair discrimination because of HIV
status.
• The right to access of health care. All people should have equal access to health facilities and
medical treatment regardless of their HIV status.
Although people with HIV have legal protection, there is still severe discrimination and rejec-
tion in the community. Sometimes it is subtle actions, like avoiding eye contact or walking
away when that HIV-positive person approaches. Sometimes it is open discrimination, like not
wanting to employ a person, threatening a person, or verbal or physical abuse (Visser & Sips-
ma, 2013). Unfair discrimination is against the law.
8.9 HOW TO CARE FOR PEOPLE LIVING WITH HIV

Care for someone living with HIV and AIDS as you would care for any other person. Listen
without judgement. People with HIV or AIDS need as much care and respect as anyone else.
They need friends to visit them and emotional support to deal with the diagnosis. Sadly, it is
often at this time when friends and family turn away. 97
Consider the following: you have just heard that your best friend is infected with HIV. How do
you feel? Do you feel shocked? Are you scared of coming close to him or her? Are you scared
of contracting the disease? Do you blame him or her for being infected? Do you think less of
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him or her? Do you feel uncomfortable discussing it with him or her? Do you feel unsure of
how to help your friend?
These are very common reactions to hearing that someone has HIV. Unfortunately, these reac-
tions do not help the person who is infected. In fact, turning away from a friend with HIV
causes extra stress. If you want to be a true friend, you have to deal with your own feelings
of anxiety and take a positive approach. Your friend is still the same person as he or she was
before you became aware of the diagnosis and still needs the same respect. There are three
areas where you can be a true friend:
• Love and accept your friend, without judgement. Behave in the same normal, everyday fash-
ion as before.
• Understand your friend’s world. Listen and help your friend to believe in him- or herself.
Encourage your friend to seek help and to set goals that could give new meaning to his or
her life.
• Help your friend to care for him- or herself by living healthily and avoiding affecting others.
The best advice to give a person with HIV is the following:

• Join a support group to learn from others how to deal with difficult issues. You are not alone,
there are people who can support you.
• Talk to an HIV counsellor to get information and assistance in making difficult decisions.
• Follow medical advice and adhere to treatment or ART.
• Look after yourself to stay healthy through a balanced diet, exercise, and not too much stress
or alcohol. Focus on what is important to you and gives meaning to your life.
Especially when the disease advances and people become ill, they will need help to get to the
health care facility and physical support to survive on a day-to-day basis. There are various
home-based care training programmes in your region that can inform you how to care for sick
people. If you are looking after someone with AIDS, get help to find out how to manage.
Group discussion:
• If a family member of yours were sick with AIDS, what kind of care and support would
you be able to give for a long time? What resources would you need to help this per-
son?
• What can you do to contribute to a change in behaviour patterns to prevent the
spread of HIV and AIDS on your campus? Use these strategies to implement an HIV
prevention programme among students.
Where to get help

Do not try to deal with an HIV diagnosis alone. Get help and get information:
98 • AIDS Helpline: 0800 012 322
• Circle of support hotline: 0860 222 777
• Your local clinic can also do testing and provide counselling and support.
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8.10 CONCLUSION
There is no cure for HIV and AIDS yet, although ART can assist to keep people healthy for a
long time. The best way anyone can contribute to alleviating the HIV epidemic is to focus on
the prevention of the spread of the virus and caring for those infected and affected. The solu-
tion to the HIV and AIDS epidemic is to
• prevent the virus from spreading
• help those already infected to lead productive lives.
This is your life. Today you have to make decisions about your lifestyle that can have an impact
on the rest of your life. Choose wisely!
R EFE R E N C E S
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303–315. the Uhlaba Usamila – the South African Youth Risk
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Factors associated with prevalence of mental dis- Medical Research Council.
order in people living with HIV / AIDS in South Shisana, O., Rehle, T., Simbayi, L.C., Zuma, K.,
Africa. AIDS Care, 19(10): 1201–1209. Jooste, S., Pillay-van-Wyk, V., Mbelle, N., Van
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SABSSM III Implementation Team. 2009. South
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sion and anxiety among a sample of South Afri- teenagers? Cape Town: HSRC Press.
can patients living with HIV. AIDS Care, 22(2):
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K.J. & Forsyth, B.W. 2009. HIV / AIDS stigma in
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syth, B. 2013. Psychosocial variables associated 197–206.
with coping of HIV-positive women diagnosed Visser, M., Panday, S., Kumalo, F. & Govan, A. 2011.
during pregnancy. AIDS and Behavior, 17(2): Peer education as HIV preventive strategy in schools:
498–507. findings of a baseline study. Poster presentation at
Kubler-Ross, E. 1987. AIDS the ultimate challenge. New Fifth SA AIDS Conference, 9 June, Durban.
York: Macmillan. Visser, M.J. & Sipsma, H. 2013. The experience of
Mbonu, N.C., Van den Borne, B. & De Vries, N.K. HIV-related stigma in South Africa. In P. Liam-
2009. Stigma of people with HIV / AIDS in sub-Sa- puttong (Ed.), Stigma, discrimination and living with
haran Africa: a literature review. Journal of Tropical HIV / AIDS, a cross cultural perspective. Dordrecht:
Medicine, 8(2): 201–212. Springer, 205–228.
ADDITI O N A L R E A DI N G
Van Dyk, A. 2008. HIV / AIDS care and counselling: a multidisciplinary approach. Cape Town: Pearson Education.
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Answers to Exercise 8.3

1. True. The virus grows in a person’s body for a long time before the immune system
is seriously affected. Only then does a person show symptoms of illness.
2. False. The HI virus can only live inside a person’s body, not on the skin or in the air
or in water.
3. True. An HIV test checks for antibodies in a person’s blood. It takes about 3–4
months after infection for the body to create antibodies. In a period of 3–4 months
after infection, an HIV test can give a false negative result – this is called the win-
dow period. That is why a follow-up test is recommended.
4. False. Mothers can transmit the virus to their babies in the womb, during the birth
process and through breastfeeding. Health clinics provide medication to mothers
to prevent transmission to their babies.
5. True. HIV is not transmitted through casual contact. The virus cannot live on dish-
es, only in a person’s blood.
6. True. Unprotected sex with a person who is infected is the most common way of
HIV transmission.
7. True. When a person touches infected blood with bare hands there may be cuts or
bruises on his or her hands that allow the virus to enter the person’s bloodstream.
8. True. There is more than one way that the use of alcohol and drugs can increase a
person’s risk. When people share needles to inject drugs, they are at risk of getting
the virus because there may be infected blood on the needles. Using alcohol and
drugs affects a person’s judgement and protectiveness in relationships.
9. False. There is no proof that insects can transmit the virus because the virus does
not live outside the human body. Even if this were the case, the insect cannot carry
enough blood (and therefore virus) to infect the person.
10. False. HIV is different from other STIs because there are no visible symptoms on a
person’s genitals. This virus affects the immune system.
11. False. A person with HIV does not show symptoms immediately and can look
completely healthy. This person may be infected and transmit the virus for a long
time before the person him- or herself realises that he or she is infected.
12. False. You get HIV by having sex with an infected person. Your chances of getting
the virus increase when you sleep with more people, but you can get it from having
sex just once with an infected person.
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SLIDES
9 Substance abuse:
detour or dead
end
M ARE TH A VI S S E R
THE C HAPT E R AT A G LA N C E 9.7 Experiences of people who use substances

9.1 Substance use and abuse among young 9.8 How to deal with drug use in your life
people 9.9 How to help your friends
9.2 What can be defined as substances / drugs 9.10 Conclusion
and drug abuse? References
9.3 Viewpoints about substance use and
abuse O U T CO MES
9.4 Why young people use alcohol and drugs After working through this chapter, you should
9.5 Learn about different drugs and their effects
n have an awareness of substance use and abuse
9.5.1 Depressants
n understand the short- and long-term effects of
9.5.2 Stimulants alcohol and drug use
9.5.3 Hallucinogens n be able to make informed decisions with regard
9.5.4 Over-the-counter medication to substance use
9.6 Dangers of substance use n know where to get help and help others.
9.1 SUBSTANCE USE AND ABUSE AMONG YOUNG PEOPLE

The use and abuse of alcohol and drugs is a problem that affects us all, irrespective of age,
social status, race or creed. Substance use and abuse is recognised as one of the most significant
health and social issues in our community.
South Africa is named as one of the drug capitals of the world (United Nations, 2012). Against
the background of community changes, the availability and use of substances have become
increasingly prominent during the past few years. Factors contributing to the progressive
increase in substance use are, among others, the mix of different cultures and values; social
pressures and economic status, resulting in challenges such as acculturation, and rapid socio-
economic and lifestyle changes (United Nations, 2012). Substance abuse can be considered
an epidemic that threatens our society. There is an increased range of drugs available and
increased acceptance of drug-related behaviour and attitudes. With the opening up of our bor-
ders during the 1990s, many of the world’s drugs have been passing through our borders, air-
ports and harbours. Despite laws against the possession of drugs, the risk of being caught is
not that high in South Africa, making drugs a profitable business. 101
There is also an increased demand for drugs. Alcohol is the primary drug abused in South
Africa. Over 30 per cent of the population has an alcohol problem or is at risk. Besides alcohol,
marijuana and crack are the drugs most commonly used by young people in our commun-
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ity (Parry, 2003). Other substances which young people often use are pain relievers, sedatives,
tranquillisers and stimulants (Rocha-Silva, De Miranda & Erasmus, 1995). Drugs such as
ecstasy and mandrax are becoming widely available and a way of life for young people who
can afford it.
The United Nations World Drug Report (United Nations, 2012) stated that 230 million people
(5% of the world’s adult population) were estimated to have used illicit drugs within the pre-
vious year. There was a substantial increase in the use of all illicit drugs in South Africa after
2005, especially cannabis and opioids. The youth risk behaviour survey (Reddy, James, Sew-
paul, Koopman, Funani et al., 2010) completed by 10 270 young people from grades 8 to 11
from 23 schools in each province, reported that 35 per cent of young people had drunk alcohol
during the previous month, while 29 per cent had been binge drinking (defined as more than
five alcoholic drinks per occasion). Thirteen per cent reported having smoked dagga and 12 per
cent had used inhalants.
In a sample of 300 young people in Gauteng and Limpopo provinces, 68 per cent of females
reported current use of wine; 80 per cent of males reported drinking malt beer, and 67 per
cent hard liquor and home made liquor. Alcohol was mainly used in the company of friends
to socialise. Over-the-counter medication was especially popular among females (63%), whilst
males mainly used marijuana (82%) (Weir-Smith, 2001).
It is a concern that the people seeking treatment for substance dependency are getting younger
(Parry, 2003).
9.2 WHAT CAN BE DEFINED AS SUBSTANCES / DRUGS AND DRUG ABUSE?

Drugs are any chemical substance that alters how a person functions, feels, thinks or acts. All
medications are therefore drugs. When we talk about drugs socially, we are usually referring
to illegal drugs, because these are considered to be harmful to the user and can cause a certain
degree of intoxication resulting in a change of character or behaviour. The following are speci-
fied as harmful drugs:
•
Dependency-forming substances. These are substances that cause an urge in people to keep
using them, i.e. they are addictive. If people stop taking them, their bodies cannot function
effectively and they may experience withdrawal symptoms.
•
Personality-changing substances. When these drugs are taken, a person can experience
objects that do not actually exist and radical changes can take place in that person’s behav-
iour.
•
Consciousness-changing substances. These drugs contribute to an altered state of con-
sciousness, where a person loses touch with reality and lives in a fantasy world (Sadock &
Sadock, 2003).
Other drug-related concepts that need to be clarified are as follows:

•
Substance abuse is defined as acquiring drugs illegally and using it excessively, too much
over too long a period, for other than medical purposes. It is mostly used for the effect it has
on the mind.
•
Drug dependence is caused by the repeated use of drugs resulting in psychological or
physical dependence and tolerance:
102 – Psychological dependence means that the person has a strong desire for the sensation
the drug produces such as elation, stimulation or sedation and that this feeling is much
preferred to the way one normally feels. If a person keeps on using it any attempt to stop
using it, results in severe depression.
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SUBSTANCE ABUSE: DETOUR OR DEAD END
9
– Physical dependency happens when drugs are taken over a period of time and impact
on the metabolism of the body. The body adapts to the drug to the point where it cannot
function unless the drug is taken, or it needs increased dosages to function. If the drug is
not taken, the body gets withdrawal symptoms. Some drugs easily create dependency,
in some cases as quickly as a single use (such as crack cocaine and heroin). Others create
dependency over a long period of use. Overcoming physical dependency often require
specialised treatment.
– Withdrawal symptoms, ranging from mild to severe, occur within 12 hours after last use
and include fear and restlessness, sweating alternating with chills, confusion and hallucin-
ations, muscle pain and cramps, diarrhoea and vomiting, and in worse cases, even a coma.
– Tolerance is created when a person needs more and more of a drug to get the same result,
because the body gets “used” to the effect of the drug.
•
Drug addiction refers to the intoxicated condition caused by repeated use, including psych-
ological and physical dependence as well as the overwhelming compulsion to continue
using it (Stahl, 2002).
Group discussion: Some drugs (like alcohol and tobacco) are considered legal and
others (such as marijuana, crack and cocaine) as illegal. Discuss why you think this is
and whether you agree with it.
9.3 VIEWPOINTS ABOUT SUBSTANCE USE AND ABUSE

While the predominant religious and social viewpoints remain negative towards substance
use, the past few decades have seen the development of a subculture where the use of substan-
ces is accepted.
There is a fine line between the medical and non-medical use of substances as well as their use
and abuse. The definition of what is regarded as harmful or illegal is often based on decisions
made by lawyers and doctors. A social definition is given by the community. In the past, some
drugs were used as part of rituals in many cultures, within the boundaries of a ceremony and
accompanied by certain behaviour sanctioned by the community. At the beginning of the past
century, laws and regulations were formulated to start restricting the use of drugs by individ-
uals. Although the old rituals do not take place anymore, some new rituals involving drugs
have developed in subgroups of the community.
There are different viewpoints with regard to drug taking:
•
Drugs are dangerous and should be avoided. A person should not start using drugs
because he or she can easily get hooked and develop physical dependency. The assumption
is that once you have started, you cannot stop.
•
Drug use can be a way of life. A person should make an informed decision about drug tak-
ing and control his or her drug use. The goal in this approach is to use drugs in such a way
so as to reduce harm and avoid compromising health.
103
Group discussion: Discuss the two viewpoints of substance use and decide with which
viewpoint you agree most.
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9.4 WHY YOUNG PEOPLE USE ALCOHOL AND DRUGS

The age group 15 to 22 years has been found to contain the heaviest alcohol users. The starting
age of using and abusing had been found to be around 12 years. There are many reasons why
young people use alcohol and drugs:
• Young people often start using drugs because they want to experiment with new experien-
ces or have a sense of adventure. They want to have a good time and feel relaxed. Drugs are
then used as recreation, to stimulate creativity and to enjoy social interaction.
• Some young people want to prove their independence. They want to rebel against their par-
ents and the rules set for them. By using drugs, they want to prove their ability to make their
own decisions and experience something of adulthood – especially males.
• Some want to overcome feelings of insecurity, especially in social settings. Alcohol and
drugs can give a person the courage to establish and maintain interpersonal relationships.
• Substances are used to escape from negative feelings or problems. Drugs can be their way of
surviving and searching for answers or sorting out things for themselves. Drugs are a way of
escaping reality.
• Many young people do not experience closeness in their families and have no behavioural
models. They seek acceptance in their peer group. It has been found that 50 per cent of drug
users have experienced some measure of family disintegration (divorce, unhappy house-
holds).
• Young people can be influenced and encouraged by their friends to use drugs. They want to
do what everyone else is doing in order to feel accepted. Drugs can help them to be accepted
into the “cool” group. The term peer pressure is often used. For example: “If you want to hang
out with me, you can try this. It’s fun, and it will make you enjoy the evening so much more”
or “Come with us. It is fun. We did that last time and nothing bad happened to us. You will
really lose out if you don’t try”. Social norms – what everyone else is doing – have a major
influence on the behaviour of young people.
• On the community level, the deficiency of support structures, change of family structure,
high levels of uncertainty and unemployment, and loss of personal safety due to high crime
rates can impact on young people’s experience of stress. They have to cope with less resour-
ces.
• There is a norm developing in the community that there is a pill for every ailment. You need
not feel tired, pain, tension or sleeplessness. Alcohol and drug use can be seen as young
people’s method of self-medication.
Initial or experimental use often results from a combination of peer pressure, curiosity and
availability. Progression to greater involvement, dependence or addiction may be attributed
to additional factors such as personality traits or feelings of social deprivation or family break-
down.
As a young person, you should not see yourself as a “victim” of drugs or drug dealers, or feel
pressurised into this kind of behaviour. You are capable of thinking for yourself, making your
own choices and taking responsibility for your actions. You need to make informed decisions
about alcohol and drug use for yourself.
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9
Group discussion: Discuss the following statements and decide if you agree or dis-
agree:
• Drug users have an addictive personality – they are weak and dependent.
• It is safe to use drugs.
• If you use drugs once, you will always use drugs.
• Drug use always creates pleasant experiences.
• Drug use is a result of an unhappy childhood or the experience of trauma.
• Drug users are useless and cannot contribute to society.
• One can control the intake of drugs.
9.5 LEARN ABOUT DIFFERENT DRUGS AND THEIR EFFECTS

To be able to make informed decisions about drug use, it is necessary to have reliable informa-
tion about the effects of drugs. Different drugs cause different reactions in a person’s body and
different people react differently. The effect may also differ for the same person on different
occasions. The impact of drugs and the many health problems associated with their use are the
result of a complex interaction between the drug, the individual and the setting in which the
drug is taken (Stahl, 2002).
From the classification by the Center for Alcohol and Drug Studies (SANCA, 1996), most drugs
can be classified as depressants or stimulants of the central nervous system, or hallucinogens.
9.5.1 Depressants
The use of depressants helps a person to relax by lowering the functioning of the central nerv-
ous system. Some examples are the following:
9.5.1.1 Alcohol
Alcohol (juice, dop, booze) is a socially accepted drug, legally available to persons over 18
years. When alcohol is used in large volumes, it removes inhibitions, anxiety and shyness, and
allows you to relax and forget about whatever is troubling you. Alcohol also makes you feel
drowsy and unable to think clearly, and can impact on your social behaviour, personal rela-
tionships and ability to work. Alcohol use can contribute to car accidents, the commitment of
crimes, high-risk sexual behaviour, and family problems such as poverty and abuse.
The long-term effects are even more serious. When using alcohol for many years, liver and kid-
ney damage can take place as well as mental deterioration, blackouts, convulsions and severe
physical dependence. Death can occur from overdosage. Society as a whole suffers if people
drink too much alcohol because it impacts on the economy – people with alcohol problems are
often absent from work and not productive workers.
9.5.1.2 Narcotics or opioid analgesics

Narcotics or opioid analgesics such as morphine (morph, miss emma), heroin (herries, hose
smack) and methadone are powerful painkillers and highly addictive. Opioids are used to
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create a feeling of extreme happiness, eliminate all worries and produce euphoria. People
who take heroin and morphine are characterised by small restricted pupils, injection marks,
unnatural calmness, drowsiness, decreased appetite and personality changes when craving
another dose.
The long-term effects and dangers of these drugs are mental deterioration, impotence, steril-
ity, weight loss, loss of interest in the outside world, convulsions, coma and death from over-
dosage, and serious physical dependence. Withdrawal symptoms involve exaggerated pain,
cramps in muscles, severe vomiting and abdominal pains, and anxiety. Specialised help is
needed to assist a person through withdrawal.
9.5.1.3 Mandrax
Mandrax (mandies, MX, buttons, whites, Barry White, knopies) is an example of a hypnot-
ic drug. A mixture of dagga and crushed mandrax is called white pipe or Cremora in South
Africa. Mandrax is a central nervous system depressant and small doses will help the user to
relax, feel peaceful, calm and happy. It can also produce drowsiness, dizziness, restlessness,
headaches, nausea, vomiting and slurred speech, faulty judgement and emotional instability.
A large dose may lead to deep sleep and feelings of intoxication when waking. An overdose
can create convulsions and disorganisation of heart rhythm. When combined with alcohol, it
can become fatal as the joint effect of the two drugs may depress breathing. Mandrax produces
psychological and physical dependence.
Tolerance to the drug develops rapidly, meaning that the user constantly has to increase the
dose to repeat the sensation. Sudden withdrawal produces a number of symptoms such as
headaches, stomach cramps, vomiting, depression, anxiety, insomnia and convulsions.
9.5.1.4 Inhalants / solvents

Inhalants / solvents, for example various household items such as glue, aerosols and paint-strip-
pers, intoxicate when inhaled, causing disorientation, lightheadedness, drowsiness and vivid
fantasies. It can result in forgetfulness, tremors, illogical thinking, feelings of persecution, irritab-
ility and hostility. Dependence can develop, and even death by suffocation or choking.
The danger of using solvents is damage to the central nervous system, kidneys, liver and res-
piratory system. An additional danger is that solvents are cheap and easily obtainable. In South
Africa, glue is an inhalant commonly used by street children (Parry, Pluddemann, Bhana, Bay-
ley, Potgieter & Gerber, 2000).
9.5.1.5 Rohypnol and nyaope

Two recently emerging drugs that can have high impact and cause much damage are rohypnol
and nyaope. Rohypnol is known as the “date rape drug”. Men are accused of slipping the drug
into drinks of unsuspecting women and sexually abusing them. The drug is colourless, odour-
less and tasteless. It leads to drowsiness, impaired motor skills and amnesia (Ghodse, 2005).
Nyaope is a mixture of dagga and heroin which is causing huge damage among Tshwane’s
township youth.
9.5.2 Stimulants
106 9.5.2.1 Amphetamines
Amphetamines such as cocaine (coke, snow), crackcocaine, Ritalin, appetite suppressants, nico-
tine and caffeine are stimulants keeping the user awake and excited with high levels of energy.
They are known as “uppers”. They also contribute to loss of sleep and appetite, and make the
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9
user feel energetic, alert and self-confident. Regular consumption can easily cause psychologic-
al dependence and symptoms like involuntary movement, unnatural excitement, loss of appe-
tite, sleeplessness and a rapid pulse.
Withdrawal symptoms can involve cramps in muscles, depression and drowsiness. Long-term
dangers of cocaine use are high blood pressure, cardiac failure, convulsions and death from
overdosage. Cocaine has powerful addictive qualities.
9.5.2.2 Ecstasy
Ecstasy is a designer drug and one of the most popular rave drugs to be taken during “drug
hopping”. It creates feelings of optimism, warmth and love. The user’s sensory perception
improves and he or she has endless energy to dance all night. It is important to drink lots of
water to prevent dehydration. Psychological dependency is a danger as well as physical
exhaustion and cardiac failure. In the long term, mental deterioration can take place. Another
danger is that the composition of the drug is not always specified; other chemicals can be
added resulting in a much different effect.
9.5.2.3 Tik
Tik or methamphetamine is highly used in the coloured population of Cape Town, but is
uncommon in other parts of the country. It is the drug of choice for 42 per cent of Cape Town
drug users. It is relatively inexpensive so that many young people can afford it (Simbayi,
Kalichman, Cain, Cherry, Henda & Cloete, 2006).
9.5.3 Hallucinogens
9.5.3.1 Cannabis or marijuana
Cannabis or marijuana (dope, zol, boom, joint, grass, skyf, dagga) is one of the most widely
used drugs in the world. It is made of the cannabis plant (hemp). When smoked, it causes a
relaxed, wonderful feeling of euphoria and wellbeing as an escape from reality. There are still
heavy debates for and against the use of marijuana as well as myths relating to its curative
properties. There are also debates about the degree to which physical dependency forms. It
contributes to a psychological dependency of wanting to feel that way again and an inability
of the person to function optimally without it. It contributes to a distorted view of reality and
at times, experiences of severe anxiety and fear. When taken over an extended period, the user
presents with bloodshot eyes, sleeplessness, uncontrolled mood swings and impaired percep-
tion. It can cause erratic behaviour and bronchial problems.
Withdrawal symptoms involve sleeplessness, nausea, headaches, restlessness and aggression.
The dangers of long-term use include anxiety, physical damage such as bronchial irritation,
lung cancer, chromosome damage and sterility.
9.5.3.2 Psychedelics
Psychedelics are the most unpredictable group of drugs, including LSD (acid, candy, smarties,
strawberry fields, white lightening and “magic mushrooms”). They lead to an altered state of
consciousness, enhance and distort perception and sensations, and induce hallucinations. Signs
of dependence include emotional swings, paranoia, flashbacks, visions and hallucinations, and
disruption of thinking – sometimes this can be psychologically traumatic. 107
The dangers of long-term use involve losing contact with reality, accidents due to distorted
perception, neurological damage, depression, paranoia and intense anxiety (Ghodse, 2005;
Sadock & Sadock, 2003).
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9.5.4 Over-the-counter medication

There are large numbers of over-the-counter medication (such as painkillers, sleeping tablets,
tranquillisers and appetite suppressants) that contain substances which can lead to physical
dependency when used in large doses. For example, codeine (a depressant and highly addict-
ive if taken in large doses) is found in cough mixtures. When taken for non-medical reasons,
these drugs are just as damaging as the illegal drugs (Myers, Siegfried & Parry, 2003).
9.6 DANGERS OF SUBSTANCE USE

Some users experience substance use as positive and enriching, and feel that it contributes to
their creativity. This is often the case if drugs are taken carefully and the person is sensitive
to the effect it has on his or her life. However, the use of drugs can also have a very negative
impact on a person’s health, social relationships, economic capacity, emotional health and com-
munity life. This usually happens when substance use starts controlling a person’s life and it
becomes difficult for the person to function in the community. Some implications of alcohol
and drug use among young people are the following (http://www.edenrecovery.co.za):
• 60% of all car accidents may be attributed to alcohol use – individuals in the 21-year age
group are involved in 20% of these accidents.
• 60% of crimes are related to substance abuse.
• 7% of all young people admitted to hospitals are there as a result of alcohol-related injuries.
• Drugs affect a person’s concentration, reasoning and productivity. Young people do not
attend to their academic development, resulting in possible failure.
• Physical and emotional development falls behind, and young people often experience prob-
lems with self-esteem and interpersonal relationships. A drunk or drugged person can say
or do things that hurt other people, such as harming someone’s reputation or damaging
other people’s property.
• To get money for drugs, young people often resort to criminal activity.
• Alcohol and drug use can contribute to unprotected sex which can spread infections like
HIV and AIDS and hepatitis.
• Drug use can have negative health effects. Drugs can damage the functioning of the heart,
brain, liver and kidneys.
• Young people do not learn how to live a healthy life and how to solve problems in a con-
structive way.
• Extensive drug use is often associated with the breakdown of the physical, emotional, cog-
nitive, ethical and moral levels of an individual’s life, with far reaching criminal and legal
consequences.
• Substance abuse is not only an individual problem, but has implications for society. Sub-
stance abuse is currently costing the country R20 billion per year. It could pose a bigger
threat to the country’s resources than the AIDS epidemic.
Not all young people turn to drugs. Many have negative reactions:
• “My father used to drink beer and then he would hit my mother. I’ve seen what alcohol can
do to you. I do not want to become involved.”
108 • “I want to be a professional sportsman. Drugs will affect my health and ruin my career.”
• “I want to get a good education and a good job. I can’t study when drugs affect my mind.”
• “I have used it once. It feels good at first, but afterwards you feel like hell. No, I do not want
to try it again.”
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9
Group discussion: Do you know someone who is a serious user of alcohol or drugs? (If
you don’t, conduct an interview with someone who does.) How did alcohol and drug
use impact on the person’s life? What was the impact of drug use on the person’s family
and friends?
9.7 EXPERIENCES OF PEOPLE WHO USE SUBSTANCES

People who use drugs lose touch with reality. They withdraw from others and are unable to
fill their place in society. Their psychological, social, academic and occupational functioning is
impeded.
Gary is 25 years old and has a good job. He has learnt a lot from the experiences he had. This is
his story:
Gary’s story
I am one of four brothers and I grew up in a semi-rural area. I started to use drugs at a
young age with friends. In Grade 6, we started to drink alcohol for fun to see what it was
like. In Grade 9, we started smoking marijuana. Ecstasy and sleeping pills followed. In
Grade 11, we started with heroin and crack. It was new experiences every time, you felt
different and you had no control over the experience. Every time you see and experience
different things: walls moved, you experienced illusions, things that were not physically
there in the room. It was exciting. We would sit together and tell each other what we were
experiencing while it was happening. Afterwards you did not feel so good. We usually
carried on until it was over, then we took sleeping pills to sleep.
At first it was fun. We did that every day after school. I do not know if I could have
stopped then. I knew I could say “no”, but I didn’t. It was fun. But later we could not stop
it anymore. That’s where the problems started. We had to get the stuff. We spent all our
money on it, we had to steal money from children at school, from people on the streets,
at parties, we had to break into people’s houses and hi-jacked cars to get money to buy it.
There were always dealers available where we could get it.
After school I started to work and now I had more money to spend on heroin. But my
work went down and I left the job. I got one job after the other, every time I would start
stealing money from them and then they dismissed me. Things went rough at that time;
it was difficult to cope with it. I was arrested one Friday morning for reckless driving and
they found drugs on me. I was in jail for a day and the withdrawal started. I was nau-
seous and shaking and I couldn’t sleep. When I got out of jail, I stole a car to get money to
buy more heroin. They arrested me for car theft and I was back in jail. They did not give
me anything for the withdrawal. It was really bad and I did not have money and no one
in my family wanted to give me money.
In court I was given a choice to go to prison or rehab. I went to rehab. We had to work
on a farm. It was cold and we worked outside, doing gardening, looking after the ani-
mals or building walls. There was a strict routine to follow with very little free time. They
break you down to where you can’t do what you want to do, you just give up, you just
do as they tell you to do to stay out of trouble. I realised that I did not fit into society the 109
way I was and that I had to learn a new way of life. Later on, we got more choices. If you
messed up, you had to face the consequences. If you did something wrong, they would
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take away your privileges like watching TV or socialising and you had to sit around with
nothing to do. I learnt to live with myself. They help you to learn about the impact of
drugs on your life and you have to make up your mind. You learn about yourself as a
person and you learn from the others. You also get medication that can help you not to
take drugs anymore, because if you take drugs then, it will make you sick. Then I decided
to give up drugs. If you have any sense at all, you realise that drugs are not good for you.
I can be clean. But when I get upset I sometimes go back to drugs. I stayed clean for about
six months, and then I met this girl who used drugs. I used it again everyday and then I
overdosed and was taken to hospital. Now I am clean for four months and I do not want
to use it anymore.
Look, there is nothing I can do about what has happened to me the past 10 years. I realise
the bad things I have done, but I do not want to think about that. I do not want to go back
there. I can make my future what I want it to be. I am lucky where I am now. If you use
drugs you do not have a life, you think you are a certain person, but it is a false sense of
self. If you start you can’t stop, it’s a gamble, you play with your life.
Today I am clean for four months now. I have some relapses, but I do not want to use it
anymore. I can’t remember everything that happened because I have some memory loss
and I battle to remember things. At times my vision is blurred and I still get cramps in
my fingers. I have to live with this, because it is the result of the drugs. I try to live my
life. I feel a success now, because I enjoy every day, I came to terms with things. If people
can only realise how lucky they are. I’m one of the luckiest people. I do not look at what
I don’t have. I look at what I have, compared to what I was and what I could have been.
For Gary, this experience was a detour in his life. He went through rehabilitation and can look
back at the experience today. For others, this experience may end in death.
9.8 HOW TO DEAL WITH DRUG USE IN YOUR LIFE

To use drugs or not to use drugs is a decision you have to make for yourself. No one can force
you to use drugs and you have to take responsibility for your actions. You need to obtain reli-
able information about drugs and the consequences of drug use before you make decisions.
Group pressure can play a role in your decisions, especially when you feel insecure and
intensely need acceptance from a group.
It can help you if you can make a decision for yourself in a situation where you do not experi-
ence any pressure. If you can weigh up pros and cons of using, you can come to a decision
for yourself. This decision can help you to deal with difficult situations. You have the right to
decide about your own life and lifestyle.
Advice on staying out of trouble with regard to alcohol and drug use:
• Know yourself, your values and your own limits with regard to substances.
• Learn interpersonal and coping skills to deal with difficult situations and problems that you
may experience.
• Participate in constructive alternative activities (such as sport, youth associations and youth
110 camps) that contribute to a healthy way of using time instead of being bored and looking for
stimulation in the use of substances.
• Choose your friends well. Good friends support you, help you with good advice, are truth-
ful and want you to be happy. Be careful of friends who hurt you, ignore or avoid you, say
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9
negative things behind your back, break you confidence or force you to do things against
your will. These are not good friends for you.
• Face your responsibilities: what are your goals in life? Focus on achieving these goals and
stay on track!
9.9 HOW TO HELP YOUR FRIENDS

The following are typical reactions to drugs which can help you to identify if your friends are
using them (SANCA, 1996):
• Acting differently, for example someone who was neat now appears shabby (i.e. behaviour
changes)
• A lack of interest in activities and a deterioration in academic performance
• Withdrawal from social contact
• Increased or decreased appetite
• Sudden and unexplainable emotional outbursts or mood changes, temper tantrums, extreme
activity or passiveness
• Lack of trust, looking and feeling guilty, becoming secretive
• Sleepiness, drowsiness, fever, nausea, excessive sweating
• Lying, becoming dishonest, or stealing appliances or money
If you realise that a friend may be using drugs and need help, you can provide that help.
Direct confrontation may not be effective, because people often deny the problem and pro-
ject their feelings onto others. They may try to assure you that they are still in control. They
see other people as not understanding and persecuting them. They may therefore react with
aggression. It would also not be wise to try to force a person to stop using substances. Unless
your friend wants to stop, he or she will not stop.
Have a conversation of understanding that communicates that you are there whenever your
friend needs you. People having problems with drug use often need someone to talk to about
it, someone who does not intimidate or judge them. You can only be there for your friend – you
cannot change his or her behaviour, only your own. You can deal with your own feelings and
change your attitude towards the person, thereby creating an environment of support. This
may help the person in trouble to look differently at him- or herself and to come to terms with
his or her own feelings and behaviour.
What you can do:
• Obtain reliable information about drugs and know the facts.
• Become friends with the person and be a good listener.
• Try to understand what he or she is going through.
• Talk about drugs and the effects of drugs in normal conversations.
• Enquire if he or she needs help to handle the drug problem. Be supportive and if the person
needs help, contact a reliable help organisation or a medical doctor.
The problem with drug use being classified as a criminal offence is that it does not stop the use,
it just drives it underground. Information and medical help is therefore not always available
for people who need it. Drug users can be scared to talk about it and do not look for help when 111
they need it.
Treatment for substance dependency is a long and intensive process. It was found that treat-
ment programmes at in-patient facilities that were longer than 90 days had higher success rates
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than shorter programmes (Simpson, Joe, Fletcher, Hubbard & Anglin, 1999). The most import-
ant predictor of successful treatment was the personal motivation of the person participating in
the rehabilitation programme.
Where to find help

For more information about drugs and drug abuse, or to get help, there are a few help
lines:
• Alcoholics Anonymous 012 322 6047
• Narcotics Anonymous 088 130 0327
• Pharmacists against drug abuse 021 434 8703
• Sanca 011 482 1070
• 24/7 helpline 011 787 9142
• Toll-free substance abuse helpline 0800 121314 or sms 32312
• Tough love support group 0861 868 445
• Drug rehabilitation centres
Group assignment: Develop a poster with information you think could contribute to
young people’s taking informed decisions about the use of alcohol and drugs. Ask
about 20 people what they think the impact of your poster will be on the attitudes and
behaviour of other young people and improve on your poster if necessary to make sure
that it hits the target.
9.10 CONCLUSION
Substance abuse is a reality of modern life that you will be confronted with. It is a practice on
which you will no doubt have to make a decision. The best decisions are informed decisions.
After working through this chapter you should be able to make an informed decision or you
should be able to recognise a problem in your own life or in someone else’s close to you.
R EFE R E N CE S
Ghodse, H. 2005. Drugs and addictive behaviour. Cam- can Community Epidemiology Network on Drug
bridge: Cambridge University Press. Use (SACENDU). Cape Town: South African Med-
Myers, B., Siegfried, N. & Parry, D.H. 2003. Over-the- ical Research Council.
counter and prescription medicine misuse in Cape Reddy, S.P., James, S., Sewpaul, R., Koopman, F.,
Town – findings from specialist treatment centres. Funani, N.I., Sifunda, S., Josie, J., Masuka, P., Kam-
South African Medical Journal, 93(5): 367–371. baran, N.S. & Omardien, R.G. 2010. Umthenthe
Parry, C. 2003. Alcohol and drug abuse module. Avail- uhlaba usamila – the South African youth risk behav-
able at: http://www.sahealthinfo.org/admodule/ iour survey 2008. Cape Town: South African Medic-
112 al Research Council.
sacendu.htm.
Parry, C.D.H., Pluddemann, A., Bhana, A., Bayley, Rocha-Silva L, De Miranda S. & Erasmus R.1995.
J., Potgieter, H. & Gerber, W. 2000. The nature and Alcohol / drug use and related matters: young black
extent of alcohol / drug use in South Africa. South Afri- South Africans (10–21 years). Pretoria: HSRC.
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Sadock, B.J. & Sadock, V.A. 2003. Synopsis of psych- Simpson, D.D., Joe, G.W., Fletcher, B.W., Hubbard,
iatry: behavioural science / clinical psychiatry. Philadel- R.L. & Anglin, M.D. 1999. A national evaluation
phia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. of treatment outcomes for cocaine dependence.
SANCA. 1996. Brochure: Information and classification Archives of General Psychiatry, 56(6): 507–514.
of drugs. Johannesburg: SANCA. Stahl, S.M. 2002. Essential psychopharmacology. Cam-
Simbayi, L.C., Kalichman, S.C., Cain, D., Cherry, C., bridge: Cambridge University Press.
Henda, N. & Cloete, A. 2006. Methamphetamine United Nations. 2012.UNODC world drug report 2012.
use and sexual risks for HIV infection in Cape New York: United Nations.
Town, South Africa. Journal of Substance Use, 11(4): Weir-Smith, G. 2001. WHO global initiative on primary
291–300. prevention of substance abuse. Research report. Pre-
toria: Human Sciences Research Council.
113
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9
FIRST DESTINATION –
ACADEMIC SUCCESS P A R T II
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Section 4
Pit stop:
sharpening
the thinking
tools
SLIDES
10 Discover your
creative potential:
creative living and
creative learning
M ARI LE I N H E YN S A ND EL MAR IE V AN
H E E RDE N-P I E TE RSE
THE C H APT E R AT A G LA N C E 10.6 Conclusion

10.1 Introduction: the quest for dragons References
10.2 Thinking “out of the box” Additional reading
10.3 Understanding creativity
10.4 Developing and nurturing creativity O U T CO MES

10.4.1 Parallel thinking as a creative thinking After working through this chapter, you should
and problem-solving strategy n understand the concept “creativity”
10.4.2 The process of creative problem n understand how improving your creativity is equal
solving to improving the quality of your life

10.4.3 Brainstorming as a creative thinking n gain insight into some strategies on how to en-
and problem-solving strategy hance your creativity
10.4.4 Mind-mapping as a creative thinking n understand how whole-brain thinking can support
and problem-solving strategy creativity.
10.5 Creative learning
10.1 INTRODUCTION: THE QUEST FOR DRAGONS

In medieval times, when a cartographer had drawn upon all of his geographical knowledge to
create a map, he would neatly letter across the unknown territory beyond: “Here be dragons”.
Similarly, for most people, creativity feels like an unknown territory. The majority will be con-
vinced that they are not creative. This is, of course, a bad and inaccurate assumption people
make about themselves. Everybody is creative and this is proven by the fact that everybody
can solve problems – granted not equally well or easily, but every individual has some innate
(inborn) ability to be creative. Some people can solve complex problems and others only sim-
ple ones, but everybody solves problems in their everyday life. Yes, creativity does not only
refer to artistic ability, it is much more than that. This chapter will demonstrate that you do 117
have a creative streak and you only need to acknowledge your own creativity for it to become
a powerful strength. Creativity is the core building block for innovation, problem solving,
adjustment, change and growth in general.
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SECTION 4 PIT STOP: SHARPENING THE THINKING TOOLS
Our environment demands expansions in the way we think, see, perceive, act and learn. In other
words, our technologically advanced world and complex social environment requires of us to
be creative and flexible in how we think, process information, learn and interact. It seems there
is even growing demand for purposeful creativity in the workplace because more and more
surveys indicate that employers highly value problem solvers, innovators and people who are
able to be flexible and adaptive. Innovation speaker, Robert B. Tucker believes that the need
for innovative thinking will explode in today’s hypercompetitive world (http://www.innova-
tionresource.com). This is why it has become essential for you to appreciate your own creative
potential and understand how to optimise your own creativity to your own advantage.
If you do not necessarily think that you are very creative or perhaps do not feel very comfort-
able with the idea, this chapter is about taking a little risk and allowing yourself to go a beyond
your comfortable space – in terms of our dragons it is about charging up to confront some of
them. In modern literature, creativity is often referred to as “thinking out of the box”, meaning
that you allow yourself to go beyond what is ordinary or typical for you.
10.2 THINKING “OUT OF THE BOX”

In this chapter we assert that creativity is about
Creativity is just
connecting things. • looking at a problem, situation or issue in a new way
When you ask • looking at new problems, situations or issues in an unconventional way
creative people
how they did
• going beyond the obvious
something, they • challenging what is assumed.
feel a little guilty
because they didn’t From this description you can already see that creativity is not only about art and crafts but
really do it, they
rather about how you think and allow yourself to think. In this sense, creativity is also a skill that
just saw some-
thing. It seemed can be nurtured and improved as with all other skills addressed in this book.
obvious to them Creativity is not merely about producing works of art. It may include that, but is also far more
after a while. That’s
because they were
than that. Creativity in its broadest sense is about being able to deal effectively with differ-
able to connect ent and changing people and situations – a fundamental skill in dealing with the change and
experiences they’ve adjustment that is required of you in almost every domain of your life, including your home,
had and synthesize studies and work.
new things.
Steve Jobs But what do we really understand about the nature of creativity and how can we unleash our
own creative abilities and nurture (care and grow) the skill to be able to thrive during constant
change and uncertainty?
10.3 UNDERSTANDING CREATIVITY

Creativity is the miracle aspect of life and comes in many forms, from arts, crafts, composing,
Creativity involves
breaking out of es-
gardening and cooking, to problem solving and inventing. Creativity is so simple and yet so
tablished patterns complex all at the same time that it is almost impossible to define it in one simple statement. By
in order to look at its very nature, creativity defies one singular definition but, in modern science and psychology
things in a different and even in the disciplines of engineering and management, we now understand that creativ-
way. ity in its widest application is essential to success in the workplace. It has become a critical skill
Edward de Bono not just for the ‘arty’ people, but for all people to survive and be successful.
Source: http://www.
brainyquote.com/ John Baer (1997: 1) invites you to rate your own creativity on a scale of 0 (represented by an
quotes/keywords/ uninteresting rock) to 10 (reserved for the Shakespeares, Picassos, Einsteins, Beethovens, you?):
creativity
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DISCOVER YOUR CREATIVE POTENTIAL: CREATIVE LIVING AND CREATIVE LEARNING
10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Rock Picasso
Figure 10.1 Zero-to-10 test of creativity (self-rating)
Baer believes that nobody is a rock (hard, unyielding and not-creative) and nobody is a 10
(yet). Because creativity is forever in progress and fluctuating, the zero-to-10 test of creativity is
obviously too simple, but it does reveal a very important set of features about creativity. Let us
explore some characteristics of creativity:
• We are all gifted with creative abilities to some extent or another.
• Creativity is a continuum, not something that we either possess or lack. We all are creative in
some way and at varying degrees at varying times or depending on the situation. (Imagine
an ebb and flow process.)
• Our creativity varies according to influencing factors, such as time, motivation, situation,
environment and task.
• We limit our creativity by our perceptions or preconceived ideas about what creativity is or
what it means to be creative.
• There are limitations to assessing overall creativity, i.e. we can never fully or accurately meas-
ure creativity.
Let us briefly recap what we covered in Chapter 4 regarding diversity and individualism.
We explored the fact that we are all unique and looked at the concept of brain dominance as
explained by Neethling and Rutherford (2001). This model demonstrates how we experience
the world in ways that are primarily determined by our particular array of mental preferences.
We will now look at the same model for the purpose of understanding creativity.
The basic principles of the whole-brain approach are as follows:
• We all have preferences in all areas.
• We may have well-developed skills in some areas even though they are not necessarily what
we do naturally or easily.
• Tasks / activities / conversations that fall within the domain that we most prefer tend to
energise us and tire us less.
• Tasks / activities / conversations that fall within the domain we least prefer tend to drain our
energy, tire us more or require more effort.
• It is easier to associate and get along with people who share a similar preference to our own,
but people who have opposite preferences tend to challenge us (which of course is essential
for our growth and development).
• These preferences are not equal to abilities or intelligence.
• Except for a few severely disabled individuals, we all have a whole brain and are therefore
able to use and be active in all domains. The model simply proposes that we have a pre-
ferred “mode” or in modern technology language, a “default” mode.
• When we experience stress, particularly any form of emotional strain that leads to neuro- 119
logical stress, we will revert to our “default” or preferred thinking dominance.
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Table 10.1 Neethling’s whole-brain model
Top Left (L1) Top Right (R1)
• Focus • Factual memory

Flexible Risk taking
Experimental
• Essence • Concrete
Curious
• Precise • Mathematical Artistic
Bigger picture
• Accuracy • Financial Strategic
• Factual reasoning • Performance driven Simultaneous (many

Synthesising
things at once)
• Logic • Rational
Looking for Investigative
• Objective • Realistic
alternatives
• Diagnostic • Quantitative
Integrating ideas
Unstructured
• Analysis • Important to do it right
Imaginative Visualising
• Critical • Control Fantasy
• Clinical Speculative Idea-intuition
Preference for change
Bottom Left (L2) Bottom Right (R2)
Organised / orderly Punctual / time-

Planned conscious Involved
Non-verbal cues Playful
Structured Steadfast
Touch Respectful
Step-by-step Sequential Cooperation
approach Sociable (one-on-one
and / or in groups)
Accessible
Security / safe Thorough Approachable
keeping Reliable People focus Expressive
Detail Responsive Empathic
Result driven
Receptive Teamwork
Traditional
Drive / task driven People awareness
People perceptive
Neat
Sensitive
Support
120
• In all spheres of our lives (e.g. family, school, social and work) we will find people with pref-
erences in all areas and therefore we need to be able to deal with, understand and respect all
of them.
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Neethling and Rutherford (2001 :36) describe creativity as “looking at the world with a fresh
pair of eyes”. They claim that creativity is a lifestyle, i.e. the way you think, the way you dream
and the way you do things. This provides us with a simple working definition of creativity. It
is important that you notice from this that creativity is something that permeates (infiltrates) all
spheres of our lives and is primarily a way of doing (thinking and behaving).
If you look at the brain dominance model again you may ask, but what if my preferences are
not within the R1 quadrant? Does this mean I am not creative? The response will be that of
course you are creative – regardless of your natural preference, you definitely still do some or
most of those things listed to describe the R1 quadrant. For example, you adjusted to changing
circumstances and made new friends when you came to your current school or college; you
have friends with different preferences, but you have learned how to understand and deal with
them; you have a teacher with a totally opposite profile, but you have managed to handle the
way they teach so that you can learn the material; you have solved complex problems by pur-
posefully thinking of options and alternatives; you have come up with solutions when you
needed a tool that was not immediately available, and so on.
Neethling and Rutherford (2001) propose that creativity is about
• going beyond
• spreading your wings
• digging deeper
• wanting to know
• singing in your own key
• never saying never
• shaking hands with the future.
They further explain that truly creative people have some of the following characteristics:
• They recognise or are aware of problems; they identify and define problems, and are pre-
pared to open them up and redefine them (explorative and curious).
• They are able to move beyond the obvious and common ideas, and come up with a newly
generated or alternative idea (investigating and imagining).
• They are able to isolate the essential ideas from a pool of many. In other words, they can
identify the important aspects (synthesising).
• They are able to figure out how to implement an idea (visualising, risk taking and experi-
menting).
• They are able to come up with alternative or unconventional solutions for old problems
(innovative and flexible).
Even creative people are not equally strong in all of these characteristics. You may recognise
some, if not all, of them in yourself.
Whatever the level or strength of our creativity, there are some things that may impact heavily
on our creative performance in general or within a specific context:
•
Our health and wellbeing. If we are hungry, unsafe or tired, we will tend to be less cre-
ative. For example, the homeless man begging on the street corner is focused on satisfying
his immediate need (hunger), which keeps him from looking at options and alternative solu- 121
tions to acquire work. This relates closely to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (Griffin, 2014) that
shows how certain basic human needs can hold us back from higher level thinking and func-
tioning.
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•
Emotional stress. When experiencing emotional stress as a result of physical or emotional
circumstances or events, we will tend to operate in our natural preference / dominance and
it may impact on our level of creativity
•
Social constraints. In some social circumstances it may be expected of us to conform and
sometimes a specific place / space can dampen creativity.
It is therefore reasonable to assume that we should make some effort to determine our personal
brain dominances in order to have some understanding of our creativity and how to make the
best of it. Remember that at most institutions of learning, there are professional people that can
assist with this.
Such awareness of our brain dominance makes the move towards greater and free creativity
much easier because then we understand that we need to step out of the safety of our prefer-
ence mode into our less preferred modes. Fourie (1998) explains that these dominances also
express themselves through different temperaments, which could also explain some of our cre-
ative tendencies or weaknesses. He distinguishes between the following:
• A person with a sanguine temperament (R1 quadrant dominance) can be described as the talk-
ative person, typically known as an extrovert. Such people are generally eager to get involved,
not very punctual and will easily offer solutions to problems. They are generally also known as
creative, friendly, enthusiastic and they can make quick connections between things.
• A person with a phlegmatic temperament (R2 quadrant dominance) can be described as
the caring person, mostly calm and composed. Such individuals are likely to avoid conflict,
soothe others and easily offer support as they are sensitive to feelings and emotions and
genuinely care. They will seldom force their own opinion and sometimes seem to be quiet
and reserved. They are generally very stable in relationships or groups.
• A person with a choleric temperament (L1 quadrant dominance) can be described as the
independent and strong willed, goal-oriented, focused or driven individual. These people
can be verbal about emotions, but are more careful to consider the impact than their R1
counterparts. They can have difficulty with relationships because they are typically work
oriented and task driven, but can also be dedicated and loyal.
• A person with a melancholic temperament (L2 quadrant dominance) can be described as
the disciplined person. Such people prefer a well-organised environment, structure and
good order. They are good at thinking factually and theoretically and creating structure in
thoughts or ideas. They are generally known as perfectionists, organised and neat.
• A person with a flexible or multidimensional temperament (all or more than one quadrant
dominance) has more than one area of dominance that will reflect as multiple characteristics
in his or her temperament. Fourie (1998) quotes a study of 15 000 professionals that showed
that only 7% of people have a single dominant temperament. In 60% of cases, people showed
characteristics of at least two temperaments, in 30% of cases, characteristics of three temper-
aments, and in 3%, all of the fields.
Temperament relates directly to your creativity. We have already determined that creativity
cannot be easily defined. Neethling and Rutherford (2001) say there are 400 identifiable defin-
itions. This confirms the nature of creativity and the fact that creativity manifests differently
122 in each individual. Not all of us will be famous painters or musicians. Some will be creative in
developing a new product or system, others in helping people to solve or overcome a challenge
and still others in finding the resources to complete a project, design a bridge or set up a com-
plex structure. We are all unique and our “brand of creativity” will be equally unique.
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10.4 DEVELOPING AND NURTURING CREATIVITY

Self-development and appreciation of our own creative abilities is not only possible but also
essential. De Jager (1998) proposes activities for practising, developing and strengthening the
different quadrants and when to use which quadrant in problem solving, something she calls
“Brain Gym”. This immediately implies that the following elements will be part of developing
our creativity: practicing, exercising, repeating, regularly and of course, as with anything of value:
effort. De Jager (1998) calls the brain gym approach a rewiring and editing of the brain to ensure
that you fire up in all quadrants and utilise your mental and creative capabilities optimally.
Examples of exercises to promote whole-brain functioning are given in Table 10.2. These will
ensure that you optimise your rational but also creative thinking. All of them are safe, quick
and easy to do and they have a dramatic effect on brain functioning. The more you use them,
the more your brain will respond.
It is important to drink lots of water to help your brain function optimally. Water cleanses
the blood of impurities and assists in the complex physiological processes of the body. Kay
McCarol suggests having a bottle of water on your desk when you study to sip on throughout
the day (Alexander, 2011).
Pearson’s guide Smarter Study Skills (Pearson, 2014) states that developing your
creativity, no matter what your career or field of study, will assist you in solv- The right attitude
for developing a
ing problems, finding different ways of thinking, learning unfamiliar and new creative lifestyle
concepts and content, and getting along with fellow students and group mem- is a willingness
bers. Strengthening such abilities will give you a competitive edge when you to take risks, a
enter the world of work. willingness to fail,
a willingness to
Schaefer and De Wet (Schaefer, 2014) provide us with 10 actions towards devel- be different, a will-
oping and improving our creativity. These are provided in Table 10.3. ingness to stand
out, a willingness
These actions towards developing and enhancing our creativity are simply to question, a will-
good habits that can become a lifestyle. After performing them purposefully for ingness to laugh at
one self.
a while, they will become established behaviours that will serve us well in all
Unknown
spheres of our lives. Allowing ourselves to be creative and acknowledging this
part of our humanity is healthy and supports our emotional, mental and physic-
al wellbeing.
10.4.1 Parallel thinking as a creative thinking and problem-solving strategy

Parallel thinking simply means laying ideas alongside each other with no clash, no dispute and
no initial true / false judgement. Instead, there is a genuine exploration of the subject. Conclu-
sions and decisions are then derived through a “design” process.
De Bono’s Six Thinking Hats is a widely used parallel thinking method (De Bono, 1992). It
involves making a map of the problem by following the mode of thinking of the colour of the
specific hat the problem solver is wearing. A description follows.
10.4.1.1 White hat

This neutral hat focuses on facts, information and data that are simply laid down in parallel
alongside each other:
• What do we know? 123
• What do we need to know?
• What information, facts and / or data are missing?
• How will we get the missing info?
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Table 10.2 Brain Gym exercises
B RA IN GYM EXERSISES
BELLY BREATHING
This is to improve the supply of oxygen to the entire body. Slightly increased oxygen relaxes the body (similar to when you instinctive-
ly stretch). It relaxes the central nervous system and increases your energy levels. This exercise can help improve both reading and
speaking abilities. In terms of creativity it assists in creative, clear and well-used language.
To do:
• Place your hands on your abdomen.
• Exhale through your mouth in short little puffs, as if you are keeping a feather in the air, until your lungs feel empty. Now inhale
deeply, filling yourself like a balloon beneath your hand. (By arching your back slightly, you can take in even more air.)
• Slowly and fully exhale.
• Repeat this inhalation and exhalation, establishing a natural rhythm, during the course of three or more breaths.
BRAIN BUTTONS
This is to stimulate the carotid arteries that run up your neck and supply freshly oxygenated blood to the brain. The exercise helps to
re-establish directional messages from parts of the body to the brain, improving reading, writing, speaking and the ability to follow
directions. In terms of creativity it assists in whole-brain functioning.
To do:
• Rest one hand over your navel.
• With the thumb and fingers of the other hand, feel for the two hollow areas under the collarbone, about one inch out from the
centre of the chest.
• Rub these areas vigorously for 30 seconds to one minute, as you look from left to right.
COOK’S HOOK-UPS
This exercise connects the two hemispheres of the brain and strengthens the body’s electrical energy, particularly in stressful environ-
ments such as offices. Reported benefits are increased vitality and improved self-esteem. It also enhances whole-brain functioning.
To do:
• Start by sitting in a chair, with your left ankle resting on top of your right knee.
• Grasp your left ankle with your right hand and the ball of your right foot with your right hand.
• As you inhale, place your tongue flat against the roof of your mouth, about 2 cm behind your front teeth. Relax your tongue as you
exhale.
• Close your eyes and rest in this posture for four to eight complete breaths.
• Now uncross your legs and place your feet flat on the floor.
• Lightly steeple the fingertips of both hands together, as if you were enclosing a ball.
• Keep your eyes closed as you continue to lift your tongue on the inhalation and lower it on the exhalation, relaxing in this position
during the course of four to eight complete breaths.
CROSS-CRAWL
This exercise coordinates the whole brain and improves integrated functioning of different parts of the brain.
To do:
• Stand up and march on the spot, alternately touching each hand to the opposite knee.
• Continue during the course of four to eight complete, relaxed breaths.
EARTH BUTTONS
This stimulates the brain and relieves mental fatigue. It also helps to enhance your ability to focus on near objects.
124 • Rest two fingers of one hand under your lower lip.
• Place the heel of the other hand on your navel, with fingers pointing downwards.
• Breathe deeply as you look at the floor.
• Moving only your eyes, look gradually from the floor to the ceiling, then down again.
• Repeat this for three or more breaths, as your entire body relaxes.
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Table 10.2 (continued)
B RA IN GYM EXERSISES
THE ENERGISER
This exercise keeps the back muscles toned and the spine supple, flexible and relaxed. It improves posture and concentration, and is
very useful for those who work at desks and computers.
To do:
• Sit on a chair in front of a table, resting your forehead between your hands on the table top.
• Exhale fully.
• Now, slowly lift your head as you inhale deeply, breathing into the base of your spine. Your torso and shoulders should stay relaxed.
• As you exhale, tuck your chin down onto your chest and begin moving your head down toward the table, while lengthening the
back of your neck. Rest your head on the table as you relax and breathe deeply.
• Repeat three or more times.
THE ENERGY YAWN
This exercise relaxes the jaw, releasing tension. It also stimulates and relaxes the eyes. It is particularly good for improving creativity,
as there is a relationship between ease of jaw motion and ease of expression.
To do:
• As you begin to yawn, lightly press the fingertips of each hand against any tight spots you feel where your cheeks cover your upper
and lower molars.
• Make a deep, relaxed, yawning sound while gently stroking away any tension.
• Repeat three or more times.
LAZY EIGHTS
This exercise integrates both the visual fields, improving balance and coordination.
To do:
• Extend one arm straight out in front of you, with the thumb pointing towards the ceiling.
• In the air, smoothly and slowly trace the shape of a large figure 8 on its side.
• As you draw the 8, focus your eyes on your thumb, keeping your head upright, facing forward and moving only slightly.
• Start tracing your 8 by beginning at eye level. Move your arm up and over to the left, around and back to centre, then to the right.
• Do three full 8s with one hand, then three with the other, and finally three with both hands clasped together.
THINK OF AN X
This exercise reinforces whole-brain and whole-body coordination for ease of thought, communication and performance.
To do:
• Close your eyes and visualise the letter X. Notice how your vision is like the X – your eyes coordinate to connect left, right, upper
and lower visual fields around a point of focus.
• Imagine / visualise the X-like symmetry and organisation within your own body, as each hip coordinates with each shoulder.
THE THINKING CAP
This helps you tune out distracting noises. It increases listening ability, short-term memory and abstract thinking skills.
To do:
• With one hand at the top of each ear, gently “unroll” the curved parts of the outer edges of both ears at the same time.
• Continue all the way to the bottom of the ears. Repeat three or more times.
Sourc e:Adapted from Alexander, 2011. http://www.brutallyfrank.wordpress.com/2011/07/05/brain-gym-simple-exercises-for-a-better-

mind-and-body
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Table 10.3 Ten actions to nurture and improve creativity
Strategies or actions to improve our creative abilities

In order to develop and nurture your own creativity:
1. Deliberately remove barriers of tradition and habit that Identify at least two things in terms of your own behaviour
block creativity. These are behaviours and attitudes that block and thinking that you could change (also write down what
creativity and have to do with habits, learned rules, traditions you will do to effect the change):
and cultural norms. We learn ways of thinking and doing, and
what is acceptable and inacceptable behaviour, from an early —————————————————————
age. Societies, social and work groups, and families that prize
conformity inhibit individuality. Highly creative people are often —————————————————————
seen as rebels and mavericks because they question traditions
—————————————————————
and rules. It is not advocated that you throw all rules and traditions
overboard, but it may be possible to remove barriers and blocks to —————————————————————
creativity in a moral and ethical way by questioning the way things
have always been done within the boundaries of your moral and —————————————————————
ethical limits. There may be smaller, simpler behaviours (or even
your own thoughts and attitudes about certain things) that are —————————————————————
within your power to change.
2. Examine and remove perceptual blocks. We get used to Think of a frustrating or challenging situation in your life
observing things in a particular way based on our interests, needs, and come up with at least one or two alternative ways of
biases, values and past learning. People with strong perceptual thinking about it:
sets are prone to quick decisions and conclusions, rather than
looking for alternatives. To be more creative, take a minute and —————————————————————
examine other options.
—————————————————————
3. Recognise and remove emotional blocks. Emotional blocks to Is there an area of your life where fear of rejection
creativity are feelings such as anger, fear, anxiety, hate and even (looking stupid, being laughed at, looking less in control,
love. Sometimes people experience these temporarily through etc) keeps you from trying something?
home or work circumstances, or problems with peers, parents,
partners and children. Chronic sources of insecurity are things —————————————————————
like fear of rejection, fear of being different, fear of failure, fear of
—————————————————————
ridicule or criticism, fear of people like supervisors or those with
authority over us, timidity, or poor self-esteem.
4. Recognise and overcome limited resources. Sometimes a lack Is there something (realistic) you would like to do that you
of finances, information, people and time inhibit our ability to be simply cannot do right now because of money or time?
innovative. This is an excellent opportunity to think creatively. How Write it down and start thinking of ways to overcome the
else can you make this idea work? What other people are available barrier (write them down) as well:
who might help? What can I substitute for the expensive resources
I think I need? —————————————————————
—————————————————————
5. Practise divergent thinking. Divergent thinking is the generation You wrote down some options above to solve the problem,
of multiple answers to a problem. Think of many and various now look at them and write down one more possible
alternatives. Brainstorming is a great example of this technique. solution to each. Do not evaluate the possible solution on
The secret to brainstorming is not to evaluate ideas as they are how practical or achievable it is – just write it down as it
generated, but to name or write down as many things as you can comes to mind:
regardless of their possible utility or value. The first things we
think of are the usual, the known and the mundane. The longer you —————————————————————
126
continue with this process, the more likely you are to come up with
—————————————————————
new ideas. Another technique is to break objects and ideas down
into their component parts and then to analyse those parts and the —————————————————————
relationships between them.
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Table 10.3 (continued)
Strategies or actions to improve our creative abilities

In order to develop and nurture your own creativity:
6. Practise convergent thinking. Convergent thinking is deliberately Have you heard or seen something that you could apply to
putting diverse and disparate ideas, concepts and objects together your solutions?
to create a new object, idea or concept, or to find the best solution
to a problem. De Bono’s Six Thinking Hats is an excellent example —————————————————————
of a convergent thinking technique.
—————————————————————
7. Pursue new experiences. Putting yourselvelf in the way of new Is there perhaps something you could read or do that
ideas and new experiences will help you to open your mind. would expose you to a new area of knowledge or
The more you develop a curious mindset and openness to new experience? Something that will push the boundaries of
experiences, ideas, places, people and objects, in other words what you know or are familiar with?
living creatively, the more likely you are to produce creatively.
—————————————————————
—————————————————————
8. Make time to think. No one is creative under pressure. Pressure, Do you ever have alone time or down time, where you can
whether time or emotional, inhibits creativity. Positive emotions are be quiet and peaceful and think? Perhaps when you travel
conducive to creativity. Take time to think, to relax, to be happy. or a specific time of the week?
Maslow’s self-actualised person is the epitome of a fully creative When? Write it down so that you may know and protect
person. Many religions link spirituality and creativity through the time as your “time to think”:
meditation.
—————————————————————
If not, when can you make time for reflection and personal
thought? Write down just one option.
—————————————————————
—————————————————————
9. Collaborate. Shared thinking provides opportunity for many of Have you experienced a situation where a group of people
the above thinking techniques: brainstorming is easier with more sat together and talked something through? Have you
than one person; divergent thinking of multiple people produces experienced the wealth of ideas that can come forth? Or
more diverse ideas; multiple perspectives focused on one problem how something someone says triggers another idea with
create better convergent thinking. Collaboration requires an you? Identify a situation / challenge where this sort of
unselfish attitude and can create positive emotions. Choose your “group thinking scrum” can be of great value.
collaborators well and enjoy the sharing process.
—————————————————————
—————————————————————
10. Make time to study. Creativity requires knowledge. Both The more you read, look, see and expose yourself to
divergent and convergent thinking requires thinking content. facts, ideas and other people, the more it will stimulate
People who know nothing have little with which to be creative. your own creativity. This stimulates new questions and
Some of the best creative producers are those who can use ideas, and allows you to transfer ideas from one situation
knowledge from one domain in another. to another in such a manner that provides energy and
impetus for your creativity.
—————————————————————
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We may validate info, but may not discuss it. Answers to questions may be put forward. No
dispute, challenge or argument is allowed at this time.
10.4.1.2 Red hat

Red hat thinking involves writing down feelings, hunches, intuition and emotions (direct, free,
even visible), but explanation or justification is not permitted. These are again laid down in
parallel:
• What does my heart tell me about this?
• How do I feel about this idea or problem?
Remember that feelings are changeable.
10.4.1.3 Black hat

With black hat thinking, you urge / force / direct the thinking process in a critical, logical, judge-
mental, evaluating manner. Risk assessment and the reasons why you should do / implement
something, or not, require verification and logical support. This is intended to prevent mis-
takes which are dangerous, unpleasant or potentially damaging to yourself and / or others, and
your values, goals and future or those of the company.
10.4.1.4 Yellow hat

This hat directs the logical positive how and why something should be done, giving rea-
sons behind the arguments / statements (i.e. benefits and value added). Yellow hat thinking
is tougher than black hat thinking, because in modern society “it is our natural and learned
instinct (critical thinking) to point out difficulties and dangers, but it generally comes much
less naturally to search for values”.
10.4.1.5 Green hat

Green hat thinking involves deliberately generating creative effort, alternatives, new ideas, options
and alternative, endless possibilities. This specific process of lateral thinking and creative problem
solving fits under the green hat. Green symbolises fecundity and growth.
10.4.1.6 Blue hat

Blue hat thinking involves controlling and managing. It determines the focus, makes the deci-
sions and directs the whole process. It symbolises the vast blue sky and an overview. The chair-
person or facilitator at a meeting typically uses this hat, but all the team members are allowed
to make suggestions about procedure and to keep members on track.
10.4.1.7 In summary
This method or set of tools could be applied to the thinking processes of problem solving and pre-
senting information:
•
The white hat states the facts, information and data. The statement should be clear, rational
and verifiable.
128 •
The black hat states the problem. Stating the problem is not confined simply to transmitting
information, facts and data or even knowledge; it also entails presenting the information
in the form of a statement of problems or possible problems embedded in the information,
within a certain context and putting these problems into perspective.
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•
The green hat offers a solution. When presenting information, at this stage simply list ideas,
suggestions and possible solutions. Emphasise the two or three that may be key.
•
The yellow hat presents the values and benefits of implementation.
•
The black hat gives the risks. This is a critical thinking and rethinking of all possibilities.
A good balancing idea is to place the black hat next to the yellow hat on the same page of a
presentation.
•
The red hat recommends action.
•
The blue hat summarises the plan of action.
10.4.2 The process of creative problem solving

In the process of creative problem solving and the finding of innovative ideas, suggestions and
solutions is of crucial importance, as this step will determine the value of the final result. In the
learning process, this will be utilising the constructed meaning (i.e. the meaning you give to it)
to create new actions, meaning or ideas. This demands lateral thinking as opposed to linear or
vertical left brain thinking.
The Creative Education Foundation (http://www.creativeeducationfoundation.org, 2014)
states the following: “Creative problem solving is a proven method for approaching a prob-
lem or a challenge in an imaginative and innovative way. It’s a tool that helps people re-define
the problems they face, come up with breakthrough ideas and then take action on these new
ideas”. From this working definition you can clearly see that it is about solving a problem (a),
in a creative manner (b). In the following sections we will explore some options for creative
thinking and problem solving.
10.4.3 Brainstorming as a creative thinking and problem-solving strategy

As a process that induces creative, useful ideas, brainstorming is probably still one of the most
divergent thinking tools available. Alex Osborne (2014) realised the power of ideas and the
inherent creative abilities of all people. He then developed a technique known as brainstorm-
ing as a method of focusing a group of people on a specific problem in such a way as to gener-
ate a variety and large or maximum quantity of ideas without regard to the quality, but opti-
mising creative solutions (options).
The first objective of the process is to have as big a choice as possible from which to choose the
best solution or creative product. The second objective is to produce truly original, unusual,
interesting, provocative ideas. Osborne’s technique is based on the assumption that originality
is a precondition for creativity. The rules of brainstorming include the following:
• Accept all ideas regardless of quality.
• Quantity and variety matter.
• Take risks, play with ideas and break existing rules.
• Use your imagination.
• Do not praise or criticise any idea – defer judgement.
• Draw on or borrow from existing ideas.
• Seek to combine and improve.
• Avoid ownership of ideas
• Encourage provocative, impossible, wild ideas. 129
The most important rule to brainstorming is to defer judgement, in other words both negative
and positive feedback must be postponed until a later stage in the idea-developing process.
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Remember to keep a written account of all ideas. After all the ideas have been suggested and
recorded, time must be spent on the clarification and precise meanings of each idea. This does
not involve defending or critiquing. The process of classical brainstorming stops when every-
one understands all the ideas.
The effectiveness of brainstorming is determined mainly by the following:
•
Group commitment. The productiveness of the group is determined by the interest of the
group in the outcome of the brainstorming process.
•
Group composition. Heterogeneous groups representing different backgrounds, skills and
organisational levels are more productive.
•
Uniformity pressures. Pressure toward uniformity is a natural phenomenon when working
in groups. This affects the success of the process and must be reduced by allowing individ-
ual idea generation, breaking the group into smaller groups, and using humour to break
down communication and organisational barriers.
10.4.4 Mind-mapping as a creative thinking and problem-solving strategy

Mind-mapping can be one of the most effective skills in the process of creativity. This tech-
nique adds joy and guaranteed success to learners and businessmen alike (Ober, 2003: 151).
Wycoff (1991: 39) describes mind-mapping as “a whole-brain, visually interesting version of
outlining”. It allows concrete, visible construction of knowledge.
Mind-mapping explores patterns of the brain, focusing on ideas and thoughts for between
five and seven minutes and “dumping” them on paper. This allows information to be “kept
alive”, connecting it to other thoughts and information to produce creative ideas and products.
The free-flowing structure of mind-mapping combines well with brainstorming in generating
new ideas. Mind-mapping and brainstorming allow a form of control over thinking and prob-
lem-solving activities. These techniques can also be applied to the rest of the steps in the prob-
lem-solving process.
10.5 CREATIVE LEARNING

Creativity is a means of gaining knowledge and fresh ideas, learning and developing cognitive
skills, but more importantly, it is a tool that permits you to structure and refine your thinking
processes. It optimises your natural mental ability and ensures that you go beyond the known
and ordinary boundaries (options, places, solutions and ideas) in your life. Applying creativity
tools imaginatively to your learning, work and life will help you achieve the best level of living
and success possible.
Once you are familiar with your own brain dominance, you have a starting point and can align
any learning situation with your personal learning style, understand challenges and difficult
or different people, and find creative ways to improve within your particular style (Dacey &
Lennon, 1998).
10.6 CONCLUSION
This chapter reviewed creativity and provided you with tools to unleash creative living and
learning. The creative learner, leader, businessman, in fact every one of us, will be able to apply
130 this to both the learning process and real-life situations. None of the recommended techniques
are particularly difficult to apply – it is merely a matter of your commitment and can become
habit.
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R E FER E N C E S
Al Mufti, I. 1996. Excellence in education: investing Isaksen, S. 2011. Creative approaches to problem solving:
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treasure within. Paris: Presses Universitaires. Lumsdaine, E. & Lumsdaine, M. 1995. Creative prob-
Adam, J. 2003. Innovation: harnessing creativity for busi- lem solving: thinking skills for a changing world. New
ness growth. London: Kogan Page. York: McGraw-Hill.
Alexander, J. 2011. Brain Gym: simple exercises for a Lieberman, J.N. Playfulness. It’s relationship to imagina-
better mind and body. Available at: http://www. tion and creativity. New York: Academic Press.
brutallyfrank.wordpress.com/2011/07/05 Neethling, K & Rutherford, R. 2001. Am I clever or am
(accessed on 18 September 2014). I stupid. Vanderbijlpark: Carpe Diem Books.
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ling Kindersley. Pearson. 2014. Smarter study skills. Available at:
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problem solving? Available at: http://www.cre- studyskills/
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Clegg, B. 1999. Creativity and innovation for managers. educational psychology of creativity. New Jersey:
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capstone (accessed in March 2013). able at: http://www.college.cengage.com/english
De Bono, E. 1982. De Bono’s thinking course. London: (accessed on 24 July 2014).
BBC. Schaefer, C. 2014. Schaefer’s blog: developing your
De Bono, E. 1992. Serious creativity. Using the power of creativity. Available at: http://www.schaefers-
lateral thinking to create new ideas. London: Harper blog.com/10-ways-to-develop-your-creativity/
Collins. (accessed on 24 July 2014).
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Dacey, J. & Lennon, K. 1998. Understanding creativity. Lumsdaine, E. & Lumsdaine, M. Creative problem solv-
The interplay of biological, psychological, and social facing: thinking skills for a changing world. New York:
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Herrmann, N. 1996. The whole-brain business book.
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SLIDES
11 Critical and
analytical thinking
in higher education
S H AF E E K A DO C K RAT
THE C H APT E R AT A G LA N C E 11.5.2 Clarification

11.1 Introduction 11.5.3 Credibility of evidence and sources
11.2 What are critical and analytical thinking skills? 11.5.4 Judge inferences
11.2.1 Critical thinking 11.5.5 Attribute implicit assumptions
11.2.2 Analytical thinking 11.5.6 Reasoning about causation
11.3 Why is it important to be a critical analytical 11.5.7 Decision making
thinker? 11.6 Conclusion
11.4 Components of critical and analytical thinking References
11.4.1 Perception
11.4.2 Assumptions O U T CO MES
11.4.3 Emotion After working through this chapter, you should
11.4.4 Language n understand what critical and analytical thinking
11.4.5 Argument skills are
11.4.6 Fallacy n know what the major components of critical ana-
11.4.7 Logic lytical thinking are
11.5 Develop your critical and analytical thinking n be able to apply critical analytical thinking skills
skills when studying and making decisions.
11.5.1 Identify and analyse arguments
11.1 INTRODUCTION
You have just worked through the chapter on creativity. Critical thinking is sometimes referred
to as critico-creative thinking. Critical is often interpreted as something negative, and seen as
putting down ideas or identifying negative aspects. However, in order to evaluate ideas it is
necessary to take into account as many possibilities and viewpoints as possible. To obtain a
comprehensive picture, creativity and imagination are indispensable.
11.2 WHAT ARE CRITICAL AND ANALYTICAL THINKING SKILLS?

133
11.2.1 Critical thinking
Many theorists, including John Dewey (1909), Robert Ennis (1989) and Richard Paul (Paul,
Fisher & Nosich, 1993), have put forth definitions of critical thinking.
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John Dewey is regarded as the father of the modern critical thinking paradigm and refers to
critical thinking as “reflective thinking”. He defines it as an “active, persistent, and careful con-
sideration of a belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds which sup-
port it and the further conclusions to which it tends” (Dewey, 1909: 9). Active thinking implies
thinking issues through for yourself, asking questions, evaluating the resources, and so on,
rather than passively receiving and accepting information from someone else. “Persistent and
careful” require not jumping to conclusions or making hasty decisions. They require thinking
about an issue carefully and continuously, not just once. Most significantly, they are the rea-
sons for accepting a particular perspective and its implications. Hence, reasoning is an import-
ant element of critical thinking and more specifically the process of motivating a point or pos-
ition (Fisher, 2011).
Robert Ennis’ widely used definition explains critical thinking as thinking that is reasonable
and reflective and directed at deciding what to believe or do (Ennis, 1996).
Richard Paul’s definition differs somewhat. He conceptualises critical thinking as a mode of
thinking where the thinker enhances the quality of his own thinking by skilfully taking charge
of the structures intrinsic to the thinking process and imposing intellectual standards on them
(Paul, Fisher & Nosich, 1993). This definition introduces the idea of metacognition, which is
thinking about your thinking, which is one of the most realistic methods of improving critical
thinking skills.
To summarise, critical thinking would include the following:
• Thinking carefully about your beliefs
• Considering the grounds and evidence supporting beliefs
• Evaluating conclusions
• Reasonable thinking
• Reflective thinking
• Metacognition
11.2.2 Analytical thinking

Analytical thinking encompasses critical thinking as well as several additional processes. An
analytical thinker has to dissociate himself from the information, and scrutinise it from as
many angles as possible. The information has to be assessed for its accuracy, sound reasoning
and logic, and hidden assumptions. Analytical thinking also requires the ability to understand
why different individuals reach different conclusions, and why a particular set of beliefs or
conclusions may be preferable to another. It also demands being alert to information that may
sway you into a particular viewpoint (Cottrell, 2003).
11.3 WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO BE A CRITICAL ANALYTICAL THINKER?

Thinking skills are seldom taught at school. Very often, learning at school requires memorising
facts, or straightforward application of theories or principles. Learning at tertiary level can be
somewhat different. To understand the ideas in university textbooks, you have to systematic-
ally analyse the content, and its relationship to the whole. Each time a textbook is mastered,
you have learned how to think about that specific subject. Also, at tertiary level, open book
134 assessments are common. Memorisation of content has minimal value – the ability to process
the information critically is what counts. The skills that you acquire in thinking, reasoning and
associating meaning to a specific subject, will make it easier to apply those skills to a different
task or textbook. Like every other skill, thinking requires practice.
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CRITICAL AND ANALYTICAL THINKING IN HIGHER EDUCATION
11
What makes critical and analytical thinking skills important now is that we are living in the
information era. We are confronted 24 / 7 with information on our smartphones, tablets and
computers in the form of websites, blogs, microblogs like Twitter and Facebook, emails and
text messages. Anyone with a connection has the potential to disseminate information to a
large number of people. This is different from the past, where the distribution of information
lay largely within the domain of authors, researchers and the mass media. Critical and ana-
lytical skills need to become ingrained in our repertoire of thinking skills in order to separate
facts from unfounded opinions and at the extreme end of the continuum, utter nonsense. Tof-
fler (1990) believes that the ability to process information is one of the key skills for success in
the information age.
11.4 COMPONENTS OF CRITICAL AND ANALYTICAL THINKING

It is useful to think of the skill of critical analytical thinking in terms of a house. It compris-
es certain building blocks (bricks) that have to be assembled into the actual process of think-
ing critically and analytically (the house), i.e. the critical analytical thinking skills have to be
applied. The building blocks are as follows (Bednarz, 2011):
• Perception
• Assumptions
• Emotion
• Language
• Argument
• Fallacy
• Logic
These are discussed below.
11.4.1 Perception
Perception refers to the way you receive and interpret your experiences. In order to fully
understand a problem or information, it is necessary to use your five senses, namely seeing,
hearing, touching, tasting and smelling. But, to what extent can you trust your perceptions?
How can you be certain of what are hearing or seeing? Here are some exercises that assess your
visual perceptions.
135
Figure 11.1 How many black dots are there?
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Did you struggle to count the dots in Figure 11.1? Why? You cannot always expect things to be
static or literal. Upon close scrutiny, ambiguity almost always prevails. Very little is as clear-
cut as may initially appear.
Figure 11.2 What do you see?
In Figure 11.2, did you see a skull or a woman staring into her dresser mirror? At first glance,
something may appear scary and intimidating, but upon closer scrutiny, a situation may come
across very differently. To be a critical thinker, you need to see both the positive and negative
in a situation.
Initial perceptions cannot always be trusted, as your brain requires time to process all the
input. Take time to critically evaluate your perceptions, and consider all possibilities.
11.4.2 Assumptions
Whenever an argument is presented, it is likely that some things will not be explicitly stated,
but are believed to be true, and are relevant to the issue. Almost all arguments contain assump-
tions or beliefs that are taken for granted or not made explicit. Checking for assumptions is one
of the central tenets of critical thinking. We constantly have to check our assumptions to ensure
that they are valid and realistic. Critical thinking requires assessing, validating and clarifying
assumptions.
11.4.3 Emotion
The key difference between man and machine is that human beings have feelings. If a person
could eliminate emotions from their thoughts and actions, that person would be the world’s
only living heart donor! Thinking critically does not mean that you have to think unemotional-
ly, but implies acknowledging your emotions and managing them accordingly. Hence, in this
sense critical thinking is closely related to emotional intelligence.
11.4.4 Language
Academic language has five main functions, namely to describe, inform, understand, debate,
evaluate cognitive texts and persuade (Haynes, 2012). Persuasion is about trying to convince
136 others to accept your standpoint on an issue. Sometimes it is easy to identify what the function
of language is. Awareness of the specific language that is used helps you to reason and under-
stand academic work and conversation. In all your lectures and study material this type of
language will be used.
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11.4.5 Argument
Claims are statement-type sentences that may be either true or false. Commands (eat now),
exclamations (wow!) and questions (are you going to the library?) generally cannot be true or
false, and are therefore types of sentences that are not claims. An argument is always a set of
claims. One of the claims of an argument is the conclusion, which the argument is aiming to
prove, and the others are premises, which are intended to uphold or support the truth of the
conclusion. The goal of critical thinking is to evaluate if an argument is sound, as well as for-
mulating sound arguments of your own (Epstein, 2006).
Exercise 11.1
Which of the following sentences are claims / statements?
1. Your facilitator for the life skills course is male.
2. Selena is short.
3. Scarlet is 1,6 metres tall.
4. Les Misérables
5. Did you study Chapter 12?
6. I am feeling cold today.
7. 14 + 6 = 20
8. Just do it!
Identify which of the following are arguments and then specify their premises and con-
clusions:
1. I need a cell phone. All my friends have one. I am often stranded and need to call
my parents to pick me up.
2. This movie will win a few Oscars. The locations and cinematography were good, the
cast gave amazing performances, and the direction was excellent.
3. Rihanna has always wanted a cat, but she’s never been responsible. She had a fish,
but it died after three days. She forgot to water the plants, and they died.
11.4.6 Fallacy
Fallacy is also a type of argument. It attempts to persuade us, even though it is not a good
argument. If reasoning does not meet the criteria for a sound argument, it is deemed to be fal-
lacious or false or not true. Fallacies depend on deception, emotional appeals or both. Michael
Connelly (2012) provides a lengthy description of the types of fallacies.
11.4.6.1 Fallacies of deception

The first group of fallacy relates to those utilising deception or sleight-of-hand. They aim to
deceive by misleading us into believing something is true. These fallacies are further subdivid-
ed into two categories: distraction and counterfeit.
Distraction
•
False dilemma. The wording of this fallacy aims to distract. Two choices are provided, the 137
one argued for and only other alternative. But the latter is presented so outrageously, that
the reader is swayed into choosing the choice argued for, ignoring the likelihood of more
options.
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•
Slippery slope. This refers to everything being perceived as black or white, right or wrong,
with no continuum in between. The first step is argued against, as everything eventually fol-
lows through to the last step.
•
Straw man. This fallacy involves strengthening your own position by attacking the weak-
est point of the opponent’s argument. It is deceptive, as it adds nothing substantive to your
own argument. This is called the “straw man” approach. The tactic is to revert the focus to
the other person or another issue or a specific detail with the assumption that it is “easier
to knock down a man made from straw than a real man”, or alternatively it is easier to take
apart another person or position rather than accepting the focus of an argument on yourself
or your own issue / point.
Counterfeit
•
Affirming the consequent. Sometimes the premises are true, but the conclusion does not fol-
low from the premises, and is therefore false. If A, then B. B. Therefore, A.
•
Denying the antecedent. If A then B, so if B then A.
•
Post hoc ergo propter hoc. After A this, therefore this is because of A.
•
Equivocation or ambiguity. With equivocation, the meaning of an important concept has
altered in the course of the argument. With ambiguity, a word is used once only, but can be
defined in many different ways, of which only one meaning supports the argument.
•
Begging the question / circularity. An argument may be sound, but is counterfeit as one of
the premises may depend on the assumption that the conclusion is valid.
11.4.6.2 The use of emotion in an argument

The use of emotion in an argument is not necessarily a bad thing. Considering emotions may
be legitimate if it is used to determine the consequences of a course of action, i.e. it is taking
into account how someone’s emotions may be affected. (A word of caution: do not attribute
an excessive weighting to emotional factors, as they are not always easily predictable.) On the
other hand, emotions are used illegitimately if they are used as reasons:
•
Appeal to force or fear. This fallacy replaces reason with fear or desire by trying to persuade
you to avoid harm or gain some reward.
•
Appeal to pity. In this fallacy, reason is replaced with pity. The reason to accept the argu-
ment is to avoid harming others, or to cause them to be pleased.
•
Prejudicial use of language. Words in an argument may be selected for their emotive mean-
ing rather than their literal meaning. Such words elicit emotional reactions, which may be
positive for some people and negative for others. The use of a word is prejudicial when the
word provides a motive for a belief, without providing support for that belief. Alternatively,
“doublespeak” prevails if emotionally neutral terms are used to describe emotional issues, in
an attempt to conceal what is actually happening.
•
Appeal to authority. This fallacy relies on the belief that people will tend to agree with those
whom they like, and disagree with those whom they dislike, irrespective of the strength of
the argument being presented. An appeal to an authority figure is acceptable if the authority
figure is an expert on the topic being argued.
138
11.4.6.3 Fallacies employing both deception and emotion
This is called ad hominum and happens when the personal character of the source is attacked in
an effort to discredit the source, rather than discrediting the argument. This often happens in
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election campaigns when the personal indiscretions of a politician are revealed to the public,
instead of attacking the manifesto. This fallacy has three categories:
1. Abusive name calling (a personal favourite is when a politician was called a “chiwawa”
during a session in Parliament!)
2.
Circumstantial or guilt by association, which often happens in politics (politicians are
referred to as right- or left-wing, liberal or democrat, etc)
3. Tu quoque (Latin for “you, too”) is based on the proverb “those who live in glass houses
should not throw stones” and refers to using someone’s personal inconsistency or hypocrisy
to invalidate his or her argument which, in itself, is sound.
Exercise 11.2
State the type of fallacy being used:
1. If you don’t attend classes and study, you will not get your degree, and end up like
your brother. Do you really want to be a loser like him for the rest of your life?
2. I can’t believe you’re still smoking! You will get lung cancer and die.
11.4.7 Logic
In common, everyday conversations, it is generally assumed that there is a logical connection
between one thing that is said and the next. In academic texts, however, you need to question
if one point really does follow logically from another. The progression of the line of reasoning
can be deductive or inductive:
• Deductive reasoning or deduction commences with the general and moves to the specific.
• Inductive reasoning or induction moves from the specific to the general.
Arguments founded on laws, principles and rules are best described deductively, while argu-
ments based on experience or observations are better reasoned inductively. Arguments can
be expressed deductively or inductively, but the choice of format determines the type of sup-
port that will be required to substantiate the argument (http://www.cuyamaca.net/mfralick/
thinking.htm).
11.5 DEVELOP YOUR CRITICAL AND ANALYTICAL THINKING SKILLS

This section focuses on the application of critical and analytical thinking skills when reading
textbooks and other literature. This is a vital tool in academic success, as written assignments
demand a critical analysis of other people’s perspectives, as well as presenting your own work
critically.
11.5.1 Identify and analyse arguments

Two basic critical thinking skills are (1) being able to identify what reasoning is being used
when someone is arguing a case or presenting an argument; and (2) being able to present rea- 139
soning clearly yourself.
The first step in critical analysis is to identify the argument. You have to detect the line of rea-
soning, viewpoint, perspective or position that is being defended (Cottrell, 2003).
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There are four main questions to ask in deciding when reasoning is present:
1. What is the conclusion? Or, what it the person trying to convince you of?
2. What reasons are given?
3. Is anything being assumed? Are there any implicit assumptions that are not being overtly
stated?
4. Do you think it is a good or bad argument?
In a good argument, the premises give good reason to accept that the conclusion is true. Hence,
in a good argument, there should be good reasons to accept the truth of the premises, and the
premises should uphold the conclusion. False premises prove nothing, and good reasoning is
about what follows from what is true (Epstein, 2006).
Consider the following when evaluating an argument:
• A valid argument is one where it is impossible for the premises to be true and the conclu-
sion false (simultaneously).
• An invalid argument can be strong or weak.
• A strong argument prevails if it is possible but unlikely for the premises to be true and the
conclusion false.
• In a weak argument, it is possible and likely for the premises to be true and the conclusion
false.
• In a good argument, there are good reasons to believe the premises are true, the argument is
valid or strong, and the premises are more credible than the conclusion.
To summarise, every good argument is valid or strong, but not every valid or strong argument
is good, and every weak argument is a bad argument (Epstein, 2006).
Valid
Impossible for
premises to be true
and conclusion false
Valid v Invalid Strong
Invalid Very likely
Possible for premises
to be true and
conclusion false Weak
Unlikely
Argument
Bad
Good v Bad
Good
140 Good reasons to believe
premises are true
Premises more plausible
than conclusion
Figure 11.3 Analysis

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Exercise 11.3
Describe the following arguments (valid / invalid, strong / weak, good / bad):
1. Mr Dube is an accountant. All accountants wear suits. Therefore Mr Dube is wearing
a suit.
2. Leanne is single. So Leanne has never married.
3. No cow barks. Fluffy barks. So, Fluffy is not a cow.
4. No cow barks. Fluffy is not a cow. So Fluffy barks.
11.5.2 Clarification
When reasoning, you will often need to clarify certain issues. Words may be used, or state-
ments may be made, whose meaning is vague, imprecise or ambiguous. In order to evaluate an
argument, it has to be understood in the first place. It is insufficient to be clear about what the
reasons, conclusions and assumptions are; it is also necessary to be clear about what they mean
(Fisher, 2011).
11.5.2.1 Vague sentences

A sentence is regarded as vague if it is unclear what the person is trying to say.
Examples of vague sentences:
• They are rich.
• It took me a long time to complete this assignment.
Vagueness is not always a problem. What is important is to consider the context, and then
decide if it is too vague to justify your saying it is true. Sometimes someone may demand more
clarity than is reasonable. In such cases, it is necessary to draw the line, and precisely explicate
what the difference between too vague and understandable enough is.
At times, a statement may appear vague, as we are not certain what standards are utilised. Per-
sonal standards are used in subjective claims where the truth value depends on what someone
thinks, believes or feels. Impersonal standards are found in objective claims, which do not rely
on someone’s thoughts, beliefs or feelings (Epstein, 2006). For example:
•
Britney weighs 50 kg. This is an objective claim. It does not rely on personal standards.
•
Mpho bought an expensive house. This claim is subjective. What is expensive for you or me
may not necessarily be expensive for Bill Gates or the Sultan of Brunei.
Exercise 11.4
Which of the following are too vague to be considered claims?
1. Fish are better pets than hamsters.
2. The university fees are not the total costs a student incurs to study.
3. Carlton Centre is a tall building.
4. English should be the official language of South Africa.
141
The following statements are all vague. Which ones are too vague for their intended
purpose?
Q
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1. Waiter, bring me other eggs. I wanted them medium, not well done.
2. Your mental and physical health will improve if you get more exercise.
3. TV weatherperson: “There is a strong chance of rain tomorrow.”
11.5.2.2 Ambiguous sentences

Vagueness also implies ambiguity, i.e. a claim can be understood in more than one way. An
ambiguous sentence cannot be accepted as a claim until there is consensus on the interpreta-
tion (Epstein, 2006).
11.5.2.3 Definitions
What type of clarification is needed depends on who the audience or reader is. If the person
requiring clarification knows almost nothing about a specific term, a dictionary definition may
suffice, but for a specialist in the field, defining a concept may be an issue of debate in itself
(Fisher, 2011).
Definitions are not claims or premises. They are included in arguments in order to elucidate.
Sometimes persuasive definitions are used. A radical definition will, for example, be: “Eutha-
nasia is defined as the act of murdering an ill person.” This sort of definition then leaves little
room to debate the issue reasonably. A persuasive definition could be: “Euthanasia may be
defined as an act of extreme action for the sake of an ill person.” However, some may also say
that such a statement is merely a claim masked as a definition (Epstein, 2006).
11.5.3 Credibility of evidence and sources

Quantity of evidence is insufficient in itself; the quality of the evidence is important too. A
critical thinker needs to use valid criteria to evaluate evidence. Cottrell (2003) has recom-
mended using the criteria below when evaluating evidence in academic texts.
11.5.3.1 Check the date of the research

Data may be outdated, or conclusions emanating from it may have been subjected to immense
criticism and revision. All old research is not by default invalid. Some texts may be regarded as
a “classics” or founding theoretical works.
11.5.3.2 Be sceptical about numbers and statistics

Numbers may be misused or misrepresented in order to persuade you. Words like “most”,
“many”, “few”, “minimal”, etc. do not give a precise indication of the actual numbers involved.
Percentages may be a better indication, but hold more weight if the sample size is indicated
as well. The sample size refers to the number of cases investigated, and should represent the
composition of the group under investigation. Furthermore, the conditions of data collection
should be examined for any irregularities or inherent biases.
11.5.3.3 Evaluate the source

Most of our beliefs are based on what other people have told us – family, educators, journalists,
142 politicians, religious leaders, etc. A critical thinker does not only look at what is being said,
but also at who is making the statement and what the circumstances are. Hence, the statement
is not analysed in isolation. Fisher (2011) discusses five aspects that need to be considered in
order to skilfully judge the credibility of sources:
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1. Person / source
Does the person have the necessary expertise, i.e. the required experience, knowledge or for-
mal qualifications? The requisite experience does not guarantee that the person is correct, but
contributes to the credibility of the statement.
Was the person able to observe accurately? Was the person close enough to be able to clear-
ly observe or hear, and these senses were intact? Were there any distractions? Were suitable
instruments used?
The person’s reputation has to suggest that he or she is reliable, honest, and usually correct
with regard to those types of matters. The reputation of academics and researchers is usually
significant when judging their writings in their areas of expertise.
You also need to enquire if the source has a vested interest or bias. Sometimes a person has a
financial incentive in promoting a specific viewpoint or has an inherent disposition towards
a particular perspective. An example could be that movie reviews are sometimes sponsored
by particular movie distributors, who have a financial stake in having their movies attain a
higher rating than a movie from a competing distributor. Whose review are you more likely to
believe: an independent / freelance movie critic or one employed by a distributor?
2. Circumstances and context

The same statement made in different contexts can carry different weightings. A statement
appearing in a scientific journal validated by appropriate evidence is likely to be more credible
than one made on a TV talk show (which TV talk shows are credible is a topic on its own!).
Compare claims made in court under oath with “over the fence” gossip with neighbour.
3. Justification the source offers to support the claim

A person has to be able to justify a statement with reasons, grounds or evidence, or else it is
unlikely to be granted any credibility. First-hand knowledge provides stronger grounds than
what has been gleaned from others. Perceiving with your own senses, i.e. seeing or hearing
something yourself, is far more believable than depending on someone else’s word. This also
relates to the difference between primary and secondary sources. To learn about the first South
African democratic elections in 1994, you can ask your parents to tell you about their experi-
ence of the elections, as they were probably directly involved. But to learn about the Indus-
trial Revolution, you would have to consult reputable secondary sources, which would include
reports by historians.
Another important distinction is that between direct and circumstantial evidence. For example,
direct evidence of cheating in an exam would be getting caught copying off crib notes while
writing it. Circumstantial evidence would be an invigilator finding you in possession of crib
notes if frisked at some point during the exam, and your answers in the exam script looking
very much like those in the notes. With circumstantial evidence, you have not been caught in
the act, but all the evidence points in that direction.
4. Nature of the claim

Is it easy to believe the statement, or does it seem unlikely? The less the probability of the claim
being true, the more persuasion will be required to convince the reader of its occurrence.
Is it a basic observation statement or an inferred judgement? Reverting back to the exam scen-
ario, there is a difference between an invigilator reporting, “He had a paper with the answers 143
written on it alongside his exam script, and he would read the paper and then write” and say-
ing, “I saw him cheating in the exam”. In the first statement, the invigilator is recounting what
he saw, while in the second statement, he is inferring that the actions amounted to cheating.
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5. Corroboration from other sources

For two or more pieces of evidence to corroborate each other, they must be independent, cred-
ible, and support the claim or statement in question.
11.5.4 Judge inferences

We usually infer lots of things from our personal knowledge and experiences. Most often, these
inferences are based on generalisations and stereotypes, and we cannot always be absolutely
certain that they are true. Scientists and researchers infer their conclusions from their observa-
tions and experiments, and are confident of their findings in varying degrees. When an argu-
ment is presented, reasons are given to support conclusions or decisions, i.e. conclusions are
inferred from the reasons. Arguments comprise reasons, inferences and conclusions. Inferences
are the moves from reasons to conclusions (Fisher, 2011). When you decide that an unstated
claim is the conclusion, that unstated claim is the inference (Epstein, 2006).
How do you test if inferences are justified? Fisher (2011) has described a few tests. Ask: “Could
the reasons be true / acceptable / valid, and the conclusion false / unacceptable / invalid simul-
taneously?” If the answer is “No”, then the inference is justified, as it compels you to accept the
conclusion if the reasons are true. If the answer is “Yes”, there could be other reasons besides
those stated that render the conclusion false, hence it is not a good inference.
Another test requires two conditions for an argument to succeed in justifying its conclusion.
Firstly, the reasons must be true / acceptable, and secondly, the inferences which are then
drawn from those reasons must be good inferences.
The strictest test is determining if the argument is deductively valid. You need to ask: “Is there
any way the reasons could be true and the conclusion false?” If the answer is “No”, then the
inference is deductively valid, and the truth of the claims absolutely guarantees the truth of the
conclusion – there are no other possibilities.
Legal cases use different standards. The two commonly used criteria are proving beyond a rea-
sonable doubt, and more likely than not on the balance of evidence.
Exercise 11.5
Identify the inferences in the following paragraphs:
1. Managing a garden service is a stimulating occupation. You have the flexibility and
freedom associated with working for yourself, and you need not have passed matric.
Hence, a suitable career for someone without a matric certificate is to run a garden
service.
2. The amazing success of Thabo’s business, which was established against the recom-
mendation of bankers and consultants, goes to show that one person’s determina-
tion can prove all the experts in the world wrong. Anyone who thinks of establishing
a business should therefore trust their instinct, and not be swayed by the advice of
others.
144 11.5.5 Attribute implicit assumptions

Part of the process of critical thinking is attributing unstated or implicit assumptions, i.e.
assumptions that are accepted by the speaker or writer, but not explicitly stated. Fisher (2011)
presents a general strategy that may be useful in eliciting assumptions. Assumptions that
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appear likely in the context, which make sense of what is said, or which look essential to make
the reasoning as strong as possible could be attributed to arguments. In critical thinking litera-
ture, this is known as the principle of charity, which is about analysing reasoning as construct-
ively as possible, in order to discover the truth in arguments.
11.5.6 Reasoning about causation
Premise Conclusion
cause
Cause is the relation between the premises and conclusion of a valid or strong argument. Some-
times it is easy to attribute causes to event, but very often the situation may not be as clear-cut.
When the causal factors are not instantly discernible, further scientific or systematic investi-
gation is required. However, this is not always done. Instead we may employ certain typical
weaknesses in thinking about causes. This includes jumping to a conclusion by accepting the
first explanation that comes to our heads, or failing to consider all the relevant evidence by
focusing only on the evidence that is consistent with our standpoint, reversing cause and effect,
or searching too hard for a cause.
The essential criteria for cause and effect are as follows (Epstein, 2006):
• The cause occurred.
• The effect occurred.
• The cause precedes the effect.
• It is almost impossible for the cause to occur and the effect not to happen, given ordinary
conditions.
• The cause makes the difference between the effect happening and not happening – if the
cause had not occurred, the effect would not have taken place.
• There is no common cause.
Exercise 11.6
Evaluate the following causal claims:
1. The devil causes evil.
2. Henna’s university degree helped her get a high salary immediately after she gradu-
ated.
11.5.7 Decision making

Do you think that celebrities really use the products that they advertise?
Decisions are inevitable. A lot of decisions do not demand advanced critical thinking skills, but
major issues with significant implications cannot be dealt with the same level of nonchalance
as, for example, what to wear to campus today.
Pitfalls in decision making include not having given an issue sufficient thought, acting on the
first decision, not having considered different options or perspectives, failing to consider all 145
possible consequences, not giving enough consideration to what is important to you, or at the
other end of the continuum, getting too emotionally involved, or accepting someone else’s per-
spective without question.
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11.6 CONCLUSION
The critical analysis process you have just been through in this chapter will empower you
towards making better decisions. Critical thinking skills remain important whether about mak-
ing a choice in your personal life or reaching a decision on which point of view or position
to accept when working with academic texts, be it your own essay or evaluating the works
of others. In many spheres you will be required to apply critical and analytical thought to an
issue. Now that you better understand the fundamental value and dynamic of such a process,
you may be able – through lots of purposeful effort and practice – to apply more effective critic-
al thinking skills when required to do so.
R E FE R E N C E S
Bednarz, T.F. 2011. Developing critical thinking skills: Haynes, J.A. 2012. Culturally and linguistically diverse
pinpoint leadership skill development training series. children. Xlibris: Amazon Digital Services.
Stevens Point, WI: Majorium Business Press. Messina, J.J. & Messina, C.M. 2005. Overview of critical
Cottrell, S. 2003. The study skills handbook, 2nd ed. thinking. Available at: https://www.acc.dau.mil/
New York: Palgrave Macmillan. adl/en-US/37424/file/8989/Overview%20of%20
Connelly, M. 2012. Critical thinking across the cur- Critical%20Thinking.htm (accessed on 5 August
riculum project. Available at: http://mcckc.edu/ 2013).
services/criticalthinking/fallacies/distraction.asp Mission: Critical. Available at: http://www2.sjsu.
(accessed on 5 August 2013). edu/depts/itl/index.html (accessed on 24 May
Dewey, J. 1909. How we think. Lexington, MA: D.C. 2004).
Heath and Co. Paul, R., Fisher, A. & Nosich, G. 1993. Workshop on
Ennis, R.H. 1996. Critical thinking. Upper Saddle critical thinking strategies. Sonoma: Foundation for
River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Critical Thinking, Sonoma State University.
Epstein, R.L. 2006. Critical thinking, 3rd ed. Wads- Toffler, A. 1990. Powershift. New York: Bantam
worth: Belmont. Books.
Fisher, A. 2011. Critical thinking – an introduction, 2nd Tools for improving critical thinking. Available at:
ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. http://www.coping.org/writ/percept/critical.
Glaser, E. 1941. An experiment in the development of htm (accessed on 23 February 2004).
critical thinking. New York: Teachers’ College, Col-
umbia University.
Answers to exercises
Exercise 11.1
1. Claim. It can either be true or false.
2. Not a claim. “Short” is vague.
3. Claim.
4. If you do not understand French, you cannot accept it as a claim. You cannot rea-
son with it if you do not know what it means.
5. Not a claim. It is a question.
146 6. Claim.
7. Claim.
8. Not a claim. An exclamation.
Q
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9. It is an argument.
• Conclusion: I need a cell phone.
• Premises: All my friends have one. I am often stranded and need to call my par-
ents to pick me up.
10. It is an argument.
• Conclusion: This movie will win a few Oscars.
• Premises: The locations and cinematography were good, the cast gave amazing
performances, and the direction was excellent.
11. Not an argument. What is the conclusion?
Exercise 11.2
1. Slippery slope. Appeal to indirect consequences. Although most of the interme-
diate steps have been eliminated, the implication is clear: not studying and not
attending classes is the first step down the slippery slope to being a failure like your
brother. The suggestion here is that there is an automatic and unavoidable causal
link between not studying for your degree and becoming a loser. However, the
supposed consequence seems both remote in time and unconnected in a directly
causal way.
2. Appeal to fear of being ill and dying.
Exercise 11.3
1. Too vague.
2. Acceptable. Your not knowing what the exact cost involves does not imply that the
statement is not precise.
3. Too vague.
4. Acceptable if “official language” is clearly defined by the law.
5. Acceptable.
6. Too vague.
7. Too vague.
Exercise 11.4
1. Valid. But it is a bad argument, as the second premise is not true. The premises do
not give a good reason to believe the conclusion.
2. Invalid. It is a weak argument, as it is very likely that the premise is true and the
conclusion false. Leanne could be a widow, spinster or divorcee.
3. Valid. Good.
4. Weak. Bad. Fluffy could be a horse or a pig.
Exercise 11.5
1. The inference is the move from the first two sentences to “a suitable career for
someone without a matric certificate is to run a garden service”. 147
2. This contains two inferences. The first is the move from “The amazing success of
Thabo’s business, which was established against the recommendation of bankers
Q
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and consultants” to “one person’s determination can prove all the experts in the
world wrong”. The second inference is the move from “one person’s determination
can prove all the experts in the world wrong” to “Anyone who thinks of establishing
a business, should therefore trust their instinct, and not be swayed by the advice of
others”.
Exercise 11.6
1. Too vague. This claim should be made more precise.
2. Causal claim: Henna’s degree caused her to get a job with a high salary immediately
after she graduated.
Cause: University degree
Effect: Henna got a job with a high salary immediately after she graduated.
Cause and effect are true.
Cause precedes effect.
Unlikely that the argument is valid or strong.
We are uncertain if the cause makes a difference. We need to see what the normal
conditions are. Maybe Henna’s parents employed her. Maybe she submitted her CV
on the day that someone quit, and the company needed a replacement urgently.
The cause is plausible as a cause, if the normal conditions prevail.
148
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Section 5
Pit stop:
check your
classroom
skills
SLIDES
12 Note taking:
writing down
the right things
S E LI N A RAM APEL A
12.1 Introduction
12.2 What is note taking?
12.2.1 Reasons for taking notes
12.2.2 Listening and taking notes n be able to use your notes to recall relevant
12.2.3 Strategies and styles of taking notes material
12.3 Conclusion n be able to distinguish key points, minor points,
References main ideas and supporting ideas
n be able to highlight suitable techniques to
O U T C O MES help you to focus on main ideas and sepa-
rate them from details in a clear and efficient
After working through this chapter, you should manner
n be able to develop your own practices of tak- n have better-developed listening and writing
ing good notes as you read skills.
12.1 INTRODUCTION
Students often find themselves caught up in the act of copying down (even word for word)
what the lecturer or educator discusses in the class. They end up with masses of notes that
need to be organised and learned in a short period of time. They also have to present their
work in the form of professional academic writing for various assessments, and because of tak-
ing notes incorrectly they then struggle.
This chapter provides the fundamental guidelines for taking, presenting and organising notes
which will assist you to successfully achieve good results for your assignments, tests and exam-
inations.
150 12.2 WHAT IS NOTE TAKING?

Note taking is a good way to enhance listening in classes and lectures. Using a systematic
approach to taking and reviewing notes can add immeasurably to understanding and remem-
bering the content to be learned.
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NOTE TAKING: WRITING DOWN THE RIGHT THINGS
12
Gardener’s multiple intelligences theory indicates that people have different strengths and
intelligences (Businessballs.com, 2009). With verbal-linguistic intelligence, people have
well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to sounds, meaning and rhythms of words. Stu-
dents are therefore able to exercise their verbal-linguistic abilities to organise their written texts
in various academic contexts.
Sociolinguistics identify two types of discourse in writing, namely cohesion discourse, which
deals with the structure of texts and how ideas are connected by means of easily interpreted
grammatical structures, and coherence discourse, which deals with relationships among the dif-
ferent ideas and presenting them logically and sequentially (Canale, 1983: 275).
Bloom’s Revised taxonomy of educational objectives (2001) underpins the classical knowledge, atti-
tude and skills of learning and evaluation which play an important role in note taking, guiding
students to be able to analyse information for application through differentiating, organising
and attributing.
12.2.1 Reasons for taking notes

Structuring and organising your notes is as important as learning them when it comes to pre-
paring for tests or examinations.
Writing everything down is mostly impossible because of the sheer volume of information
given by the lecturer. It is therefore important to learn to distinguish the specific points that are
relevant, from both the lecture and your textbooks and capture those in your notes for learning.
Main Sub- Sub- Supporting Supporting

heading heading heading ideas ideas
Figure 12.1 Taking notes
Taking notes in or out of class is necessary for the following reasons:

• Notes enable you to identify and organise core ideas.
• They are a permanent record to learn and remember from at a later stage.
• The information that you receive in class or when you study might not be available else-
where or again, and this is your chance to record it.
• Notes are facts that your lecturer considers to be important and will be important to know
when it comes to the exams.
• Tips and guidelines from the lecturer pertaining to assignments and tests can also be noted
down.
• Through note-taking the information becomes clear/er and it helps your understanding of
the learning material.
12.2.2 Listening and taking notes

To be an effective listener and note taker, the following are essential:
• Know what the lecture is about beforehand and do prior reading if possible, so you are fully
prepared. 151
• Eat well and get enough sleep so that you are mentally and physically alert.
• Become an active listener (provide feedback verbally, silently and through body language).
• Avoid distractions (sit where you can hear and see clearly).
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SECTION 5 PIT STOP: CHECK YOUR CLASSROOM SKILLS
• Always take notes, whether you need them or not (this helps you to stay focused).
• Listen to the main ideas and do not simply copy everything.
• Ask questions for clarity.
• Recite what was discussed (this will make remembering easier).
• Review your notes and write a summarising statement.
12.2.3 Strategies and styles of taking notes

There is no best method of taking notes, but before you start, the following are worth consid-
ering: how much information you will really need, if you will actually use it, and where and
how you will use it.
General note-taking strategies (Cottrell, 1999: 117):
• Think before you write.
• Keep notes brief.
• Keep notes organised.
• Use your own words.
• Leave wide margins and spaces to add notes later.
12.2.3.1 Note-taking strategies: a possible framework

Own notes / Main heading Supporting ideas Own notes /
supplementary supplementary
notes notes
Think before you Think & write
write
Keep notes Keep & organise
organised
Keep notes brief Keep & brief
Use your own words Use & words
The following are examples of note-taking styles (Gerow & Lyng, 1986; Carman & Adams,
1984):
•
Outline style. The information is well presented and organised, from main ideas to support
details, and each point is numbered or lettered.
•
Phrase style. Phrases are jotted down like storytelling.
•
Vocabulary style. Relevant terms and their definitions are listed.
•
Drawing, graph and problem style. Diagrams, drawings, charts and graphs are used to
make pictorial representations of the information.
Exercise 12.1
Read the following text and use the above note-taking styles to organise your notes
152 (Moll, Bradbury & Winkler, 2001: 75):
Schooling extends our everyday experience. It provides an opportunity for us to inter-
act with other people’s knowledge about the world and to share their experiences.
Q
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NOTE TAKING: WRITING DOWN THE RIGHT THINGS
12
This helps us to broaden and deepen our own understanding. School-like knowledge
is often text based. Because school knowledge reflects many peoples’ ideas, it tends
to be written down. This means we need to use spoken and written language to
understand and make connections with their new ideas.
Example of notes taken
Outline Phrase Vocabulary Drawing / graphs /

problem
SCHOOLING SCHOOLING SCHOOLING SCHOOLING
1. Experience – Extends experi- – Provide experi-
2. Opportunity ence ences
3. Understanding – Provide oppor- – Opportunity
tunity – Interact
– Broaden and – Knowledge
deepen under- – Understanding
standing
SCHOOL SCHOOL SCHOOL SCHOOL
KNOWLEDGE KNOWLEDGE KNOWLEDGE KNOWLEDGE
4. Text based – Is text based – Text based
5. Ideas – Reflects peoples’ – Knowledge
6. Written down ideas – Ideas
7. Spoken – Is written down – Spoken
8. Written language – Use spoken and – Written
written language – Connections
12.3 CONCLUSION
Research confirms that students struggle to recall and recite information when it comes to
describing scientific concepts (Murcia, 2005). Learning involves different forms of communi-
cation, namely verbal, visual, symbolic and graphical. Students can develop critical thinking,
questioning and practical skills which are necessary for knowledge construction.
By developing and making use of effective note-taking strategies, you will save time and
reduce your stress levels when your exams approach or when assignments are due, because
you will already have all the information you need, arranged in a logical way that will facilitate
studying.
R E FER E N C E S
Businessballs.com. 2009. Howard Gardener’s multiple Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy of Educational Object-
153
intelligences. Available from: http://www.busi- ives. 2001.
nessballs.com/howardgardenermultipleintelli- BBC online: Note-taking Strategies. Available at:
gences.htm http://www.wvup.edu/Academics/notetaking_
strategies.htm (accessed on 12 March 2013).
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Canale, M. 1983. From communicative competence to Gerow, J.R. & Lyng, R.D. 1986. How to succeed in col-
language pedagogy: in language and communication, lege. New York: Scott Foresman.
ed. London: Longman. Moll, I., Bradbury, J. & Winkler, G. 2001. Learners and
Carman, R.A. & Adams, W.R. 1984. Study skills: a learning. Cape Town: SAIDE and Oxford Univer-
student’s guide for survival. Pennsylvania State Uni- sity Press.
versity: John Wiley & Sons. Murcia, K. 2005. Science for the 21st century: teaching
Cottrell, S. 1999. The study skills handbook. Basing- for scientific literacy in the primary classroom. Paper
stoke: Macmillan. presented at the CONASTA54. University of Mel-
bourne.
154
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SLIDES
13 Effective listening
and concentration
skills
GIFT CHWEU
THE C HAPT E R AT A G LA N C E
13.1 Introduction 13.8 Concentration blocks
13.2 What is effective listening? 13.9 Concentration strategies
13.2.1 Basic listening modes 13.10 Conclusion
13.2.2 What the listener does when listen- References
ing Additional reading
13.3 Listening and hearing
13.4 The noise factor: barriers to listening O U T CO MES
13.5 On-road and off-road travelling: communi- After working through this chapter, you should
cation enhances listening
n have improved your listening and concentration
13.5.1 Guidelines for good listening when
skills
communicating
n be able to differentiate between listening and
13.5.2 Guidelines for effective listening
hearing
13.6 The role of effective listening in study n be able to identify barriers to listening
groups
n have paved the way to effective listening
13.6.1 Keys to effective group listening n be able to identify your concentration blocks
13.7 What is concentration? n have overcome you concentration blocks.
13.1 INTRODUCTION
It is often assumed that listening is merely a natural activity and everyone can do this. How-
ever, within the academic or learning situation it is very important that you look at your skill to
listen effectively. Effective listening means that you listen to, for example, a lecture or lesson in
such a manner that you are able to make the best possible notes and, most importantly, remem-
ber as much as possible of what was taught. Once you refine this skill in the learning environ-
ment you will be able to transfer it to all other spheres of your life with a positive effect on your
communication skills in general.
155
13.2 WHAT IS EFFECTIVE LISTENING?
Listening is a key component of communication. It is a basic element of effective communi-
cation because it leads to the understanding of facts and ideas. It can even lead to the under-
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standing of feelings and emotions and so enhance the quality of communication. In the learn-
ing context effective listening is essential in order for you to understand and integrate new
learning material. Good listening is built on three basic skills:
• Attitude
• Attention
• Adjustment
13.2.1 Basic listening modes

We can identify three basic listening modes. These are given in Table 13.1, along with a guide-
line as to when a person is normally in a particular mode.
Table 13.1 Listening modes
C om p et
itive / c om b at
ive This happens when we are more interested in promoting our own
point of view than in understanding or exploring someone else’s view.
P as s ive / at
tent
ive lis t
ening This is when you are interested in hearing and understanding the
other person’s point of view.
A ct
ive / reflec t
ive lis t
ening This is when you are interested in understanding what the other per-
son is thinking, feeling, wanting or what the message means.
13.2.2 What the listener does when listening

Certain things happen while you are listening to your lecturer or facilitator. You hear and pro-
cess information at great speed. Researchers (Brown, 1994; Dunkel, 1986) suggest that we do
the following while listening:
• Determine the reason for listening.
• Take raw speech and deposit an image of it in short-term memory.
• Predict information expected to be included in the message.
• Recall background information to help interpret the message.
• Assign a meaning to the message.
• Check that the message has been understood.
• Determine the information to be held in long-term memory.
• Delete the original form of the message that has been received into short-term memory.
13.3 LISTENING AND HEARING

There is a difference between listening and hearing. You will definitely use your ears for both,
but hearing is strictly mechanical. Did you know that you even hear while you are sleeping?
Hearing is simply the collection of sound by the ear.
Most people are gifted with the ability to hear, but few have taken hearing and refined it into
the art of listening. Hearing is only the first stage of listening and if you do not have a hearing
156 disability, it is an autonomic function (the body does it automatically). Listening is an active
process whereby a person should communicate actively. It is, however, something that you
choose to do. It needs concentration to process words and the meaning of words and sentences
(http://www.d.umn.edu/student/loon/acad/strat/ss_hearing.html).
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EFFECTIVE LISTENING AND CONCENTRATION SKILLS
13
13.4 THE NOISE FACTOR: BARRIERS TO LISTENING

Noise is any element that interferes with the communication process.
Exercise 13.1
Read the following items in the list and circle the most appropriate answer.

1. I usually think of this class as boring. Yes No
2. I pretend to be paying attention. Yes No
3. I don’t like the instructor’s mannerisms (e.g. pacing, phrasing, Yes No
coughing).
4. I try to make notes on everything that is said in class. Yes No
5. I try to write my notes in complete sentences. Yes No
6. The subject of this class is very difficult for me. Yes No
7. Some personal problems kept my mind busy during the lecture. Yes No
8. I don’t waste paper copying down information from the chalk- Yes No
board.
9. I was really angry about something the instructor said in class. Yes No
10. I definitely enjoy distractions (e.g. late students, books falling) Yes No
more than the lecturer.
11. I spend much of the lecture daydreaming. Yes No
12. I do not really understand the lectures, but asking questions is Yes No
not my thing.
Source: http://www.elmhurst.edu
Now check your answers. You will get a good idea of which things distract you the
most.
For the sender, noise refers to such things as attitudes and frame of reference, and the appro-
priateness of his or her language or other expressions of the message. For the receiver, noise
refers to such things as attitudes, background and experiences that affect the decoding process.
In the communication channel, noise refers to
• environmental sounds, such as static or traffic
• speech problems, such as stammering
• annoying or distracting mannerisms such as a tendency to mumble (TUT, 2003: 29).
Table 13.2 Barriers to effective listening
B arrier 1 B arrier 2 B arrier 3
Distractions Daydreaming Faking attention 157

B arrier 4 B arrier 5 B arrier 6
Negative attitude Lack of preparation Lack of concentration
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The barriers from Table 13.2 are broken down as follows:

•
Barrier 1: Distraction is one of the things that can block our listening skills. There might
be students who come late, disturbing the lecturer and other students. Students in the class
may make a noise or talk to their friends while the lecturer is presenting.
•
Barrier 2: Daydreaming blocks listening. Most people spend their whole lecture, workshop
or seminar daydreaming instead of listening to the presentation. Our minds are occupied
with other things, and we have difficulty concentrating.
•
Barrier 3: Faking attention is what some students who are forced to attend classes do, sitting
face to face with the lecturer and pretending to listen. Sometimes it is easy for the presenter
to see students who do not want to be in the class.
•
Barrier 4: A negative attitude towards the presenter, topic or subject can block you from lis-
tening. If you have a negative attitude towards your lecturer and spend your time mentally
criticising what he is wearing that day, for example, then you will waste the whole lecture
being angry.
•
Barrier 5: Lack of preparation before you go to class will definitely lead to blocking listen-
ing. Going through the chapter will help you to develop a mindset that is geared towards
listening. Study Chapter 12 on note-taking skills.
•
Barrier 6: Lack of concentration is one of the major things that will block your listening
skills. The person with a good concentration span will be ready or prepared to listen. Con-
centration is one of the most important elements of listening skills. Three ingredients of good
concentration are as follows:
– Anticipate what the lecturer is going to say and then compare what is said with what you
thought was coming.
– Identify evidence.
– Recap about every 5–10 minutes.
Table 13.3 Listening habits
P oor lis t
ening hab it
s Good lis t
ening hab it
s
1. Criticising the delivery 1. Judging the content: the responsibility should be yours, not
the lecturer’s
2. Listening only for facts 2. Listening for ideas and concepts. If you do this then the
facts will arrange themselves. This helps retention.
3. Tolerating or creating distractions 3. Fighting distractions and knowing how to concentrate
4. Avoiding difficult material 4. Breaking material into smaller learning units
5. Finding a presenter to be a slow 5. Listening between the lines to tones of voice and evidence
or fast speaker
6. Letting emotional words disrupt 6. Tolerating frustrations – be aware that your reaction to some
you (throw you off) words might throw you off.
7. Tending to seek and enter into 7. Hearing out the lecturer and waiting until comprehension
arguments is complete before judging. A good listener will jot down
158 something he disagrees with and ask the lecturer later.
8. Dismissing the subject matter as 8. Finding what’s in it for you, even when the lecturer is dull
uninteresting or irrelevant
Q
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13
9. F
aking attention, looking at the 9. C
oncentrate. Who are you kidding? Don’t fool yourself. If
lecturer but not listening you don’t pay attention, it is to your own disadvantage.
10. Outlining everything (rigid) 10. Listing facts and ideas (flexible). It is not necessary to write
detailed notes.
Sourc e:http://www.mapnp.org
13.5 O N-ROAD AND OFF-ROAD TRAVELLING: COMMUNICATION ENHANCES

1LISTENING
Verbal and non-verbal communication is both important with regard to listening skills. Verbal
communication is a process of conveying a message by speech from one person to another.
Non-verbal communication is a process whereby a person conveys a message by means of sig-
nals or body language. These signals may be conscious, but are most often done unconsciously.
Non-verbal communication may also refer to actions (facial expressions, tone of voice, etc.) that
convey the emotion that is part of the message. Specific forms of body language are as follows:
•
Ambulation (movement). The way in which people carry their bodies from one place to
another conveys various meanings (e.g. self-confidence, fear, haste).
•
Touch. People can communicate anger, interest, trust, tenderness, warmth and a variety of
other emotions through touching.
•
Eye contact. Trustworthiness can be evaluated by reactions to eye contact.
•
Posture. How someone sits or stands can communicate how they are experiencing the
environment (e.g. hands on hips, pointing a finger or stepping forward may appear aggres-
sive).
•
Distance. People tend to keep a certain distance between themselves when communicating,
according to the kind of relationship they have and their motives towards one another (e.g.
far apart may convey respect or mistrust; too close may convey aggression).
•
Sub-vocalisation. We utter many non-verbal sounds in order to convey meanings (e.g. gasp-
ing if we get startled).
•
Vocalisation. The way in which a sentence is vocally packaged determines the signal that it
gives to another person.
13.5.1 Guidelines for good listening when communicating

•
Listen to non-verbal messages. A person can try by all means to explain verbally, but at
times most of the explanations are conveyed by non-verbal communication.
•
Encourage talking. The listener can encourage the speaker to be clearer by responding to
what he or she is saying (e.g. “Yes, I understand”), or by giving his or her own opinions or
interpretation (e.g. “Am I right in thinking ...”).
•
Listen patiently. Sometimes we get impatient and interrupt or distract the speaker and other
people who are also listening.
•
Be interested. Maintain eye contact to show that you are really part of the discussion. Forget
about other things that may distract you (e.g. telephones).
•
Ask open-ended questions. Open-ended questions are useful, as the speaker might high- 159
light some other important things that did not occur to you (e.g. “Why do you ask?”).
•
Express your point of view. Do not keep quiet if you disagree with something; argue your
point instead of pretending to be listening, understanding and agreeing.
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13.5.2 Guidelines to effective listening

•
Stop writing. When you are in class, do not write all the time. Only write down the key-
words and spend most of the time listening.
•
Stop watching TV. When a person talks to you, stop watching TV and look at him. You will
not follow what he is saying if you keep half of your focus on the TV programme.
•
Stop reading. Do not read from the textbook while your lecturer is explaining the chapter
you are doing in class. Reading should be done before you go to class, not during class.
•
Look at the person. Look at the speaker while you listen, so that you do not miss visual
clues or non-verbal communication.
•
Keep a distance between you and the speaker. Some people become uncomfortable when
people are too close to them.
•
Acknowledge the speaker. Otherwise the speaker might think you are not interested in
what he is saying. Show that you are interested in the topic.
•
Affirm. Nod your head and make statements (e.g. “uh-uh”, “I understand”, and “I see what
you mean”) to show the speaker you truly understand what he is saying.
•
If you do not understand, let the speaker know. Do not fake! Repeat back phrases to clarify
what is being said.
•
Be interested. Ask questions to show that you are interested in what is being said.
•
Do not interrupt. Wait until the speaker finishes, then give your own opinion or ask ques-
tions.
13.6 THE ROLE OF EFFECTIVE LISTENING IN STUDY GROUPS

If you join a study group, you will find out what you know and what you do not know by lis-
tening to questions and answers and by studying with classmates. You should study by your-
self, but you should also study in small groups. Perhaps you should attend a tutoring group
every week.
Distractions are some of the things that bother students when listening in class or to mem-
bers of their group. To eliminate internal distractions, try to eat, sleep and exercise adequately,
deal with nagging worries, and keep a notepad nearby. To eliminate external distractions, try
to select a place for study or discussions where you will not be interrupted and the level of
background noise is low; ignore distracting sights and sounds; and arrange uninterrupted time
(http://www.teachersatrisk.com).
13.6.1 Keys to effective group listening
• When beginning a conversation with others, keep in mind that everyone is a customer for
your ideas.
• Begin listening to others with a neutral, open mind.
• Pay attention to the logical content of what someone is saying, but be mindful of how they
say it to discover their true feelings about the subject.
160
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13
• Respond in such a way as to prove you are taking the other person seriously.
Remember that in order to pay attention and listen properly we need concentration.
13.7 WHAT IS CONCENTRATION?

Concentration is all about
• disciplining yourself when studying, listening, etc.
• focusing on a chosen project
• telling your mind what to do – and obeying it
• organising your time (what comes first and what must be last)
• mental tenacity.
Exercise 13.2 Concentration checklist

Rate the following according to how true they are of you, using a scale from 0 to 3:
0 = no problem 2 = somewhat of a problem
1 = a minor problem 3 = a major problem
Total your score and compare it to the box at the end of the exercise.
1. I’m in a hurry ...
2. I become distracted by what is going on around me ...
3. I’m self-conscious ...
4. I’m bored ...
5. I’m thinking about what I’m going to say next ...
6. I’m in surroundings that are “out of my comfort zone” ...
7. I already know what the speaker is going to say ...
8. I’m used to having things repeated ...
9. I’m on mental overload most of the time ...
10. I’m not responsible for the information given ...
11. I’m tired ...
12. I’m confused by the topic or the speaker ...
13. I’m daydreaming ...
Score: _____
0–5 You have excellent concentration skills.

6–10 This book should help improve your concentration skills.
11 or more You need help putting a specific action plan into practice to improve your
concentration skills.
Source: Bone (1988: 41)
161
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13.8 CONCENTRATION BLOCKS
Distractions Lack of
and interest or
int
interruptions motivationn
Low Habit of
frustration inattention or
tolerance preoccu-
pation
Unclear
purpose Procrasti-
or plan Blocks to nation
concentration
Unresolved Negative
emotions attitude
L
Lack Fatigue,
of training stress, poor
or exercise Mental health, and
clutter/ energy
overload
Figure 13.1 Blocks to concentration

Sourc e:http://www.capilanou.ca/WorkArea/DownloadAsset.aspx
13.9 BASIC CONCENTRATION CONTROL STRATEGIES

1. The 10 minute plan: test yourself after reading a section. If you can remember some of the
work, continue, but if you cannot, take a 10–15 minute break to do some concentration
exercises, then get back to your work.
2. If you are bored with a task, make it more interesting. Gear up your listening skills by pre-
paring your notes or at least a framework for the topic in advance before you go to a lec-
ture. This could also peak your interest to learn more and get the detail or understanding
while you are oriented on what is being discussed.
3. Always give yourself a starting time and an ending time when contemplating a task. Time
management is vital, so make sure you have a study time table.
4. Divide and conquer. Should your lecturer spend an hour on a topic in class, try to double
or triple the time when you study.
5. Fast-forward to the benefits and focus on them instead of the difficulties. Goal setting will
162 assist in reminding you of what you are working towards and will encourage you to con-
tinue studying.
6. Verbally minimise an unpleasant task. Try to say aloud the content of your subject as much
as you can.
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13
7. Take breaks to rest and refresh your mind. In every hour, try to take at least 10–15 minutes’
break.
8. Promote mental fitness by being physically fit. Do some exercises or take a walk around the
building. This will help to expand your concentration span.
9. If you are not concentrating, identify problems that steal your energy and assign those
thoughts a “worry time”.
10. Take action to resolve the real source of your lack of energy.
11. Use brain gym exercises.
Exercise 13.3
• Divide the class into groups or pairs.
• Select any topic to discuss or play a tape of a discussion, if you have any.
• Explain clearly that the students should listen carefully and take notes.
• Play the tape or let one student from each group present a topic to discuss with
another student while the other group writes down keywords.
• Get feedback: was it easy or difficult to listen, pay attention, etc.? And why?
• Let them listen again as a group and compare their answers with their partners or with
the group.
Source: http://www.cal.org
13.10 CONCLUSION
As seen in the previous chapter, preparing for class in advance can bear fruit in terms of pre-
paring you and making you interested in what will be discussed in the lecture room. It is so
important to be a skilled listener. If you make the effort to practise the suggested techniques
and pay some attention to your listening, it could potentially have a positive impact on all
spheres of your life. It will obviously greatly enhance your study skills, but will also have a
positive effect on your relationships and interaction with others in general. If you have trouble
hearing, it is always a good idea to have your ears tested by an audiologist (your campus clinic
or doctor will refer you) and be sure that you do not have any hearing impairment. If not, you
should get going by improving those listening skills so you do not miss out.
R E FER E N C E S
Barriers to effective classroom listening. 2004. Available http://www.capilanou.ca/WorkArea/DownloadAs-

at: http://www.elmhurst.edu/library/learning- set.aspx
centre/listening/ (accessed on 29 April 2004). Dunkel, P. 1986. Developing listening fluency in L2:
Bone, D. 1988. The business of listening: a practical guide theoretical principles and pedagogical considera-
to effective listening. Los Altos, CA: Crisp Publica- tions. The modern language journal, 70(2), 99–106.
163
tions, Inc. Habits to differentiate good from poor listening. 1995.
Brown, H.D. 1994. Teaching by principles: an interactive Available at: http://www.mapnp.org/library/
approach to language pedagogy. Englewood Cliffs, commskls/listen/gd-vs-pr.htm (accessed on 12
NJ: Prentice Hall Regents. May 2004).
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Hearing vs. listening. 2003. Available at: http://www. TUT (Tshwane University of Technology). 2003.
computerworld.com.au/index.php (accessed on 7 Advanced human resource management skills. Course
May 2004). notes. Pretoria: TUT.
Improving concentration. 2004. Available at: http:// Van Duzer, C. 1997. Improving ESL learners’ listening
www.cdev.concordia.ca/lCnD/studentlearn/ skills: at the workplace and beyond. Washington,
Help/handouts/concentration.HO (accessed on 17 DC: Project in Adult Immigration Education and
March 2004). National Center for ESL Literary Education. Avail-
Lifeskills for vocational success. 1998. Available at: able at: http://www.cal.org/ncle/digests/Listen-
http://www.workshopsinc.com/manual/ch1H1. QA.htm (accessed on 10 May 2004).
html (accessed on 10 May 2004). You and your brain. 2004. Available at: http://www.
Tips on effective listening. 2004. Available at: http:// advocacy.gsat.edu.au/education/brain.htm
www.drnadig.com/listening.htm (accessed on 29 (accessed on 3 February 2004).
April 2004).
Deese, J. & Deese, E.K. 1979. How to study, 3rd ed. Pauk, W. 1974. How to study in college, 2nd ed. Boston,
New York: McGraw-Hill. MA: Houghton Mifflin Co. Available at: http://
Maxwell, M.J. 1981. Listening games for elementary www.kidssource.com/ldidsource/content2/How-
grades. Washington, DC: Acropolis Books. can-parents-Model.html (accessed on 6 May 2004).
164
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SLIDES
14 Manage the
workload:
summarising
C I ND Y O ’ RE I LLY
14.1 Introduction
14.1.1 Possible reasons why students 14.3.7 The column method
cannot cope with their workload 14.3.8 The photostat method for summarising
14.2 What is summarising? sketches
14.2.1 Why do you need to summarise 14.4 Conclusion
your work? References and additional reading
14.2.2 Basic principles to follow when
making summaries O U T CO MES
14.3 Methods or strategies of summarising
14.3.1 Identifying key points or main
n know the importance of summarising text as an
ideas
aid to enhancing memory
14.3.2 The A3 empty skeleton method
n be able to differentiate between the different
14.3.3 The card method summarising methods
14.3.4 The T-column method n be able to identify the method suited to your
14.3.5 Conventional method of sum- preferred learning style
marising n be able to apply the methods for effective learn-
14.3.6 Summarising using mind maps ing.
14.1 INTRODUCTION
Students often complain that they cannot cope with their workload, but at the same time are
reluctant to try new study strategies. In order to get the most out of your studies and to be suc-
cessful, you need to adapt or even learn new strategies that are proven to be effective. In the
preceding chapter, we looked at skills that you use during the lecturing or teaching situation.
In this chapter, you will learn about skills that you use outside the lecture theatre or classroom.
These are strategies that you use to consolidate and condense the learning material to make
your workload more manageable and, of course, easier to remember. Proceed with the journey
and learn about summarising.
The following are possible reasons why students cannot cope with their workload (see which 165
of these apply to you!):
• Homework is not part of their everyday routine.
• They normally wait until the last minute and rely on cramming.
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• They tend to make use of reading only when they study.

• They do not focus on something when reading through the content.
• They prefer to focus on a chapter as a whole, for example read page by page (it does not
matter if the chapter consists of 20 or more pages).
• They tend to sit for hours (making use of reading) until the chapter is completed. Reading
for hours can cause lost interest and lack of concentration.
• After hours of reading, they discover that they cannot recall any of the information that they
have read. They remember only bits and pieces when demonstrating the material back in a
test or exam.
Reduce your workload by implementing effective summarising strategies.
14.2 WHAT IS SUMMARISING?

Summarising is an active task that involves writing shortened notes on sections or chapters
of the work that you have read (i.e. text from books and other references, including your class
notes). Summarising is a form of note taking, but differs from it in some respects.
Let us see whether you recognise the difference between summarising and note taking.
Fill in the missing words in the following sentences:
• Summaries are taken from the ________ text.
• Notes are taken from the _______ word.
(Find the answers at the end of the chapter.)
A summary is, therefore, a short written version of the text that you have studied. In this way
you will be able to reduce a large volume of information to a manageable size, which can be
easily memorised since you will end up with only the main ideas or facts.
14.2.1 Why do you need to summarise your work?

To be an effective student you should go over your class notes regularly. You may find that
you will even need to consult other references in order to clarify certain ideas, concepts and
meanings, and to find connections between facts. All this work will have to be condensed and
consolidated or simply put together in a structured and organised fashion. You will then use
your summaries to prepare for almost all forms of assessments (i.e. tests, examinations and
assignments). Summarising, therefore, serves various purposes in learning, including the fol-
lowing:
• Summarising enables you to select only the important facts and therefore reduces the
amount of work to be memorised.
• You become an active reader because you are forced to think as you select important facts
from the less important details.
166 • You also become a critical thinker and enhance your creative thinking skills.
• Summarising reinforces knowledge because you need to understand the idea before you put
it in your own words.
• Summaries help to make your work easy because you use your own words.
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MANAGE THE WORKLOAD: SUMMARISING
14
14.2.2 Basic principles to follow when making summaries

• Decide beforehand what you have to learn and select sections that are relevant to your pur-
pose.
•
Divide the material into sections according to topics.
•
Read through all your materials (lecture notes, textbook) on the topic that you want to sum-
marise. Ask yourself questions (e.g. who, what, when, where), relate the material to what
you already know, and concentrate on identifying the main theme.
•
Identify and select the most important or main ideas. Focus on the main headings and sub-
headings, and look for the “signpost words” such as “first”, “second”, “third” and “finally”.
You may decide to use a highlighter or underline these main ideas.
•
Produce a single summary for each topic. This involves writing down a shortened version
by means of one or a combination of the summarising strategies: conventional, mind map,
column or Cornell (dividing your notebook paper into different sections, e.g. a notes and
recall column and a summary section at the bottom of the page). Your notes should indicate
the content of the text in your own words. You must end up with a study sheet.
A study sheet is a complete set of notes – a combination of lecture and textbook notes,
research information and your own ideas.
•
Learn your summaries by using various memorisation strategies that are discussed in the
next section. You will have to revise regularly to aid memory and add further details to your
summaries, particularly if you use these summaries to prepare for tests and examinations.
Remember: learning requires repetition and rehearsal. You have to see it again, hear it again,
say it again and write it again in order to register it in your memory (Lowenberg & Lucas,
1996: 109).
Our eyes, ears, hands and mouth are our main sources for obtaining information from our
textbooks. Make sure that you implement all of the above senses in order to become more
effective when studying. The more senses you can implement during your study process,
the more learning is going to take place.
14.3 METHODS OR STRATEGIES OF SUMMARISING

Various strategies of summarising will be discussed in this chapter. You may select the one
that best suits you – or you may decide to use them all. Consider those aspects of learning and
thinking styles, personal preferences, brain functioning and planning that we discussed in pre-
vious chapters (refer to chapters 1, 2, 10–13).
You are advised to create study sheets using each approach. We will discuss each strategy sep-
arately, but before we do that we need to ensure that you understand and know how to iden-
tify the main ideas in a text.
14.3.1 Identifying key points or main ideas

Getting a firm grip on this skill is essential to successful study on the levels of higher education 167
and training. The volume of work is generally too great for you to attempt to memorise all of it,
so you will need to memorise so-called key points or main ideas. These will serve as triggers to
your memory of the rest of the content.
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You must consider the following when you identify the main ideas or key points in a text:
• Look at the main headings and subheadings, because they usually convey the main ideas.
• Important terms, phrases and definitions are often written in bold or italics.
• Watch for keywords like “causes”, “results”, “effects”, etc.
• The number of paragraphs should give an indication of the number of main ideas, since each
paragraph often conveys one main idea, supporting details and examples. You may also find
that the paragraph begins with a phrase such as, “The four most important factors are ...”
• The author often restates important facts and ideas in slightly different words with the hope
that the reader will understand them better. You should therefore recognise the repetition of
important ideas.
Example 14.1: Implementing summarising techniques

The diagram below is an indication of the different sections making up the majority of
chapters. You can use these sections as a guide to where to start when approaching
a chapter. The diagram indicates possible summarising techniques to be implemented
when approaching a specific chapter section.
Chapter
Normally consists out of the following sections:
Headings / subheadings Definitions Content Sketches
Summarising strategies that

can be implemented
A3 empty Card method T-column method Photostat method

skeleton method Conventional method
Mindmap
Column method
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14.3.2 The A3 empty skeleton method

The method is called “empty skeleton” because it consists of the headings and sub-headings of the
chapter only. With this method, you familiarise yourself with the headings and subheadings
before looking at any content. It is easier to visualise / study the headings and subheadings of a
chapter (usually 10 or more pages) when the chapter is taken from the textbook and transferred
to an A3-sized page (see Example 14.2). You focus on only one aspect of the chapter and are not
bombarded with a lot of other information that can easily overwhelm you.
The following are the main features of the A3 empty skeleton method:
168 • An A3-sized paper is used as a study sheet.

• The method involves headings and subheadings only.
• The headings and subheadings are written on one page in the format of a diagram.
• Color coding is used to distinguish the main headings from the subheadings.
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• Looking at the headings only will give the student a good idea of the content of the chapter.
• Ask: “What do I already know about the topic?” Bringing in your own knowledge will help
you to understand the content material more easily.
• The main headings are an indication of how many questions to prepare for that specific
chapter.
• The subheadings are an indication of how many “name and describe” types of question you
have to prepare.
• Study your headings. You can earn marks for “name / list” types of question quickly this
way – you will often be asked to name and describe the subheadings of a specific chapter in
a test / exam. Focusing on headings and subheadings only is much easier than focusing on
a combination of aspects (e.g. headings, subheadings, definition and content) all at the same
time.
Example 14.2: A study sheet using the A3 empty skeleton

method
Subject: Life Skills
Chapter 3: Study strategies
Motivation
Describe types
Goal setting
of questions
Time management
Name and describe

Time savers
types of questions
Get started
Make a “to do list”
Prioritise
Use your diary
Do one task at a time
Name and describe

Summarising techniques
types of questions
Mind map method
Conventional method
T-column method
Card method
Describe types
Memorising
of questions
Memorising techniques Name and describe

types of questions
Acronyms
Acrostics
Hook-ups 169
Sourc e:STUDY BUDDY @ ESP Online (Registered users only) (2012)
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The whole idea of making a summary is to make the work less! Try to focus on only one
aspect at a time. The less the work, the easier and quicker to remember.
14.3.3 The card method

This method familiarises you with all the definitions in the chapter before you look at any of
the other content. It is again easier to visualise / study the definitions of a chapter (usually 10 or
more pages) when the chapter is taken from the textbook and transferred to cards (an example
is given in Figure 14.2). With this method, you again focus on only one aspect of the chapter
and so are not bombarded with too much information at once. You will find that you have only
10 or sometimes as few as five cards per chapter to study. The following are the main features
of the card method:
• Cards are used as a study sheet.
• The method consists of definitions only.
• Create one card per definition.
• The number of cards is an indication of how many definitions per chapter to study.
• Read through the definition and take out only the keywords.
• The term should be written on the front of a card, and the keywords of the definition on the
back.
• Study your definition by starting with the most important keywords and then repeat them
to yourself, preferably by writing them down.
• Study one card at a time. Revise previous cards before your start with a new card until you
know them all.
• Test yourself. Lay out the cards of a specific chapter in front of you. Place half of the cards
with the term face up and the other half of the cards with the keywords face up. Select a card
randomly and see in each case if you can remember what is written on the other side of the
card (term or keywords, as the case may be).
• Knowing your definitions will help you to describe them and / or to answer multiple-choice
questions when you get to a test / exam.
Example 14.3: The card method

Definition: “One-man business”
At a one-man business, only one person is involved. He is responsible for all the losses
and profits of the company and when he dies, the company closes.
Front of card Back of card

Name of definition Keywords of definition
• 1 person
One-man • Losses
buisiness • Profits
• Dies
170 • Closed
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The same procedure that you have followed for studying definitions can be used for
studying formulas. On front of the card will be the name of the formula and on the back
of the card the formula itself.
14.3.4 The T-column method ( ) 

The T-column method can be used when you approach the content. It helps to organise and
arrange content in a way that is easy to understand. You take out the most important aspects of
a specific topic by identifying main and sub-keywords – it is easier to remember content when
focusing on words instead of phrases. After memorising the keywords of a specific topic, use
them to make a short summary of the topic, in your own words. The summary will be a good
indication of how familiar you are with the content.
The following are the main features of the T-column method:
• An A4 paper divided / folded into two (Ƭ) is used as a study sheet.
• The left column of the paper is for headings, subheadings and questions. The right is for
main keywords and sub keywords.
• The method consists of asking questions in order to identify main and sub keywords.
• Divide the content of a specific topic into smaller paragraphs.
• Number the paragraphs.
• The number of paragraphs should give an indication of the number of main ideas.
• Each paragraph often consists of one main idea, supported by sub-ideas.
• Ask yourself questions (e.g. who, what, when, where) in order to get to main ideas and sub-
ideas.
• You can read out loud to identify main ideas.
• Use colour codes (one colour for main ideas and another colour for sub-ideas).
• Select only the most important ideas (main and sub keywords) that are relevant to the topic
and transfer them to the T-column method (study sheet).
• You will note that the main and subheadings are indicated (left column) separately from the
main and sub-keywords (right column).
• Study the content by focusing on the main and sub-keywords indicated in the column on the
right first.
• Test yourself. You can use the heading and question column as your recall column (cover the
column on your right) and test yourself by looking at the headings and questions in the left
column.
• Provide a short summary for each topic in your own words by making use of the selected
keywords. Make sure the words you use have the same meaning as the text.
• Implementing this method will help you to prepare and to answer any “describe” type of
question.
171
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Example 14.4: A “T-column method”-study sheet and summary

of the text
Text: Expert systems
When an organization has a complex decision to make or problem to solve,

1 it often turns to experts for advice. These experts have specific knowledge and
experience in the problem area. They are aware of the alternatives, the chances
of success, and the costs the organization may incur./ Organizations engage
experts for advice on matters such as equipment purchases, mergers and adver-
2 tising strategy. The more unstructured the situation, the more specialized and
expensive the advice is./
Typically, an expert system is a decision-making and / or problem-solving pack-

age of computer hardware and software that can reach a level of performance
3 comparable to –or even exceeding that of – a human expert in some specialized
and narrow area. It is a branch of applied artificial intelligence. The logic behind
expert systems is simple./
Expertise is transferred from the human being to the computer. This knowledge
is then stored in the computer and users call on the computer for specific advice
4 as needed. The computer can make inferences and arrive at a specific conclu-
sion. Then, like a human consultant, it advises non-experts and explains the logic
behind the advice./
Expert systems are used today in thousands of organisations and they support
5 many tasks. Their capabilities can provide organizations with improved productiv-
ity levels and increased competitive advantages./
Source: Smith, Cronje, Brevis & Vrba (2007)
Study sheet of “Expert systems”: T-column method
Headings / subheadings / Main keywords / sub-keywords

questions
EXPERT SYSTEMS: 1. Complex decision to make / problem to solve
Turn? • experts
Experience and • problem area
knowledge in? • alternatives, chances of success and costs
Aware?
2. Advice on matters
• equipment purchases
Such as?
• mergers
• advertising strategy
Unstructured situation?
• more specialised and expensive advice
Package of? 3. Decision-making / problem-solving package
Reach a level of? • computer hardware + software
• performance comparable to that of a human expert
From?
4. Expertise is transferred
How?
• human being–computer
• knowledge stored–computer
Why?
172 • user calls on computer-specific advice
5. Thousands of organisations
• improve – productivity levels
• increase – competitive advantages
Source: STUDY BUDDY @ ESP Online (Registered users only) (2013)
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14
Short summary of “Expert systems”

An organisation can turn to experts for advice when they have a complex decision to
make or a problem to solve. They can give advice on equipment purchases, mergers
and advertising strategies. Advice becomes more specialised and expensive when the
situation is unstructured. An expert system is a package of computer hardware and
software which reach a level of performance comparable to that of a human expert.
Expertise is basically transferred from the human being to the computer. The human
being can go on to the computer for specific advice if needed. Thousands of organi-
sations make use of the expert system in order to improve productivity and also to
increase competitive advantages.
14.3.5 Conventional method of summarising

This method is called “conventional” because it is the traditional or standard approach that is
commonly used by most learners. Because notes are written in a linear fashion, you tend to use
only the left side of your brain. The left brain prefers the systematic processing and presenting
of information. (Refer to chapters 4 and 10 to remind you of your preferred thinking style or
dominant pattern.)
The following are the main features of the conventional method:
• Main ideas are written in a linear fashion from left to right on the page.
• Main points are recorded in such a way that they extend from top to bottom on the page.
• The summary is divided into numbered sections in order to give structure to the work.
The conventional method

1. Definition
1.1 Standard
1.2 Common
2. Appearance
2.1 Linear – left to right on page
2.2 Written from top to bottom
2.3 Numbered
Figure 14.1 Example of a study sheet using the conventional method of note taking
Figure 14.1 is a summary of the information described in section 14.3. Only keywords are used
to produce this study sheet, instead of using many words. We start with 142 words and end up
with 16 words – a pleasing sight when preparing for a test!
14.3.6 Summarising using mind maps

You were introduced to mind maps (or “spider grams”) in Chapter 10 as a brainstorming tool.
In this section, we discuss this concept again as a strategy used for summarising. 173
Mind maps derived their name from the fact that they are an attempt to make notes in the
same way in which the brain works.
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From the previous discussion on brain functioning, you will recall that the brain is divided into
left and the right parts, which are called hemispheres. Each hemisphere controls or special-
ises in certain intellectual functions. The left hemisphere specialises in processing information
which is in the form of words, numbers and lists, and prefers linearity and logic. The right
hemisphere specialises in processing information which is in the form of pictures, shapes and
diagrams, and prefers rhythm, colour and imagination.
As mentioned in the preceding section, the conventional method of summarising tends to be
associated with functions of the left side of the brain, while the mind map ensures that func-
tions of both the left and the right hemisphere are used. The following are the main features of
a mind map:
• A mind map begins with the topic or main idea, which is written in the middle of the page.
• Branches of supporting ideas follow the topic or main idea and each of these subdivides fur-
ther into smaller branches of subordinate facts.
• Ideas do not have to be in a logical order.
• A mind map involves less writing, because mainly keywords are used.
• The entire topic is represented on one page.
• Colours can be used to link and separate elements of the mind map.
• Pictures, diagrams and symbols can be used.
Advantages of mind maps:

• The main idea is clearly visible.
• Relationships between ideas are easily recognisable.
• New information can easily be added.
• Material can easily be reviewed.
• They help you to recall and to think from general to specific.
• They are helpful at test or exam time.
• They are visual, with pictures and colours that can be appealing.
Example 14.2 illustrates how to compile a mind map.
Main ideas
Easy to review Minor points

Mind map
Use pictures Use colour
Figure 14.2 A study sheet using a mind map
174
14.3.7 The column method
You will notice that both the Cornell and column method are about notes written in columns.
However, the latter is made up of about four columns whereas the Cornell method comprises
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only two columns. You can use an A4 size page or exercise book, or even an index card for this.
What is important is to draw four columns, as shown in Table 14.1.
Table 14.1 Example of a study sheet using the column method
Top ic Key w ord s Exam p le Ow n w ord s
Use this column as a Use this column for Use this column to Use this column for
recall column main ideas and key- jot down important reconstructing informa-
words examples tion in your own words
The main features of the column method of summarising are as follows (see Table 14.1):
•
Topic column. You will always use this when you review your work. Cover the other three
columns, look at the topic and try to recall the corresponding keywords for each topic. Say
these out loud to yourself or write them down on a separate piece of paper. In this way, you
try to memorise the work. Check how much you can remember and relearn if you are not
satisfied.
•
Keywords column. This contains the main ideas or keywords, called “trigger words”
because they trigger your memory by enabling you to remember other supporting details of
the topic.
•
Column for examples. This is where you jot down examples, which are often the supporting
details for the keywords. Each keyword may have one or a few of them.
•
Column for points written in your own words. What is contained here should demonstrate
that you understand the work and may even include information in real life that you already
know and now link to the new knowledge.
14.3.8 The photostat method

The photostat method can be used for sketches. You identify and photocopy all the sketches
that need to be studied from a specific chapter (preferably more than one copy per sketch). You
then erase all the labels on the copies and compile a list of them on a separate study sheet for
memorising purposes. The copy without labels is used for revision purposes.
The following are the main features of the photostat method:
• The focus is on sketches only.
• The “copied version” of the sketch is used as a study sheet.
• Identify the sketch that you have to study.
• Make copies of the sketch and erase all the labelling.
• Now you have two sketches: a photocopied version and the textbook version.
• Compile a list of all the erased labels on a separate study sheet.
• Close the textbook version.
• Study the “label list” by making use of the memorising techniques described in the next
chapter (Chapter 15).
• When you are familiar with the list of labels for a specific sketch, try to plot them (in writing)
on the copied version (i.e. try to identify which label is supposed to go where) without con-
sulting the textbook.
• Compare your version with the textbook version and give yourself a mark. 175
• Keep on practising until you score 100 per cent.
• Many students like this method because they do not see the labels at all (i.e. get no clues)
and so are able to learn them better.
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• Studying the labels first forces you to think instead of studying like a parrot. You learn what
the labels mean, rather than just visualizing their position on the sketch.
• It is important to combine the theory (more detail on the sketch) with the sketch itself in
order to understand it better.
Example 14.5: The photostat method
Parts of a leaf
blade
vein
midrib
petiole
node
Figure 14.3 Textbook version

Parts of a leaf
Figure 14.4 Example of a study sheet using the photostat method

176 List of labels

Blade
•
Vein
•
Q
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Node
•
Petiole
•
Midrib
•
Memorising
Take the first letter of each of the above labels and create your own sentence. For
example:
Barry never parties very much

↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
Blade Node Petiole Vein Midrib
Exercise 14.1
Read the text and answer the questions that follow.
How you can help to save our planet

Many individuals and conservation organisations are working at local, national and
global levels to stop the destruction of the world. But only through team effort and the
cooperation of the majority of people on this planet will efforts succeed.
The most immediate appeal is for people everywhere to become conservationists in
their daily lives – and what better time to make a commitment to this than on World
Environment Day?
At work: There is enormous wastage of paper and energy in the workplace:

• Thousands of trees are used to make the paper and other products we throw away.
Save resources by recycling.
• Save energy and money by switching off lights and heating that are not in use, par-
ticularly over lunch hour and after work.
• Is your workplace using environmentally safe products such as phosphate-free clean-
ing agents? Promote this as a policy.
• Support the use of recycled paper – this uses less energy and produces less wastage
and pollution than virgin paper.
Shopping: Next time you go shopping, take a moment to think of the effect your next
purchase could have on the environment. Be an informed consumer. There are safe
alternatives to many of the products we buy:
• Buy pump-action sprays, particularly when refills are available. Avoid aerosols unless
they are CFC free.
• Buy recycled toilet paper, stationery, etc.
• If you can, buy in bulk as it saves packaging and money.
• Avoid products designed specifically for a short lifespan (e.g. disposable items such
as nappies). Buy long-lasting items to reduce the amount of urban waste. 177
• Take your own shopping bags. Billions of non-recyclable or non-biodegradable carrier
bags end up in rivers and seas where they can kill or injure wildlife.
Q
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Travelling: Do you need to drive your car as often as you do? Large amounts of poison-
ous gases and substances are released by cars and other vehicles each year:
• Walk or cycle instead of using the car. This also keeps you fit.
• Use public transport when possible. If there is no good service, make sure that your
elected representative or local authority knows about this.
• Form a car pool.
• Have your car serviced regularly – an efficient engine is a clean one.
Speak up: Write to your elected representative, local authority or local paper on
environmental issues that concern you. Many improvements have been achieved
through persistent public outcry.
Join an environmental group: They need your support.

Source: The Star, 5 June 1995 http://www.thestar.co.uk/news
Questions
1. Identify the keywords, main ideas and supporting details of the above text.
2. Make a summary sheet of the text using a mind map.
Topic Keywords / main idea Supporting details
14.4 CONCLUSION
As with so many other academic, study and learning skills you will also need to make an effort
in your summarising. Summarising seems to be a casual and general skill but depending on
your personal learning style and your study material or subject matter you will need to make a
concerted effort to ensure that you make effective summaries that support your learning. After
all, your summaries should ultimately assist in helping you memorise, understand and recall
your study material. This chapter demonstrates how you can apply very basic but effective
strategies to ensure that your summaries work for you!
R E FE R E N C E S A N D A DDI T I O N A L R EA D I N G
178
Advocacy. Memory. Available at: http://www. Cook Counselling Center, Virginia Tech. 2004.
advocacy.gsat.edu.au/education/memory.htm Acronyms. Available at: http://www.ucc.vt.edu/
(accessed on 2 March 2004). stdysk/acronyms.html (accessed on 17 October
2003).
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CS6751-Winter Topics. 1997. Human memory. Avail- Smith, P.J., Cronje, G.J. de J., Brevis, T. & Vrba, M.J.
able at: http://www.cc.gatech.edu/classes/ 2007. Management principles: a contemporary edition
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to reading, thinking and writing skills. Johannesburg: http://www.acccdd.edu/sac/history/keller/
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Directorate: Student Support & Development. 2004. 2004).
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Kurland, M. & Lupoff, R.A. 1999. The complete idiot’s STUDY BUDDY @ ESP. 2012. Available at: http://
guide to improving your memory. New York: Alpha mytutor.tut.ac.za (accessed on 16 August 2013).
Books. Study skills: summarizing techniques. Available at:
Lowenberg, E. & Lucas, E. 1996. The right way: a guide http://www.petech.ac.za/sc/Summar~1.htm
for parents and teachers to encourage visual learners. (accessed on 25 February 2004).
Durban: Gecko Books. Svantesson, I. 1998. Learning maps and memory skills:
Mind Tools. 1998. Memory techniques: how your learn- powerful techniques to help you make better use of your
ing style affects your use of mnemonics. Available at: brain, 2nd ed. London: Kogan Page.
http://www.psychwww.com/mtsite/mnemlsty. UNISA Home. Learning guide: summarising, learning
html (accessed on 11 March 2003). connection. University of South Australia. Available
Ott, P. 1997. How to detect and manage dyslexia: a refer- at: http://www.unusa.edu.au/learningconnec-
ence and resource manual. Oxford: Heinemann. tion/learners/learning/index.htm (accessed on 4
P540 – Learning & cognition. 2003. Unit 2: Cognitive February 2004).
approaches 1 – Basic information processing model. USQ Home. 2003. Student services: improving memory.
Readings. Available at: http://education.Indiana. Available at: http://www.usq.edu.au/studentser-
edu/~p540/webcourse/cip.html (accessed on 20 vices/counseling/issues/memory.htm (accessed
May 2004). on 18 May 2004).
Shaffer, D.R. 1993. Developmental psychology: childhood
and psychology. California: Brooks / Cole.
Answers to the fill-in questions in section 14.2

• Summarising is about written text.
• Note taking is about the spoken word.
179
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SLIDES
15 Memorising
S TE P H AN P O TGIET ER
15.1 Introduction
15.2 What is memorising?
15.2.1 Short-term memory 15.6 Conclusion
15.2.2 Long-term memory References and additional reading
15.2.3 The memorisation process
15.3 Increasing information retention O U T CO MES
15.4 Memorising linked to the learning sens- After working through this chapter, you should
es
n understand what memorising means
15.5 Mnemonics for academic work
n have insight into some techniques to enhance
15.5.1 The link method your personal memorising efforts
15.5.2 The number / rhyme mnemonic n be able to apply the core principles of memo-
15.5.3 The number / shape mnemonic rising.
15.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapter, you learned how to reduce your workload so that you do not burn out
before you reach your destination, which is graduation. Now you need to learn to store this
information load properly and arrange it in such a manner that it becomes easier to retrieve.
Think of the volumes of books in a library. Imagine how difficult it would be to retrieve books
without a proper system of catalogues and storage on shelves? Similarly, you need to store
your summaries in such away that they can be easily retrieved when needed. Let us start with
a look at what memorising is, and why you need to memorise things.
15.2 WHAT IS MEMORISING?

As a student, you sit down to study with the aim of being able to remember the work later on.
This ability to remember learning material does not only depend on your memorising skills,
180 but also on your commitment to using other strategies mentioned in this book. When you learn
something and commit it to memory, we say you are memorising.
Most literature explains human memory by differentiating between short-term and long-term
memory. Let us take a quick look at these two types of memory.
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MEMORISING
15
15.2.1 Short-term memory

According to Cockcroft (2002), short-term memory can be defined as the memory system
which stores information over very brief intervals of time, usually only seconds or a few hours.
Grieve, Van Deventer and Mojapelo-Batka (2006: 35) further explain it as follows:
Short-term memory is a temporary store for small amounts of information. Short-term
memories are encoded as images or as sounds. We keep information in short-term mem-
ory for approximately 20 seconds. However, you can keep information in short-term
memory for much longer if you keep rehearsing it. Rehearsal is repeatedly verbalising or
thinking about the information.
In other words, you have to use various strategies that will help to ensure that this informa-
tion gets stored in the long-term memory. Short-term memory is reliable for seconds, does not
respond well under stress and therefore is not very effective for test situations. Just think back
to a test or examination for which you had delayed studying until the night or morning before.
How much of the work could you remember? Probably not very much. If you did remember
any of the information, for how long after the test could you still recall it? Probably not for
very long. This implies that one way in which you can avoid stress is to prepare for tests and
examinations well in advance, rehearse and organise information, and thereby ensure that it is
stored in the long-term memory. You will notice later, when we discuss mnemonics, that they
are effective in ensuring that information is stored in the long-term memory.
15.2.2 Long-term memory

Information in our long-term memories is stored and held for long periods of time. And accord-
ing to Grieve et al. (2006), our long-term memories have an unlimited capacity and enable us to
remember very large amounts of information. Long-term memory also functions on the basis
that it selects and stores information based on the meaningfulness and importance of the infor-
mation that gets processed. The more purposeful and deliberate the attempts to store informa-
tion, the more likely it is to be stored to the long-term memory.
Think of it as watching a movie that you really enjoy and find interesting – you concentrate
much better, deliberately and purposefully, and you can remember it for years after watching
it even just once. In section 15.5 on memory mnemonics, we will look at how to turn even the
most ordinary, boring objects into colourful, interesting movies, that can be remembered for as
long need be.
This however, does not mean that we store all the experiences we have throughout our lives. It
means that those pieces of information that we do commit to long-term memory will be there
permanently. Grieve et al. (2006: 39) pose the following question about the permanency of long-
term memory: “If this statement is true (that long-term memory is permanent), why do we still
struggle to remember certain things?”
Struggling to remember something does not mean that we do not know it, but rather that we
are having difficulty finding it among all the massive amounts of information in our long-term
memories. For example, when talking to old friends whom you have not seen in years, you
may at first struggle to recall events they mention, but as the conversation continues, you start
remembering more and more. This happens when a conversation, or reading or seeing some-
thing, provides you with cues / links that assist you with retrieving information from long-
term memory. You will get to know more about these cues / links in section 15.5.
181
In order to be an effective learner, you should always strive towards improving and
enhancing your memory by applying strategies that assist you to store information in the
long-term memory.
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Other aspects that you need to understand are

• learning by rote memory
• learning by understanding.
You memorise by rote when you reproduce the information word for word, mechanically or
in a parrot-like fashion. For example, telephone numbers and multiplication tables are learned
by rote memorisation. The down side of this is that parrots are very good at repeating words
and info, but they are very bad at understanding what they say. On the other hand, learning by
understanding applies when you learn concepts, ideas and theories. Sometimes memorisation
by rote and understanding occur simultaneously, like when you understand a theorem which
you learned by rote. We can say that we have memorised information when we retain it and
then retrieve it for use at a later stage.
15.2.3 The memorisation process

In the simplest of terms, memorisation can be described as the act of committing something
(anything) to memory. It is a daily mental process of receiving, encoding, storing and recalling
information. Although it is often seen as a deliberate conscious action, memorisation also
occurs without intention. Think of how a scent, a certain image, a sound or a feeling can make
something suddenly spring to mind that you were unaware you had remembered.
Whether we memorise information deliberately or by “accident”, we still have to get the infor-
mation from the “outside” of our minds, “into” our minds. How do we do this? How do we
gather information from the world around us and put it into our minds?
The answer is easy. We store information from the world around us by the same means as we
perceive it – through our senses.
Figure 15.1 The five senses
Why then, if it is possible for us to make use of all five senses to get information into our minds,
182 do we still struggle to remember and memorise our work? We read and we listen in class.
These are two of our senses, so why do we not remember eveything?
To answer these questions, let us first take a quick look at how the process of memorisation
works, and relate it to something that we all do almost everyday – use a computer.
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MEMORISING
15
As stated earlier, memorisation is a mental process which is made up of the steps shown in
Figure 15.2.
Information
Received
Recall/
through our
retrieve
5 senses
Store Encode
(Short- vs ((give meaning
Long-term to
memory) information)
Figure 15.2 Steps in the memorisation process

Sourc e:Potgieter (2012)
The process of memorisation really is as simple as Figure 15.2. Information is received by us

through our senses (sight, hearing, feeling, tasting, smelling), we then encode (give meaning
to) it, and store it in an appropriate place in order for us to recall / retrieve it at a later stage.
When we look at how a computer works, we see the same pattern (see Figure 15.3).
Data
(information)
Finding Formats –
files (recall/ receive (text/
retrieve) audio/
visual)
Correct Enter info

file allocation into PC
(storing) (encoding)
183
Figure 15.3 A computer’s “memorisation” process

Sourc e:Potgieter (2012)
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Memory creation, encoding, storing and recalling can be viewed in very much the same way
as files are created, encoded, stored and retrieved on a computer. However, when we do not
encode and store our computer files clearly and properly, it becomes difficult to find these files.
The same happens when we do not encode and store our memories properly.
Information can be stored in long-term memory through the use of various techniques and
strategies, including repetition, rhythm and rhyming, and many others which all fall within
the area of memory mnemonics. Think of how you learned your nursery rhymes, poems and
songs, etc. when you were a young child. You had to rehearse them over and over again, and
thereby stored the information in long-term memory – hence you are able to recall this old
knowledge, years later. Forgetting occurs if you do not encode / store the information properly
because it leads to an inability to retrieve the information from long-term memory.
With this basic knowledge of how memory works, you will understand why it is important to
try out the memorisation strategies which we will discuss in section 15.5.
15.3 INCREASING INFORMATION RETENTION

Use the following pointers to increase information retention during your studying process
(Directorate: Student Development and Support, 2004):
•
Preview the text. The night before or on the morning of your class, have a quick look at the
text to be covered. Read the introduction, and the first and last sentence of every paragraph.
Look at headings, subheadings, sketches, diagrams and bold / italic words (10 mins).
•
During the lecture, listen, participate, take notes and ask questions.
•
After class (within 24 hours), read. Every sentence, every word. Read small sections at a
time, and then ask yourself questions about what you have just read. Look at and compare
with the notes you took during the lecture. Highlight the main concepts and ideas.
•
Weekly, review all the work from your notes and your textbooks. Compare current work
with previous sections. How does it fit together?
• Rehearse over and over by using multisensory learning modality (visual, motor, and verbal
– see section 15.4).
•
Regular sleep, exercise and a balanced diet are essential for enhancing memory.
15.4 MEMORISING LINKED TO THE LEARNING SENSES

Different people learn better in different ways. Consider which of the following applies to you:
• A visual learner learns best by seeing and tends to remember things that he or she observes.
This learner benefits from diagrams, pictures and written notes that are colourful. If you are
such a learner, you can enhance your memory by using pictures in your mind map. You
should also visualise and form a mental picture of the scene where learning took place.
• An auditory (hearing) learner learns best by listening to the spoken word. If you are one of
these, you will tend to listen intently during your lectures and remember them well. In order
to enhance your memory, you should recite your summaries out loud, listen to tape-record-
ed notes, participate in group discussions and recall the voice of your lecturer explaining the
concepts in class.
184 • A kinaesthetic learner learns best by movement, touching and doing, and therefore benefits
most from practise. For instance, kinaesthetic learners who need to store and retrieve facts
on nursing procedures would imagine themselves performing the act. This would help them
to recall those learned facts.
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MEMORISING
15
The strategies on learning senses work better and might even be more effective when used in
conjunction with mnemonics. Let us have a closer look at these memory tools in the next sec-
tion.
15.5 MNEMONICS FOR ACADEMIC WORK

Cockcroft (2002) describes mnemonics as “purposeful and deliberate attempts to enhance
memory performance”. Because mnemonics are both purposeful and deliberate, they are very
effective for the conscious storing of information in the long-term memory. To limit mnemonics
to only one or two techniques would be doing an injustice to our capacity as human beings to
continuously expand our ways of remembering and recalling information. Mnemonics should
rather be viewed as any memory tool, aid, game or activity that enhances our ability to store
and recall information, even if it is information related to our everyday lives and activities (Pot-
gieter, 2012).
More commonly used mnemonic techniques, some of which might already be familiar to you,
include the following:
•
Rhythm and rhyming. You are able to remember some of the poems and songs you learned
when you were young because of the rhythm and rhyming. You can also rap the informa-
tion in order to memorise it.
•
Acronyms. These are words or phrases that are formed from the first letters of each word
or concept you wish to memorise, for example Congress of South African Trade Unions is
known as COSATU.
•
Acrostics. These are arrangements of words in such a way that certain letters in each line
form another word, for example:
My
Never
Ending
Memory
Opening
Natural
Intellect
Companion
Keywords can also be used. You need to be creative, use a lot of humour or find something
that has meaning to you when formulating such a sentence. Our minds appear to store and
retain information better that way.
Kurland and Lupoff (1999) provide the following examples of mnemonics which are applicable
to specific subjects or courses:
•
Music. In the treble clef, the notes which are written on the lines (E, G, B, D and F) can
be remembered with the sentence Every Good Boy Deserves Favour. The notes written in
between the lines (F, A, C, E) form an acronym: FACE.
•
Geography. To remember the order of layers of the earth’s atmosphere (troposphere, strato-
sphere, mesosphere, ionosphere, exosphere), you can use the phrase: that should make it 185
easy.
•
English. According to Ott (1997), mnemonics can be used effectively to teach learners how to
spell irregular words, for example:
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Could = could old uncle lie down

Beautiful = boys eat apples under trees in France until lunch
Mnemonics rely on our creation of imagery, sounds, songs, rhymes and even movements
that will enable us to encode and store information clearly for later retrieval. Here are some
tips / guidelines:
• Use positive and pleasant images. The human brain tends to block unpleasant images.
• Use vivid, colorful and sense-laden images.
• Use all your senses.
• Make use of three-dimensional space and movement.
• Exaggerate the size of objects. We remember extraordinary things more clearly than ordin-
ary things.
• Use humour in your mnemonics. We remember jokes and funny things a lot better than
ordinary, dull occurrences.
The three fundamental principles underlying the use of mnemonics are imagination, associ-
ation and location. Working together, you can use these principles to generate powerful mne-
monic systems (http://www.mindtools.com/memory.html):
1. Imagination. This should be used to create and strengthen the associations needed to create
effective mnemonics. The more of your imagination you use to create your mnemonics, the
stronger they will be and the better and clearer they will be encoded in to your long-term
memory. In other words, the more strongly you imagine and visualise a situation, the more
effectively it will stick in your mind for later recall. The imagery you use in your mnemonics
can be as violent, vivid or sensual as you like, as long as it helps you to remember.
2. Association. This is the method by which you link a thing to be remembered to a way of
remembering it. You can create associations by
• placing things on top of each other
• crashing things together
• merging images together
• wrapping things around each other
• rotating them around each other or having them dancing together
• linking them using the same color, smell, shape or feeling.
3. Location. By making use of different locations or contexts for each set of mnemonics
that you create, you will prevent yourself from getting confused or mixing them up. For
example, if you visualise the mnemonic images / rhymes / songs that you create for a sub-
ject such as physics taking place within a laboratory, you will not confuse them with your
mnemonics for a subject such as geology, which are taking place within a volcano.
We will now turn our attention to some of the different mnemonic techniques that have been
proven very successful over the years.
15.5.1 The link method

186 This method relies on creating mental images of objects that need to be memorised, creating
links / associations between them and placing the objects in location. For example, you have to
memorise the following objects for a test: coffee mug, dog, cat, chair, wine glass, rug, broom,
window, balloon and baby.
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MEMORISING
15
The first step is to create mental pictures of the objects by making use of the above mentioned
principles of pleasantness, vivid colors, movement, size, humor etc. For example, a bright green
laughing coffee mug, a small pink smelly dog, a fast running furry cat. Now take a couple
of minutes and create your images of the objects. Feel free to even make small sketches, and
remember there are no limits in terms of what you can imagine.
The second step is to create links between the objects. Links / cues mean that you should have
your objects do something to each other, like smashing into each other, wrapping around each
other, or even falling on top of one another. The most important part here is ALWAYS to have
the first object do something (link / cue) to the second object. For example, the bright green
coffee mug jumps on the back of the small pink smelly dog. Take a couple of seconds to visual-
ise this happening. Now that your first link is created it is time to move on to the second link,
where your second object (the dog) does something to the third object (cat). The small pink
smelly dog runs and bites the fast running furry cat, and so on.
Always remember: first object does something to the second object, then the second object does
something to the third object, then the third object does something to the fourth object ... and
constantly visualise in your imagination what it looks like. Take a couple of minutes and prac-
tise this with the above list of 10 objects, then test yourself.
15.5.2 The number / rhyme mnemonic

The number / rhyme technique is a very simple way of memorising lists or keywords that have
been identified to remember an essay type question.
It is one of the peg systems – a system where information is “pegged” to a known sequence
(here the numbers one to 10) to create peg words. By doing this, you ensure that you do not
forget any facts, as gaps in information are immediately obvious. It also makes remembering
images easier as you always know part of the mnemonic images.
At a simple level, you can use it to remember things such as a list of English kings or American
presidents in their precise order. At a more advanced level, it can be used, for example, to code
lists of experiments to be recalled in a science exam.
The technique works by helping you to build up pictures in your mind, in which you represent
numbers by things that rhyme with the number. You can then link these pictures to images of
the things to be remembered.
The usual rhyming scheme is:
1. – rhymes with bun
2. – rhymes with shoe
3. – rhymes with tree
4. – rhymes with paw
5. – rhymes with hive
6. – rhymes with bricks
7. – rhymes with heaven
8. – rhymes with gate
9. – rhymes with line
10. – rhymes with hen 187
If you find that these images do not attract you or stick in your mind, then change them for
something more meaningful.
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Link these images to ones representing the things to be remembered. Often, the funnier the
compound image, the more effectively you will remember it (refer back to section 15.2.3 to see
how you can improve the image to help it stay clearly in your mind).
Example 15.1
Try remembering the previous list of 10 objects with this method:
1. Coffee mug – a (1) BUN jumping into a COFFEE MUG.
2. Dog – a (2) SHOE stepping on a DOG’s tail
3. Cat – a (3) TREE waving its branches to prevent a CAT from climbing into it.
4. Chair – a (4) PAW scratching the varnish off of an antique CHAIR.
5. Wine glass – a bee (5) HIVE dripping its honey into a WINE GLASS.
6. Rug – (6) BRICKS jumping up and down on a RUG to get the dust out.
7. Broom – (7) HEAVEN allowing a BROOM entrance.
8. Window – a (8) GATE slamming shut on the SIDE PANEL of a car.
9. Balloon – a (9) LINE of string preventing a BALLOON from flying away.
10. Baby – a flying (10) HEN carrying a BABY to its crib.
Try either visualising these images as suggested, or if you do not like them, come up
with images of your own. Once you have done this, try writing the objects on a piece of
paper. You should be able to do this by thinking of the number (e.g. 1), and then the
part of the image associated with the number (e.g. BUN) and then the whole image
(BUN jumping into the COFFEE MUG).
If the mnemonic has worked, you should not only recall all the objects in the correct
order, but should also be able to spot where you have left them out of the sequence.
Now try it with a list of your own objects, and even try experimenting with some of your
school work.
15.5.3 The number / shape mnemonic

The number / shape system is very similar to the number / rhyme system. It is a very simple
and effective way of remembering a list in a specific order. Just as with the number / rhyme
mnemonic, it can also be used to also memorise keywords needed for essay-type questions. It
is another example of a peg system based on peg word images.
The technique works by helping you to build up pictures in your mind, in which the num-
bers are represented by images shaped like the number. You can then associate these with the
things you want to remember using striking images. One image scheme is shown below:
1. Candle, spear, stick
188
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MEMORISING
15
2. Swan, snake (beak, curved neck, body)
3. Camel’s humps
4. Kite or a sailboat
5. Hook
6. Golf club
7. Martini glass
189
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8. Pair of spectacles
9. Balloon on a string
10. Thin and fat man standing next to each other
Example 15.2
The process of memorising using this technique is the same as with the number / rhyme
technique. Let us try some different objects this time:
1. Radio – a (1) CANDLE burning a hole in a RADIO.
2. Computer – a (2) SNAKE biting a COMPUTER.
3. Soccer ball – a camel’s (3) HUMPS bouncing a SOCCERBALL.
4. Shark – a (4) SAILBOAT sailing around a SHARK.
5. Bomb – a (5) HOOK catching a BOMB.
6. Pen – a (6) GOLFCLUB smashing a PEN into bits.
7. Plate – a (7) MARTINI GLASS rolling over a PLATE.
8. Book – a pair of (8) SPECTACLES reading a BOOK.
9. Cloud – a floating (9) BALLOON going through a CLOUD.
10. Mirror – a (10) THIN MAN AND A FAT MAN looking into a MIRROR and laughing at
each other.
190
Now also try to memorise some keywords from your own studies. Remember to use the
tips and guidelines to make your images as colorful, funny or interesting as possible.
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MEMORISING
15
If a word seems too complicated, try to break it into smaller pieces and then create one
image out of the smaller pieces For example, a word like PROMOTION can be split into
PRO and MOTION. Now create a mental image of a professional sportsman or woman
(PRO) in MOTION (kicking a ball). It does not matter what your image is, as long as you
are able to relate your image back to the original word.
15.6 CONCLUSION
As you can see, strategies of memorising and summarising can make your workload seem
much lighter. You can expand your knowledge by consulting books and other sources listed in
the reference list that is provided at the end of the chapter.
The key to developing effective memory skills is the same for developing any other skill,
whether it be playing sports, music or art. PRACTISE, PRACTISE, PRACTISE!
R EFE R E N C E S A N D A DDI TI O N A L R EA D I N G
Advocacy. Memory. Available at: http://www. Mind Tools. 1998. Memory techniques: how your learn-
advocacy.gsat.edu.au/education/memory.htm ing style affects your use of mnemonics. Available at:
(accessed on 2 March 2004). http://www.psychwww.com/mtsite/mnemlsty.
Cockcroft, K. 2002. Memory development. In Hook, html (accessed on 11 March 2003).
D., Watts, J. & Cockcroft, K. (Eds), Developmental Ott, P. 1997. How to detect and manage dyslexia: a refer-
psychology. Cape Town: UCT Press, 233–244. ence and resource manual. Oxford: Heinemann.
Cook Counselling Center, Virginia Tech. 2004. Potgieter, S. 2012. Memorisation techniques. Available
Acronyms. Available at: http://www.ucc.vt.edu/ at: http://www.tut.ac.za (for more details / infor-
stdysk/acronyms.html (accessed on 17 October mation regarding the Study Buddy programme,
2003). contact student development and support on +27
12 382 5010).
CS6751-Winter Topics. 1997. Human memory. Avail-
able at: http://www.cc.gatech.edu/classes/ P540 – Learning & cognition. 2003. Unit 2: cognitive
cs6751-97-winter/Topics/human-cap/memory. approaches 1 – basic information processing model.
html (accessed on 20 May 2004). Readings. Available at: http://education.Indiana.
edu/~p540/webcourse/cip.html (accessed on 20
Designing mnemonics: imagination, association, and loca-
May 2004).
tion. 2013. Available at: http://www.mindtools.
Shaffer, D.R. 1993. Developmental psychology: childhood
com/memory.html (accessed on 13 August 2013).
and psychology. California: Brooks / Cole.
Directorate: Student Support & Development. 2004.
Strategies for Success. 2004. Study skills: memory
Facilitation material. Pretoria: Tshwane University
techniques, memorization techniques. Available at:
of Technology.
http://www.acccdd.edu/sac/history/keller/
Grieve, K., Van Deventer, V. & Mojapelo-Batka, M. ACCDItg/SSMT.htm (accessed on 14 January
2006. A student’s A–Z of psychology, revised ed. 2004).
Cape Town: Juta. Svantesson, I. 1998. Learning maps and memory skills:
Kurland, M. & Lupoff, R.A. 1999. The complete idiot’s powerful techniques to help you make better use of your
guide to improving your memory. New York: Alpha brain, 2nd ed. London: Kogan Page.
Books. USQ Home. 2003. Student services: improving memory.
Lowenberg, E. & Lucas, E. 1996. The right way: a guide Available at: http://www.usq.edu.au/studentser- 191
for parents and teachers to encourage visual learners. vices/counseling/issues/memory.htm (accessed
Durban: Gecko Books. on 18 May 2004).
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SLIDES
16 Managing
assignments and
assessments
GIFT CHWEU
T HE C H A P TER AT A G LA N C E 16.5.8 Submit your assignment

(break the tape!)
16.1 Introduction
16.6 Reference techniques
16.2. Getting started (on your marks!)
16.6.1 Referring within the text
16.3 Understanding your assignment title
(get set!) 16.6.2 The reference list / bibliography
16.4 The structure of your assignment (go!) 16.7 Quotations in an assignment
16.4.1 The title page 16.8 Writing a project report
16.4.2 Table of contents 16.8.1 Different forms of project
16.4.3 Writing the introduction 16.8.2 Stages in writing a report
16.4.4 Text – the body of your essay 16.8.3 Format of a project report
16.4.5 Conclusion of your assignment 16.9 Assessment
16.4.6 Appendices and addenda 16.9.1 Managing exam / test stress and
16.4.7 Graphs, maps and tables anxiety
16.4.8 Bibliography or references 16.9.2 Glossary of exam terms
16.5 Stages in assessment writing (run your 16.10 Conclusion
race!) References
16.5.1 Select a topic Additional reading
16.5.2 Prepare an outline / analyse the
topic O U T CO MES
16.5.3 Collect information After working through this chapter, you should
16.5.4 Organise your notes n be able to apply effective writing skills when doing
16.5.5 Write a draft of the assignment an assignment
16.5.6 Revise and rewrite the draft n demonstrate an understanding of the require-
16.5.7 Put the assignment in its final form ments for writing an effective assignment.
16.1 INTRODUCTION
Have you ever prepared yourself to run a race? If you have, you will know what it takes. If
192 not, you will probably know that you need to prepare yourself physically by training every
day and also doing carbohydrate loading at least three days prior to the race. You also need to
prepare yourself mentally by seeing yourself finishing the race, as well as emotionally by fore-
seeing that you are going to go through tough stretches to reach the finish.
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MANAGING ASSIGNMENTS AND ASSESSMENTS
16
If you are preparing for an assignment, you will do pretty much the same and experience the
same emotions and thoughts.
16.2 GETTING STARTED (ON YOUR MARKS!)

Let us begin at the beginning and see how you will get started in preparing for an assignment
or test.
First, you need to ask yourself the following questions:
• Why must I do this assignment? What is the purpose of the assignment?
• What is the length required?
• When is the due date?
• How much time will the assignment require?
• What is the required format – essay, memo, case study, journal article, business report or
laboratory report?
• What type of research is expected from me?
Asking and answering these questions will help you to stay focused and plan well in advance.
16.3 UNDERSTANDING YOUR ASSIGNMENT TITLE (GET SET!)

Understanding your assignment title properly is essential. You cannot proceed and expect to
do a good job without this. You need to look at two very important aspects in your title:
•
Subject or content words. To identify these, you need to read through the title and under-
line or circle the keywords. For example: Design an advertisement for a job, write an application
for the job and write down guidelines you must keep in mind when you go for the interview. Your
subject words will be: advertisement, application and interview guidelines.
•
Task or process words. Task or process words tell you what you should do, for example:
illustrate, design, write, compare, describe, define, explain or interpret.
16.4 THE STRUCTURE OF YOUR ASSIGNMENT (GO!)

The next part of your systematic approach is to develop a structure for your assignment. In
other words, you need to determine what to include in your assignment. All good assignments
will have some basic sections / parts, as we will now discover in sections 16.4.1 to 16.4.8.
16.4.1 The title page

An assignment should always have a title page. This is the lecturer’s first impression of your
assignment. The title page allows for some creativity on your part, depending of course on
what is appropriate for the subject and the purpose of the assignment. Remember that the title
page will give a first impression of your assignment and will influence the reader.
Make sure to write down your
• assignment title
• surname and name
• student number
• course and course code 193
• subject / module
• date
• lecturer’s name.
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16.4.2 Table of contents

A table of contents should follow next. It gives the reader an overview and point of reference
for the assignment (even if it is short). It also creates the impression that you went about the
assignment in a systematic manner. Everything that you are going to include in your assign-
ment must be written in your table of contents.
Example 16.1: A table of contents

1. Introduction
2. Primary crushers
2.1 Jaw crushers
2.2 Double-toggle Blake crushers
2.3 Single-toggle jaw crushers
2.4 Jaw crusher construction
3. Secondary crushers
3.1 Cone crusher
3.2 Gyradisc crusher
3.3 Roll crusher
4. Conclusion
5. Addenda / appendix
6. Graphs / maps / tables
7. Bibliography
16.4.3 Writing the introduction

It is important that you are clear on the function of an introduction in order for you to make it
work for you in your assignment. An introduction sets the tone of the assignment. According
to O’Hara (1998: 214), the main purpose of an introduction is to
• attract your reader’s attention and be interesting
• briefly explain why you have decided on a specific topic
• list the key sections that you are going to cover in the assignment.
Smith and Smith (1988: 129–130) highlight the following items as a checklist once you have
done the introduction.
Ask yourself:
• Did I define the terms and concepts of the title?
• Did I say why the topic is important?
• Did I limit my discussion and did I stick to the main idea?
• Can I break the task into different sections?
194 16.4.4 Text – the body of your essay

The core part or body of your essay will be the text (in section 16.5, we will investigate the
essentials). The text will carry all the facts you uncovered in your research, and your argu-
ments and statements regarding the title or topic. The diction and language you use should be
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16
appropriate to the theme of your assignment. Be sensitive to the style and manner in which you
present the text. We can accept that for academic assignments you will generally have to use
formal language, third person writing and proper jargon that is related to the subject matter.
O’Hara (1998: 111–112, 115, 127) suggests that when you write the text you must remember to
do the following:
• Use short sentences as far as possible.
• Write the idea at the beginning or end of the sentence.
• Decide what you want to say and use headings and subheadings to make your assignment
flow.
• Be precise and avoid using words like “everybody”, “it has been said” and “most of the
respondents”.
• Be cautious. Do not write phrases like “It is often ...”, “always” and “all”.
• Be objective. Focus on facts and present all sides of an argument (refer to the notes on critical
and analytical thinking in Chapter 11).
The body or text should be divided into paragraphs. Each paragraph should contain one theme.
Start your paragraph with a sentence that is directly linked to the theme. Make connections
between sentences so that your thoughts are presented fluently (O’Hara, 1998: 112).
16.4.5 Conclusion of your assignment

The conclusion is a meaningful summary of what you have discovered. You can reflect on the
content of your research in one paragraph. The purpose of the conclusion, according to Smith et
al. (1988: 128–129), is to
• comment on future implications of what you have discovered
• write about the effect that your research might have on other issues
• suggest how the situation can be improved.
The conclusion is thus the climax of your assignment and should be focused on the outcome of
your research, reading, reflection or investigation. In your conclusion, the reader should find
answers or responses to the questions you posed earlier in the introduction and text. The con-
clusion may also have recommendations and suggestions.
16.4.6 Appendices and addenda

The appendices contain any extra information which is interesting and relevant. The strategy
of adding long lists, data, questionnaires, etc. as appendices and therefore not in the body text
means that you do not load the text with information that is supportive to the main argument
but could distract the reader’s attention. In your text, you should refer to the appendix as fol-
lows: “As seen in the marketing model (see Appendix A) ... .” You might include detailed charts,
tables of figures, interview questions and a copy of any questionnaire in your appendix (O’Hara,
1998: 137).
16.4.7 Graphs, maps and tables 195

If you need to include maps, graphs or tables in your assignment, you should clearly indicate
them in the text. For example, “The advantages and disadvantages of the free market model
are shown in Table 1”. Remember that a graph, figure or table must always have a title.
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16.4.8 Bibliography or references

Your bibliography contains a list of the publications that you referred to in the text of your
assignment. You must provide complete particulars of your sources. You must arrange the sources
alphabetically according to the authors. Your bibliography will include books and articles as well
as internet articles that you used. Refer to section 16.6 for specific referencing techniques.
16.5 STAGES IN ASSIGNMENT WRITING (RUN YOUR RACE!)

Assignments are one form of assessment. Therefore, if you work through all the stages in
assessment writing, you will find your assignment writing much easier. The following eight
stages can be identified.
16.5.1 Select a topic

You should choose a topic that you find interesting. Talk to your lecturer or fellow students
about the topic. Phrase your topic as a question that needs an answer or as a problem that must
be solved.
16.5.2 Prepare an outline / analyse the topic

An outline is for your own use, to help you arrange your ideas. In your outline, you must give
an accurate summary of information you have gathered and you must organise it in such a way
as to show how the ideas are related (Shephard, 1987: 75). To help you plan, you can
• brainstorm ideas that you have about the topic
• mind map the different sections or themes
• use sticky notes and paste them on a large sheet of paper under different themes (O’Hara,
1998: 125).
You can choose to do your outline in different forms:
A flow chart
Atoms → subatomic articles → protons and neutrons → nucleus → mass
number → isotopes → atomic mass
A tree diagram
Elements
↓ ↓
metals or non-metals atoms
↓ ↓
chemical symbols protons, neutrons, electrons
↓ ↓ ↓
periodic table atomic number energy levels
196 16.5.3 Collect information

You are now going to do intensive reading, using books, articles and the internet or other elec-
tronic resources. The library personnel can help you to do a topic search to find recent relevant
sources. While you are reading you should make notes of the following:
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• The authors, date of publication, name of the book or article, as well as the place of publi-
cation. This will save you a lot of time when you start writing, and you will not need to go to
the library to find the book again.
•
Important statements or relevant ideas you have read. You can write down definitions and
important findings you come across. Remember to write down the authors’ particulars and
page numbers where you found the ideas (Van Schoor, 1994: 35–36).
16.5.4 Organise your notes

You can now begin to sort out your notes. To do this effectively you may use
• a coding system where you allocate a number to each main heading and a letter to each of
the subheadings
• note cards where you use a card for each section. You can write down your notes on the
cards and arrange them according to themes or headings (O’Hara, 1998: 126).
16.5.5 Write a draft of the assignment

Your first draft will be a basic structure of your assignment. You should give your own inter-
pretation and presentation of the material you have read (Van Schoor, 1994: 37). Remember to
present relevant background information and to define concepts in your introduction. You can also
explain the focus of your assignment.
When you write the body of your assignment, you can use your outline as a guide and integrate
your sources into your discussion. Summarise, analyse, explain and evaluate the material rather
than merely reporting it.
In your conclusion, remember to explain the significance of your findings. You can also suggest
what aspects of the topic need further research. (For further information see http://www.wisc.
edu/writing/Handbook/PlanResearchPaper.html.)
16.5.6 Revise and rewrite the draft

After you have completed your first draft, you need to review, evaluate and edit your work.
Go through the following checklist (O’Hara, 1998: 116, 131):
• Your organisation. Is there a logical flow of information, is there depth in your discussion
in the body and is your conclusion effective?
• Your paragraphs. Did you present your argument logically? Did you structure the sentences
clearly? Are there any parts that you can delete?
• Check your spelling, grammar and punctuation.
• Are your references correct?
• Is your assignment within the stated word limit?
16.5.7 Put the assignment in its final form

You can now leave the assignment for a few days (cool-down period), as this will help you to
see obvious errors. After a short break, you can attempt to finalise your assignment by reading 197
carefully through your text. Check your language usage, spelling and logical reasoning. You
can even imagine yourself to be the assessor or lecturer and attempt to read critically. Try to
anticipate the criticisms and questions that may come from a reader.
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16.5.8 Submit your assignment (break the tape!)

You can now type your assignment or have it typed. Make sure you know the submitting pro-
cedure and that you hand in your assignment before the deadline. Always ensure that you
have a neat document with no spelling or typing errors. Presentation also plays an important
role in creating a good first impression. Keep a copy of your assignment in case it gets lost.
16.6 REFERENCE TECHNIQUES

Referencing is almost a science in its own right. You should make the effort to look at the
required technique or determine your preferred technique right from the start. Let us look at
a few critical issues regarding referencing. Libraries at the institutions for higher education
usually have booklets available that you can use to ensure you do not make unnecessary mis-
takes.
16.6.1 Referring within the text

You can use direct (actual words of the author) or indirect quotations (if you summarise the
author’s ideas in your own words) in your text. (See section 16.7 for details on how to refer.)
16.6.2 The reference list / bibliography

The Harvard reference method is simple and generally accepted. The format for the list is as fol-
lows:
16.6.2.1 A book
SURNAME comma space INITIAL(S) full stop single space DATE full stop single space TITLE
(underlined or italicised if it is a book title) full stop single space PLACE OF PUBLICATION
colon space PUBLISHER full stop:
Example: Smith, M. 1995. A study skills handbook for students. Melbourne: Oxford Univer-
sity Press.
If there are two or more authors, the names of the second and subsequent authors are written
in normal sequence:
Example: Du Toit, D. & Heese, M. 1995. Practical guide to reading, thinking and writing skills.
Johannesburg: International Thomson.
16.6.2.2 An article in a journal

You can list articles in a journal as follows:
Oetting, B. & Beauvais, J. 1987. The peer cluster theory and drug use amongst adolescents.
Journal for Adolescence, 20(2): 213–227.
You can list a thesis or dissertation in the following way:

MacFarlane, L. 2000. Resilience amongst adolescents with learning problems. Doctoral thesis.
University of South Africa.
198
16.6.2.3 The internet
When you use material from the internet or electronic resources, you need to give the following
information (O’Hara, 1998: 128–129; Du Toit, Heese & Orr, 1995: 302–303): the author’s name,
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the author’s internet address if it is available, the title or title line of the message, the title of the
complete work or title of the list / site, the internet address and the date of publication of the
work and / or the date of access, if available.
Example: Lane, L. Simple memorizing techniques. Available at: http://www.positivehealth.
com/permit/Articles/Mind_Matters/lane56.htm (accessed on 15 November 2013).
16.7 QUOTATIONS IN AN ASSIGNMENT

If you use a quotation in your assignment, you will refer as follows:
Quotation marks QUOTATION quotation marks single space bracket SURNAME comma
single space YEAR colon PAGE NUMBER bracket full stop.
Examples:
• A peer cluster refers to a “tightly knit group of friends” (Oetting & Beauvais, 1987: 19).
• According to Oetting and Beauvais (1987: 19), a peer cluster refers to a “tightly knit group of
friends”.
• Swaim et al. (1989: 216) are of the opinion that parenting style is one of the moderators of
adolescent substance abuse. (Note: “et al.” is an abbreviation of the Latin et alii, “and others”,
and can be used instead of spelling out names when there are more than two authors.)
16.8 WRITING A PROJECT REPORT

16.8.1 Different forms of project
You might be required to write different types of project reports, such as
• a research project
• a long essay
• a problem-solving project.
The basic principles that we have discussed thus far will still apply. The type of report will, how-
ever, dictate how you structure the body text, the style of writing and the type of information
with which to conclude. The next section mentions things to keep in mind when writing a report.
16.8.2 Stages in writing a report

16.8.2.1 Stage 1: Preparation
During this stage you will do the following:
•
Define the task.
•
Gather the information. You could hand out a questionnaire, complete a survey or do some
interviews as part of your primary research.
•
Sort your material. The project report has a structured format. Make sure you know what
goes into each section (see 16.8.3).
16.8.2.2 Stage 2: Writing

You need to focus on the following aspects when writing your report:
• Aims and objectives. What do you want to achieve? 199
• Follow a report structure. Group your material under suitable headings, present it in a logic-
al order and link the sections. You can make use of tables and diagrams. Use the decimal
system of numbering to indicate subheadings and paragraphs (see Example 16.2).
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• Use a report writing style. Your report must be factual, objective and easy to read. Keep the
report short and within the maximum word length.
• Review, evaluate and edit your writing.
Example 16.2: A report structure

1. Introduction
2. Methodology
2.1 Quantitative research
2.1.1 Client questionnaire
2.1.2 Sales reports
2.2 Qualitative research
2.2.1 Interviews
2.2.2 Quality control questionnaire
16.8.2.3 Stage 3: Submitting

Make sure that you hand in your report on time.
16.8.3 Format of a project report

The following is a generally acceptable format for project reports (O’Hara, 1998: 132–140):
•
Title page. Make sure you include the title, your name and the submission date.
•
Contents page. Give the details and numbers of your headings and subheadings.
•
Summary. This is the overview of your report and should be brief. It explains the problem
you investigated, the methods you used, the conclusions you reached as well as any recommen-
dations you make.
•
Aim and purpose. The aim is your general statement of what you would like to achieve and
your objectives are more specific statements of what you will have to do to achieve the aim.
You can begin your objectives with words like define, analyse, plan, evaluate.
•
Introduction. Your introduction can include the problem, the reasons why the problem is
important and the background of your report.
•
Methodology. You should describe the procedure you followed while doing your research.
You will describe the methods you used to gather information, when and where you did your
investigation as well as the techniques you used, such as how many people completed a ques-
tionnaire or took part in an interview or what questions were asked.
•
Findings. You can group the factual information you gathered under headings and sub-
headings.
•
Analysis and discussion. You now get an opportunity to evaluate and interpret the infor-
mation.
•
Conclusions. You can give a summary of your analysis and findings and then draw conclu-
200 sions.
•
Recommendations. You may come up with practical and realistic suggestions as to how the
problem can be addressed and note any steps or actions that can be taken in future.
•
Appendices. You can include charts, tables and / or questionnaires in this section.
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16
•
References: See section 16.6.
•
Bibliography: Refer to section 16.6.
16.9 ASSESSMENT
There are two forms of assessment that you may encounter:
•
Formative evaluation. This is ongoing evaluation. It focuses on the process and the lectur-
er / trainer evaluates your activities while the programme or module is still running. This
will enable the lecturer / trainer to revise and redesign the activities in time and also means
that you will get continuous feedback on your progress.
•
Summative evaluation. This is done at the end of a programme or module. It focuses on the
outcome and the lecturer / trainer evaluates the worth of the programme.
Exercise 16.1
Rate how each of the following affects you on a scale of 0–5, where 5 is the highest
level of positivity and 0 is the lowest.
Aspect Positivity score

1 Fear of exams No fear Terrified
5 4 3 2 1 0
2 Dislike of exams Enjoy exams Hate exams
5 4 3 2 1 0
3 Motivation to do well on the Highly motivated to do well Don’t care
course
5 4 3 2 1 0
4 Value given to the qualifica- Very high value Don’t value at all
tion
5 4 3 2 1 0
5 Recognition of the benefits of Appreciate strongly Don’t see benefits
taking exams
5 4 3 2 1 0
6 Finding enjoyment in prepar- Enjoy a lot No enjoyment at all
ation for exams
5 4 3 2 1 0
7 Valuing the learning that Value highly Don’t value at all
comes from preparing for
5 4 3 2 1 0
exams
8 Determination to do well in Very determined Very little determination
the next set of exams
5 4 3 2 1 0
9 I can become engaged in Very much so Not at all true
revision, finding interest in it
5 4 3 2 1 0
10 Feeling energised from pre- Very energised Not at all energised
paring for exams
5 4 3 2 1 0 201
Total score
Source: Cottrell (2007)
Q
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How do assessments affect me? Interpreting your score

Scores between 40 and 50
This score suggest that you take an extremely positive approach to your exams, which
is a real asset.

This score suggest a high degree of positive thinking: this should help you with revision
and exams.

This score suggests an average level of positive thinking. It is likely to benefit you on
good days, but you might find it harder to persevere when you need to study but feel
bored, demotivated, tired or distracted. It is worth spending time considering ways of
raising your levels of commitment and motivation.

This score suggests a relatively low level of positive thinking. Your current attitude may
make it harder for you to settle down to study and / or to maintain your attention when
revising. However you may take action to change your approach.

This score suggests a very low level of positive thinking. You would do well to work on all
or most of the categories in the table above.
16.9.1 Managing exam / test stress and anxiety

The following can help you manage exam / test stress and anxiety:
• Keep a positive state of mind.
• Prepare for examinations in good time.
• Get sufficient sleep.
• Get hold of previous examination papers.
• Practise answering questions within the time limit.
• Eat regular and balanced meals and drink lots of water.
• Get regular exercise.
16.9.2 Glossary of exam terms

The most important thing to do when you first open you exam booklet is to read all the ques-
tions and try to understand what they are asking of you. This glossary contains many of the
exam terms most often used in essay titles (adapted from http://www.humanities.manchester.
ac.uk/studyskills/assessment_evaluation/assessment/glossary.html):
•
Compare. Examine qualities, or characteristics, to discover resemblances. “Compare” is
202 usually stated as “compare with”: you are to emphasise similarities, although differences
may be mentioned.
• Contrast. Stress dissimilarities, differences or unlikeness of things, qualities, events or prob-
lems.
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• Criticise. Express your judgement, correctness or merit. Discuss the limitations and good
points or contributions of the plan or work in question.
• Define. Definitions call for concise, clear, authoritative meanings. Details are not required
but limitations of the definition should be briefly cited. You must keep in mind the class to
which a thing belongs and whatever differentiates the particular object from all others in the
class.
• Describe. In a descriptive answer you should recount, characterise, sketch or relate in narra-
tive form.
• Discuss. The term “discuss”, which appears often in essay questions, directs you to examine,
analyse carefully and present considerations pro and con regarding the problems or items
involved. This type of question calls for a complete and detailed answer.
• Enumerate. The word “enumerate” specifies a list or outline form of reply. In such ques-
tions, you should recount, one by one, in concise form, the points required.
• Evaluate. In an evaluation question, you are expected to present a careful appraisal of the
problem, stressing both advantages and limitations. Evaluation implies authoritative and, to
a lesser degree, personal appraisal of both contributions and limitations.
• Assess. Identify main ideas and discuss them, categorise which weighs more than the other
and make a judgement based on that.
• Explain. In explanatory answers, it is imperative that you clarify and interpret the material
you present. In such an answer, it is best to state the “how or why”, reconcile any differences
in opinion or experimental results, and, where possible, state causes. The aim is to make
plain the conditions which give rise to whatever you are examining.
• Illustrate. A question which asks you to illustrate usually requires you to explain or clarify
your answer to the problem by presenting a figure, picture, diagram or concrete example.
•
Interpret. An interpretation question is similar to one requiring explanation. You are
expected to translate, exemplify, solve or comment upon the subject and usually to give your
judgement or reaction to the problem.
• Justify. When you are instructed to justify your answer, you must prove or show grounds
for decisions. In such an answer, evidence should be presented in convincing form.
• Outline. An outline answer is an organised description. You should give main points and
essential supplementary materials, omitting minor details, and present the information in a
systematic arrangement or classification.
• Relate. In a question which asks you to show the relationship or to relate, your answer
should emphasise connections and associations in descriptive form.
• Review. A review specifies a critical examination. You should analyse and comment briefly
in organised sequence upon the major points of the problem.
16.10 CONCLUSION
Assignments and assessments should be much less of a problem now that you have some per-
spective. It is your task as a learner to give evidence of learning in whatever format the lectur- 203
er / trainer may require it. Be very aware of what is expected of you right from the start of a
programme. Once you know what is expected of you, you can use the guidelines we worked
through in this chapter to help you manage your assignments and assessments.
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R E FE R E N C E S
Cottrell, S. 2007. The exam skills handbook. New York: Shephard, J.F. 1987. College study skills. Boston:
Palgrave MacMillan. Houghton Mifflin.
Du Toit, D., Heese, M. & Orr, M. 1995. Practical guide Smith, M. & Smith, G. 1988. A study skills handbook
to reading, thinking and writing skills. Johannesburg: for students studying in English. Melbourne: Oxford
International Thomson. University Press.
O’Hara, S. 1998. Studying @ university and college. Van Schoor, W.A. 1994. Study management. Pretoria:
London: Kogan Page. Van Schaik.
Assignment writing: http://www.usq.edu.au/stud- Advanced assignment writing tips: http://asp.wvl.

guid/success/writeassign.htm ac.uk/Level4.asp?UserType=6&Level4=629
204
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16
A TOOLBOX FOR
THE HELPING
PA R T III
PROFESSIONS
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Section 6
Personal and
interpersonal
skills for
health and
related
professionals
SLIDES
17 Basic helping
skills
F RAN C E TTE BE DF OR D
THE C H APT E R AT A G LA N C E O U T CO MES

17.1 Introduction: Getting to know the helper within After working through this chapter, you should
you
n have an awareness of your “inner wisdom” as a
17.2 The different faces of helping
resource in helping yourself and others
17.2.1 The rescuer
n be able to identify the different faces of helping
17.2.2 The preacher
and the effect they have on your feelings and
17.2.3 The protective mother
behaviour during helping
17.2.4 Superman / superwoman
17.2.5 The debater n be able to identify characteristics of a good
helper
17.2.6 The believer
17.3 Monsters that suck the life out of helping n understand and be able to identify the mon-
17.3.1 Monsters that scare us from being sters that keep us from being helped or helping
helped others: roadblocks to communication
17.3.2 Monsters that interfere with the n be able to reflect on your own ineffective ways
communication process of communication
17.4 Your best friend in the helping process
n be able to identify your best friends in the
17.4.1 Meeting empathy
helping process: the importance of attending;
17.4.2 The voice of empathy
empathy; believing in your client’s ability to heal
17.4.3 Enemies of empathy and cope; decision-making strategies; self-care
17.4.4 Treasuring your friendship with
empathy n be aware of the different helping strategies and
how they compliment the process of helping
17.4.5 Meeting empathy’s buddies
17.5 Positive helping strategies n be aware of your values, and how they might
17.6 Referral interfere with helping
17.7 The role of ethics n understand the importance of ethics and ad-
References hering to an ethical code.
17.1 INTRODUCTION: GETTING TO KNOW THE HELPER WITHIN YOU 207

All of us have a part within ourselves that we can call our “inner wisdom”. Your inner wisdom
is that part that comes up with wise and mature ways of dealing with a problem or person.
This is your “natural helper” – your innate ability to help yourself.
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SECTION 6 PERSONAL AND INTERPERSONAL SKILLS FOR HEALTH AND RELATED PROFESSIONALS
Take a moment and visualise this part of yourself. Try to think of a time when you really
helped yourself – where something inside you showed you the way, or where a thought
or feeling gave you insight. What did this side of you sound like? Was it a loud or soft
voice? Try to visualise what this voice looked like. Was it male or female? Was it big or
small? Did it have a colour? Was there a figure attached to this voice? Try to create a clear-
er picture of this side within yourself. Try and think where you first met.
We all have a natural ability to help ourselves, but sometimes we are not aware of this, because
we depend on others to do the helping for us, or because we just do not listen to ourselves. We
should not underestimate the power of our inner wisdom, our natural helper.
Helping is about showing other people the way to their own natural helper or inner wis-
dom. It is about guiding them to find ways to help themselves.
17.2 THE DIFFERENT FACES OF HELPING

There are various types of “helpers”. Their way of helping is usually linked to their own values
and perceptions. Which kind of helper would you prefer?
17.2.1 The rescuer

This type of helper has a strong need to make people feel better. The rescuer believes that
people need to be rescued – he or she believes that some people need help and that he or she
can provide it. He or she tries very hard to solve problems and to give advice. The rescuer does
a lot of talking and believes he or she knows what is best. This kind of helper is very quick to
give advice – a strategy to follow – even before you have finished your story. When you do not
feel better or when the solutions do not work, the rescuer feels as if he or she has failed. The
rescuer takes responsibility for your problems. rescuers sometimes even help with problems
without your asking them. Rescuers jump in at any chance to save a life.
How would you feel about being helped by a “rescuer”? How would the rescuer make you feel
about yourself and your problems?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
17.2.2 The preacher

This kind of helper has a strong need to show you what is morally right and wrong. The
preacher feels that it is a duty to make sure that you live your life according to a strong set of
208 moral values. The preacher wants to make sure that you make decisions according to what he
or she thinks is right, and therefore is very straightforward and opinionated.
How would you feel when helped by “the preacher”? Would the preacher be helpful? Motiv-
ate your answer.
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BASIC HELPING SKILLS
17
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
17.2.3 The protective mother

These helpers want you to like them. They agree with everything you say and are completely
on your side. They feel that it is their duty to make you feel good. They love warmth and hate
any kind of conflict or disagreement.
How would you feel about being helped by the “protective mother”?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
17.2.4 Superman / superwoman

These helpers have been there ... they can tell you exactly what they have done in their own
situation and how this could apply to your problem. They can give you numerous examples of
their problems and what they did to solve them. They have lots and lots of stories to share with
you. By talking to you, they remember all their own personal stories.
How would this kind of “superman / superwoman” make you feel?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
17.2.5 The debater

This kind of helper is excellent at playing devil’s advocate, constantly showing you the other
side of the story. The debater is very rational and intellectual, giving you lots of facts and fig-
ures. This helper is very keen to debate the actions you have taken.
What effect would this kind of helper have on you?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
17.2.6 The believer

This kind of helper allows you to do more of the talking. The believer listens carefully and asks 209
questions – sometimes questions that you have never thought about. Helping for this person is
more like brainstorming. This kind of helper believes that people know what is best for them-
selves.
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How would this kind of helper make you feel?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Exercise 17.1
Write down any problem you might have experienced or are experiencing. It could also
be some kind of secret you have – something that you will not share with anyone. Be
honest about this problem / secret. Write down all your thoughts and feelings.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
Have you ever shared this with anyone? If yes – why did you share it with that person? If
no – what kind of person would you share this with? Make a list of characteristics of this
kind of person.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
The definition of a good helper – the kind of helper you would prefer – will probably be
someone with most of the characteristics you have listed.
Helping is mostly about your attitude and willingness to support, and less about your skills.
How many times have you experienced a situation where you needed help (e.g. at the bank or
at the garage), but did not receive adequate service? Most of the time, inadequate service / help
is about the attitude of the service provider and not his or her ability to help. On the other
hand, there are times when someone who does not know what to do or how to help (he or she
does not have the skills or power) takes the trouble to find out how you can be helped and gets
back to you. They do what they can with such a positive and helpful attitude that in fact you
210 do feel helped, even if your problem is not solved yet. This is why helping has a lot to do with
attitude, as having all the answers is not a prerequisite for a good helper. It is also important
not to make people believe you have all the answers if you do not. Honesty is always import-
ant.
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17.3 MONSTERS THAT SUCK THE LIFE OUT OF HELPING

In the helping process, we find many monsters that interfere, intervene and even spoil the pro-
cess. Let us take a closer look at these factors.
17.3.1 Monsters that scare us from being helped

Why is it difficult for you to share your problems at times? What stops you from sharing and
reaching out for help?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Most of the time we do not share problems because we are AFRAID. What will others do when
they have this information about me? How will this information change the way people see
me? How will this change my relationship with them?
It is important to be aware that most people will probably feel scared, vulnerable or sus-
picious when sharing their inner emotions and problems with you as a helper or friend.
Building trust is therefore extremely important and a prerequisite for effective helping.
How can you establish trust in a relationship? What can you do or say? What behaviour or
words must you avoid?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
17.3.2 Monsters that interfere with the communication process

Think of a conversation or situation where you talked about your problem, or shared a story
or your point of view, and you felt frustrated, misunderstood and ignored. Write down what
happened (the situation).
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
211
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
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What made you feel frustrated and ignored? What did the people do that made you feel this
way? How did the environment and their body language contribute to this? How did this
make you feel?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Anything that interferes with the communication process is called a roadblock.
Communication roadblocks refer to anything that stops communication, breaks it down or hin-
ders the process. Roadblocks include the following (see also section 17.6 on ethics):
• Non-verbal body language (e.g. not facing people when they talk to you, a lack of eye con-
tact, etc.)
• Environmental factors (a phone that rings during a conversation, noise, a lack of privacy,
etc.)
• Verbal communication (words / phrases / questions people use that might make you feel
inferior)
• Values (e.g. if you are strongly against abortion and a friend / client considers abortion as an
option, your strong values around this issue might become a roadblock and hinder you from
listening and understanding)
If we want to be good and effective helpers, we need to be aware of our own and other com-
mon roadblocks that hinder us from really listening and understanding. We need to make sure
that we are “tuned in”. Like being tuned into a radio station, we need to be on the same wave-
length as our clients.
What keeps you from listening to others at times?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
212 17.4 YOUR BEST FRIEND IN THE HELPING PROCESS

Helping and supporting people can be very scary as it is a big responsibility. You will not have
a counsellor at your side when you deal with a client or friend in need. But you need not be
alone. Empathy is helping’s best friend.
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17
17.4.1 Meeting empathy

Empathy is probably the most important skill for any kind of helper. The most common def-
inition students give to describe empathy is usually “to try to put yourself in someone else’s
shoes”. This is not easy because we are all unique and so too are our circumstances and experi-
ences and the meanings we attach to them. The best we can do is to try to understand people
by listening to them without judgement.
17.4.2 The voice of empathy

What does empathy sound like? If empathy could speak, it would always focus on emotion and
content.
Empathy will often use the following words: “You feel ______________________________
because _____________________________”
Example:
Client: I can’t believe my boyfriend has cheated on me after all we went through.
Empathy: You feel shocked and betrayed because your boyfriend broke your trusting relation-
ship.
Exercise 17.2: Role-play

Practise the art of empathy by following steps 1–6:
1. You are a client waiting to receive the results of an HIV test.
2. What do you think will you be feeling?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. What is going through your head?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4. Look at your feelings and thoughts. What will empathy say?
”You feel ____________________________________ because ____________________________
____________________________________________________________________ .”
213
5. Choose a partner and role-play the above scenario – one partner will play the role
of empathy (the helper) and the other of the client. Switch roles after five minutes.
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Remember you have had the opportunity to reflect on your own possible reaction
(as if it were you in that situation). Make sure that you are now completely tuned
into the experience of your client. Do not allow what you think you would feel, in
your client’s situation, to stop you from understanding your client’s feelings.
6. Give each other feedback by reflecting on the following:

Did your partner accurately identify your feelings / emotions? Motivate your answer.
____________________________________________________________________________
Did you feel listened to – did you feel as if your partner understood your feelings?
____________________________________________________________________________
Empathy takes effort – it is hard work. It is not only about hearing what is being said – it is
an attempt to understand people by specifically focusing on their emotions. Empathy has a lot
to do with identifying people’s feelings. To really show empathy you need to be motivated to
understand the other person and the meaning he or she attaches to his or her experiences. In
listening to others, we can build up a clearer picture of their story. It is an active process and
requires an active response. By responding we also give people the opportunity to correct our
understanding if it is wrong. This will lead to an accurate understanding of their experience.
It takes time to really understand: empathy is gained only if you are patient. Empathy is not
about hearing, but about listening. In empathy you need to forget about yourself, your own feel-
ings and values.
17.4.3 Enemies of empathy

According to Egan (1988: 95), we need to avoid certain responses that at times are used to sub-
stitute for empathy:
• Advice. Advice should be kept to a minimum. It is fine to give information, as information
empowers people, but telling people what you think they should do takes away responsibil-
ity and power. For example: as a nurse, it is important to give an expectant mother informa-
tion about her options during birth (this is empowerment), but giving your own opinion is
advice.
• Parroting. Empathy is not about repeating what the person said, as this does not create a
sense of understanding. Empathy must always add something. If you give back the informa-
tion by describing emotions and using different words, you are already creating a sense of
understanding.
• Sympathy and agreement. Sympathy has to do with pity and feeling sorry for somebody.
Empathy has to do with understanding. By showing sympathy, you merely agree with what
the person says.
• No response at all. Silence is not necessarily a bad thing, but by not responding to someone’s
story you may leave him or her with the feeling that what he or she has said has no merit.
214 • Distracting questions: Sometimes a question might negate what the person just shared with
you.
• Clichés. Sayings like: time will heal and things will turn out for the best may suggest that
you are ignoring current feelings. Empathy is not afraid of feelings.
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• Premature reassurance. If a patient tells you that his or her family has a history of depression
and suicide, do not simply tell him or her not to worry; rather confirm that you hear the con-
cern.
• Psychoanalysis. If a friend tells you that he or she finds it hard to fall asleep, do not hazard a
guess and explain that his or her sleeplessness is associated with feelings of guilt. You have
no way of knowing what causes the sleeplessness: allowing him or her to explore possible
causes is much more useful.
17.4.4 Treasuring your friendship with empathy

If you allow empathy into your life, it will gladly accompany you during the helping process.
Genuine helpers make empathy part of their lives. They do not use empathy only at certain times
and in certain situations. Empathy has to be a way of life and an attitude towards people. It has
to become a part of your life.
17.4.5 Meeting empathy’s buddies

Your friendship and commitment to empathy can be stronger than the monsters (roadblocks)
we described above. Empathy also has allies or buddies. Befriending them will give you an
even stronger chance of being a good helper. There are four buddies that can be of use during
the helping process:
17.4.5.1 Attending
Attending is about giving 100 per cent attention to your client.
How do you think can you accomplish this? (Think of the skills you use to give 100 per cent
attention in class or when you are studying.)
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
How do you know when you are receiving someone’s undivided attention? What are the
clues that make you think you are being listened to?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________ 215
To enable us to give all our attention to the client, we need to be observant and focus on the
client.
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The best way of observing is to use all our senses. Look at your client: in this way you can see
his or her expression and the emotions that might not be expressed verbally. It might also be
helpful if you lean forward, the way you would do when you are really interested in a conver-
sation.
Attending is important, but communicating to the client that you are there for him or her 100 per
cent is also important. Therefore your behaviour must illustrate that you are interested. Nodding
your head and eye contact are good ways to illustrate that you are there for your client.
Remember: if you are in a hurry, not really interested or occupied with other things, the person
will immediately see this even if you say the opposite!
17.4.5.2 Believe in the person you are helping

People who ask for help, who are in pain, and who have problems and addictions are not help-
less victims. Your attitude as a helper should always be that people have the ability to survive,
heal and change.
Reflect on the above statement. How will things be different in this world if we start to
believe that people can change?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
How will this belief influence people around us?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
How will this belief affect the way we relate to people and to ourselves?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Why do you think this belief is a buddy of empathy? Why do you think it can contribute to
the helping process?
____________________________________________________________________________________
216
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
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17
17.4.5.3 Problem-solving models / strategies

How do you usually approach a problem? What are the steps you take when solving a prob-
lem?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Group discussion: There are various models / steps for problem solving. Have a
class / group discussion on the various ways people tackle and approach problems.
Make a few notes of strategies that you might find helpful. (Refer to Chapter 5.)
17.4.5.4 Befriending burnout

In any profession that primarily focuses on helping and supporting people (nurses, social
workers, psychologists, human resource practitioners and even managers), taking care of your-
self is a necessity (not a luxury). In any helping profession, you give so much of yourself, phys-
ically, mentally and emotionally, that you are at risk of depleting all resources – almost like
running out of fuel. People refer to this as “burnout”.
What do you understand when we talk about burnout?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
If, in your profession as a caregiver, you start to feel as if you are worn out and exhausted, with
nothing left to give, burnout has probably come to visit you.
If you feel you have nothing left to give, you are exhausted all the time, do not care anymore
or have no empathy left, burnout is trying to say something to you. What do you think the
message is?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
217
Burnout is probably trying to tell you to slow down, warning you that you should look after
yourself. Burnout has very good intentions. It does not want to destroy you, like a fire. Burnout
is trying to prevent complete destruction. It is like a fire alarm going off. It can be your friend.
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What strategies can you plan and implement in your own life to prevent burnout?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Every escape route and therefore emergency plan is unique – you will have to discover what
works for you. There are, however, a few general guidelines that you can incorporate into your
emergency escape strategy:
• Balance. If you divide your life into the time you spend at home, with friends, socialising or
at work, there should be a healthy balance.
• A supportive network. Family, friends or co-workers are extremely important. A network of
support is of no use if you do not actually make use of it by relying on this network to help
you out with activities (delegate some tasks at home, for instance). Depend on your network
for emotional support.
• Stress management. Build relaxing activities into your daily routine. Hobbies are a very
effective way of relaxing. Some people find it useful to keep a journal as part of a stress
management strategy. Frequent break-away weekends or holidays are essential. Do not try
to save your leave.
• Healthy living. Keep up healthy eating habits and exercise regularly.
• Learn to say no! Do not commit yourself to helping out people if it requires you to neglect
yourself and your own needs.
• Delegate. Do not try to do everything on your own. Get a strong team on board to help out.
This will lessen the pressure and provide emotional support
• Self-esteem. People with a healthy self-esteem are their own best friends. If your self-image
is your worst enemy, you will destroy yourself without the help of any other factor.
Remember – a helper trapped in the blazing fire cannot be of any help to anyone!
When I first started my career as a counsellor / helper, I felt responsible for people’s
lives / actions / happiness. I also felt scared of not being able to handle the problems
people brought to my office. Because of this perception, I got exhausted and easily frus-
trated. I had to surrender – I realised I did not have the answers, and that I didn’t need to
take responsibility for other people’s lives. I came to one conclusion – I could only try to
understand, listen and really care.
218 17.5 POSITIVE HELPING STRATEGIES

In South Africa, we live in a society where trauma and abuse disrupts and touches everybody
in some way. Exposure to violence and constant negative experiences may make it attractive to
seek “artificial” and “quick” rewards.
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What are the superficial, but attractive activities people sometimes get involved with, when
they feel lonely, have low self-esteem and / or poor family relationships?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Often seeking acceptance in gangs and continuing with negative abusive relationships are cop-
ing strategies in a constantly negative environment.
As helpers, it is helpful to seek out new experiences that create a new way of thinking,
feeling and behaving. These strategies are powerful stress busters, and can be imple-
mented as a natural part of the helping process. REMEMBER the strategies below do not
replace the helping skills already discussed. They are only a tool to be used – when appro-
priate – in the helping process.
Here are some effective positive helping tools to have in your toolbox:
• Firstly, encourage involvement in community projects or clubs. This will help a person to
focus on his or her strengths and abilities. This will also teach him or her new skills. For
instance, encourage cancer patients and their families to join support groups to help them to
cope.
• Secondly, setting specific goals is an important strategy, as this will help the person to focus
on the future, and emphasise what is possible and achievable. Help the person to identify his
or her skills and abilities, and to build on them.
• Thirdly, encourage positive ways to deal with “life’s curve balls”, for instance expressing
feelings through art, drama, music, dance and journaling.
• Lastly, motivate the person to stick to a daily routine. Help him or her to design a schedule
with daily and weekly rituals. List even simple tasks like: go to library, visit niece, do the
washing, take the dog for a walk. Routine refocuses thinking in a positive way, instead of
repeatedly processing memories of the problem.
17.6 REFERRAL
Referral involves other alternative supportive networks. At the core of making a referral is
knowing your limitations, and doing what is best for the client.
You should refer someone in the following instances:
• When you lack the skills to help them
• When there is a need for assistance outside your area of expertise (e.g. medical attention is
required; a social worker needs to intervene; or the need for legal aid arises)
• When you feel uncomfortable and find it difficult dealing with the issues discussed 219
Make a list of all the resources (with the necessary names and contact details) available in your
area that might be of use when you need to refer clients:
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Company / institution Contact person Tel. no.
17.7 THE ROLE OF ETHICS

As a helper, many situations will arise where your values might interfere with the helping pro-
cess.
Values typically refer to what is good or bad, and is your own personal opinion. Our values are
generally passed to us from our parents. It is an enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct
is preferable in your own eyes.
Ethics refers to what is wrong or right (in the eyes of most people). What is good in your eyes
(your values), may not always be right. And what is bad according to you (against your val-
ues), might not always be wrong.
Knowing your own values is CRITICAL in helping, especially in our country with its
diverse cultures, beliefs, religions and history.
Helping often involves being confronted with a variety of values that might be in direct conflict
with your own. For example:
• Helping someone who wants an abortion, whilst you strongly oppose this
• Working with people of different sexual orientation
Make a list of values that you strongly oppose.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Is it ethical to enforce your values when helping (what you believe is good or bad)?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
What do you think your responsibility to your client is, when such a conflict arises?
220
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
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17
What is your responsibility towards yourself?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Values and ethical questions often complicate the helping process. It is in these situations
where an ethical code for helping is crucial.
Ethical code for helping

1. Always live by the motto: “Do no harm” to the person you are helping.
2. Be aware of your values and how they influence helping.
3. When you feel uncomfortable, and value differences become a roadblock in the
helping relationship, refer the client.
4. Know your limits. Remember “do what is best” for your client and, if necessary,
rather refer them to alternative professionals or organisations that specialise in the
problem at hand.
5. Confidentiality is imperative. Your client trusts you with his or her problems –
blurting the details out to friends is a serious ethical compromise.
6. Respect your client, as you are in a powerful position to influence him or her in a
profound way. Do not underestimate your influence!
7 *__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
*Group discussion: Have a class discussion on other ethical questions that need to be
added to this list and continue this code.
221
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R E FE R E N C E S
Egan, G. 1988. The skilled helper: a problem-manage- Nelson Jones, R. 2011. Basic counselling skills: a help-
ment approach to helping, 6th ed. New York: er’s manual. Boston, MA: Sage.
Brooks / Cole.
Baker, P. & White-McMahon, M. 2011. The hopeful
brain: relational repair for disconnected children
and youth. Oxford, England: Pretext.
222
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SLIDES
18 Trauma
debriefing
J AC K M AS H I AP AT A
18.1 Introduction: what is trauma?
18.2 What are the symptoms of trauma? 18.11 Conclusion
18.3 Post-traumatic stress References
18.4 Post-traumatic stress disorder
18.5 How traumatic memory gets stored O U T CO MES
18.6 Association and dissociation After working through this chapter, you should
18.7 Secondary traumatisation n understand the concept of trauma
18.8 Identifying a person who has been trau- n understand the effects of trauma on people
matised n be able to distinguish between trauma, post-trau-
18.9 Psychological debriefing matic stress and post-traumatic stress disorder
18.9.1 Why is debriefing necessary? n be able to identify a traumatised person
18.9.2 Steps in the debriefing process n be able to apply the basic trauma debriefing
18.10 Dealing with your own trauma techniques.
No man can hide
from his fears
For they are part
of him
And they will
always know where
he is hiding
– Anonymous
18.1 INTRODUCTION: WHAT IS TRAUMA?
Before we try to define what trauma is, let us look at three stories
which all have elements of trauma for those involved. Talking about
trauma … what do
you mean?
Story 1
Amanda is a 20 year-old, third year university student. Her performance in her studies is
not good and lately she has been missing some of her classes. Her lecturers have raised
concern about her absenteeism. Her room in the flat where she lives is not tidy and she
tends to be forgetful and messy – she leaves items all over the place. She says she does not
sleep well at night due to nightmares and bad dreams.
Amanda told her friends that several weeks ago she had a bad experience. A burglar
broke into her room while she was watching television. This intruder, who was wielding 223
a knife, attacked her, but she managed to scare him off by screaming at the top of her
voice. Although she was not harmed, she says she cannot forget that day.
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Story 2
John and his friends formed a study group meeting every evening for two hours in the
lecture room adjacent to the library. One evening whilst they were busy with the discus-
sion and preparation for the test happening in two days time, two young men, with their
faces covered, entered the lecture room and pointed guns at them. They ordered them to
lie down and stripped them of their belongings: cell phones, money and jewelry. This was
a frightening event for John and some of his friends were not able to write the test two
days later. Ever since then, John seems to have difficulties concentrating and he is ever
alert, thinking that a similar incident might happen again.
Story 3
A group of students were traveling by bus from home to the university where they attend
class every morning. The driver of the bus on this particular day was spotted at the bar
next to the bus terminus several hours before the trip started. Although they suspected
that he might be drunk, they nevertheless boarded the bus and it left for the university.
The bus was being driven at high speed, and everyone on board began to feel uncomfort-
able. Suddenly there was a loud bang as the bus plunged into the concrete bridge on the
side of the road. The bus was severely damaged, but there were fortunately no serious
injuries. The passengers were taken to the nearby hospital for minor treatment and dis-
charged a few hours later.
Trauma can be defined as an experience that involves actual injury or death, or a threat of
injury or death. It is an intensely stressful event during which a person suffers serious harm, or
threat of serious harm or death, or witnesses an event during which another person is killed,
seriously injured or threatened (http://www.mentalhealthchannel.net/ptsd).
When experiencing a traumatic event, an individual’s coping resources can get overwhelmed
and he or she may not be able to deal with the incident. When harm or threat is high and
resources are minimal, a lot of stress may result, but when resources are plentiful and the threat
is low, trauma is minimised (Sears, Peplau, Freedman & Taylor, 1988: 512).
Traumatic experiences shake the foundations of our beliefs about safety, and shatter our
assumptions of trust. These are the events that are outside of the range of our normal experi-
ence and are shocking and sudden.
Looking at the above descriptions of trauma, we can see that traumatic experiences occur in
two ways, firstly through direct experience as a victim, or indirectly through witnessing or
even hearing of someone else going through a direct experience of trauma.
Let us look at the incident below:
Two women were standing in line at the ATM machine to draw money when sudden-
ly three men appeared from nowhere carrying weapons. They pointed their weapons at
224 one of the ladies, slapped her around and punched her in the face, then took off with her
handbag. She was left lying on the ground with a bruised face and broken jaw. The other
woman was unharmed – they neither touched nor spoke to her.
Q
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TRAUMA DEBRIEFING
18
Questions
Who experienced trauma between these two women? Can you distinguish between pri-
mary and secondary trauma in this example?
What have I been through, what have I seen, and what do I remember?
Stromnes (1999: 12) states that the most crucial aspect of post-traumatic stress disorder is
establishing the nature of the traumatic event. Traumatic events that are so extreme or severe,
powerful, harmful and / or threatening, demand extraordinary coping efforts. These traumat-
ic events may take the form of an unusual event or a series of continuous events that subject
people to extreme, intensive and overwhelming bombardment of perceived threat to them-
selves or significant others. Such events may overwhelm a person’s sense of safety and secur-
ity.
The following are examples of brief and powerful traumatic events (Meichenbaum, 1994: 17;
Meck, 1990: 11):
•
Natural disasters. The most common natural hazards are floods, hurricanes, tropical storms,
tornadoes, severe windstorms, earthquakes, volcanoes and avalanches.
•
Accidental disasters. Examples are car, train, boat and airplane accidents, fires and explo-
sions.
•
Deliberately caused disasters. Those that are intentionally caused by human design, such as
bombing, shooting, rape, terrorist attack, hostage taking, assault, battery, robbery and indus-
trial accident (Petersen, Prout & Schwarz, 1991: 15).
18.2 THE FACE OF TRAUMA

What does trauma look like when it visits you?
Allen (1993: 17) lists the following symptoms of trauma:

•
Avoidance. Anxiety about and avoidance of reminders of the trauma; not wanting to hear
other people’s stories
•
Carelessness. Apparent carelessness in ordinary tasks
•
Concentration. Difficulty concentrating or paying attention at work or at school
•
Concern about others. Gripping concern and worry about the welfare and safety of loved
ones
•
Depression. Feelings of depression, loss, sadness and overwhelming hopelessness
•
Fatigue. Bodily fatigue, even without apparent reason
•
Guilt. Feelings of guilt for not having suffered as much as others
•
Helping. Wanting very much to help others
•
Helplessness. Feelings of helplessness, lack of control and powerlessness
•
Irritability and anger. Outbursts of irritability or anger, sometimes without apparent reason
•
Isolation. Feeling totally alone and that no one can understand what has been experienced.
Not wanting to be with other people or talk 225
•
Jumpiness. Being easily startled
•
Mortality awareness. Becoming aware of one’s own mortality and the possibility of one’s
own death
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•
Numbness. Feelings of numbness and lack of energy to tackle tasks
•
Self-criticism. Profound self-criticism over things done or not done during trauma; blaming
oneself over what could have been done to avoid the traumatic incident or what one may
have done to invite it
•
Sharing. Wanting very much to tell one’s story to others and feel they can understand what
has happened
•
Sleep. Troubled sleep, including nightmares
•
Thoughts and images. Thoughts or images of the distressing or terrifying experiences that
pop into mind without trying to think of them and that cannot be easily dispelled
A point of reflection
Looking back at your life, can you recall an incident of trauma that you experienced? How
did it affect you? What were your physical reactions? How did it affect your thought pro-
cesses? What behavioural reactions did you experience? What effect did it have on your
self-esteem?
It feels like it’s not getting better.

18.3 POST-TRAUMATIC STRESS
Many of us experience post-traumatic stress after a distressing event. The symptoms 00000
occur for days after the incident, but do not exceed a month. Parkinson (1993: 24–25) indicates
that post-traumatic stress is not reserved only for those involved unexpectedly in traumatic
events; people who experience trauma as part of their jobs and are trained for it can also feel
the effects. For example, policemen, soldiers, firemen and doctors can also be traumatised by
what they see and sometimes have to do in the course of their work.
So not only victims and survivors, but their families, those who are called to help, witnesses
and onlookers are affected.
18.4 POST-TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER (PTSD)
PTSD is when traumatic stress goes on and on and on! It seems there is no end.
When the symptoms of post-traumatic stress are present for a period of at least one month, the
condition is referred to as post-traumatic stress disorder.
The three main symptom clusters in PTSD are the following:
•
Intrusions, such as flashbacks or nightmares, where the traumatic event is re-experienced
•
Avoidance, when the person tries to reduce exposure to people or things that might bring on
the intrusive symptoms
•
Hyper arousal, meaning physiological signs of increased arousal, such as hyper vigilance or
increased startle response
226 18.5 HOW TRAUMATIC MEMORY GETS STORED
What have I been through, what have I seen, and what do I remember?
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TRAUMA DEBRIEFING
18
When a traumatic event occurs, we may be confronted with an overwhelming amount of infor-
mation in the form of images, emotions, physical sensations, smells and sounds.
It appears that under such conditions, the brain becomes overloaded with large volumes of
information.
The resulting neuro-chemical changes disrupt normal processing of this information, causing
memories to be stored as fragments in their original distressing / disturbing state.
These memory fragments are stored in “associative networks” in which related thoughts,
memories, images, emotions and sensations are linked together.
Later, discussion of an aspect of one may trigger the recall of similar aspects of the other.
18.6 ASSOCIATION AND DISSOCIATION

By means of association, positive thoughts can be reinforced and through dissociation, negative
thoughts can be eliminated. The reactions of association and dissociation are opposites of each
other. Response to trauma will lie somewhere on the continuum between the two extremes.
Association Dissociation
Every person reacts differently to a traumatic experience. Some people tend to associate very
strongly with the traumatic event or experience, thinking about it all the time and telling their
story over and over.
Others tend to dissociate, telling their story with very little emotion attached to it, or giving the
impression as if they are telling a story of someone else.
Group discussion: Discuss within a group (class or otherwise) the pros and cons of
association and dissociation.
Becoming a victim of the victim

18.7 SECONDARY TRAUMA
Any person can be at risk to develop secondary trauma. People who primarily help trauma
and disaster victims, such as psychologists and other mental health professionals, and also
emergency personnel (e.g. physicians, firemen, police, search and rescue officers) are exposed
to an overdose of victims’ suffering. These professions are at risk for secondary traumatisation
(Samios, Rodzik & Abel, 2012). Someone close to a person who has been traumatised may also
experience it.
Sexton (2007) describes secondary traumatic stress as the natural consequent behaviours and
emotions resulting from knowing about a traumatising event experienced by a significant
other, and the stress resulting from helping or wanting to help him or her.
18.8 IDENTIFYING A PERSON WHO HAS BEEN TRAUMATISED

The following are some signs of a person who has been traumatised:
• A sudden change in behaviour or personality 227
• Some physical signs of trauma such as bruises, wounds or blood
• A person may indicate indirectly. For example, a woman who says “I do not like the com-
pany of men, they can be very silly at times”.
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• A sudden change in behaviour in class, such as being naughty, disruptive, quiet or with-
drawn
• A learner who discloses what appears to be a traumatic experience in an assignment or dur-
ing a group discussion in class.
• Academic performance deteriorating suddenly
• A learner may take the teacher or lecturer into his or her confidence about what he or she
went through.
• Losing interest in some of the things or activities once enjoyed
• Over-sleeping and always complaining of being tired
18.9 PSYCHOLOGICAL DEBRIEFING

Psychological debriefing is a process where the victim of trauma speaks about the factual
experiences, and associated feelings and reactions, after exposure to a traumatic incident. This
can be crucial in the process of coping and working through such an experience. It is important
to call in professional support when an individual has been severely traumatised or displays
obvious symptoms of being traumatised.
Does it help talking about what happened?

18.9.1 Why is debriefing necessary?
Debriefing aims to diminish the impact of catastrophic events by promoting support 0000000
and encouraging processing of traumatic experiences in a group setting. It facilitates the 0000
piecing together of traumatic information while personal experiences are normalised, and
participants are helped to look to the future (Black, Newman, Harris-Hendriks & Mezey,
1997: 239).
Through the debriefing process, the individual is provided with comfort and a supportive con-
text, defusing the frightening situation, allowing expression of anxieties and normalising reac-
tions.
How do I go about the debriefing process?

18.9.2 Steps in the debriefing process
Parkinson (1993: 167–168) formulated steps that are followed in a psychological 00000000
debriefing process. These will give you an idea of what to expect if you were to 0000000 000
attend a debriefing session. Formal debriefing is done by qualified therapists, but if you under-
stand that debriefing is about someone speaking about his or her trauma, then you will realise
how much you can be of help to another person by listening to his or her stories about trauma.
1. Introduction and explanation of the rules

• The facilitator does not need to speak a lot. Allow the people to speak.
• Everything is confidential, both inside and outside the session.
• Emphasis should be placed on the here and now.
• Explain that the individual may feel worse to begin with, but that this is normal.
• The debriefing situation is not a forum for complaints.
2. Plotting the scene and the environment
228 Ask the person who experienced the trauma to tell everything about the situation where
the trauma happened. Questions such as follows might be helpful:
• What picture do you have of the person in your mind?
• What is the thing that you remember of him or her (perpetrator/s)?
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TRAUMA DEBRIEFING
18
• What happened?
• When did it happen?
• What were you expecting?
• What did you see and experience?
• Did you expect violence?
• Where were you?
3. Thoughts and impressions

In trying to explore the thoughts and impressions that the victim of trauma had, you may
ask questions such as the following:
• What were your first thoughts?
• What did you decide to do and why?
• What did you see, smell, hear, taste and touch?
• What were your physical reactions, e.g. did you have butterflies in your stomach?
• What were your first words?
• Did you scream?
4. Emotional reactions
The following questions help to explore thoughts and this is important because these
thoughts lead to feelings:
• What was the worst thing about what happened?
• What were your reactions at the time?
• What were your later responses?
• What were your physical responses?
• What did you make of what you saw and experienced?
• How did you experience the feeling?
5. Normalisation
• Comment on emotional and physical reactions, as they are normal.
• Give anticipatory guidelines and explain what emotions may be felt and what reactions
may occur.
6. Future planning and coping

• Mobilise support for the victim.
• Ask what resources are available at home and at work or school.
• Discuss what help the victim needs and who can provide this assistance.
• Help with coping techniques.
• Focus on the family, friends, children and work or school.
7. Disengagement
• Ask if there are any questions.
• Explain the possible development of symptoms, but also that they should decrease in the 229
near future.
• Look for any loss of function or changes in ability in the home and work environment or
elsewhere.
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• Give a summary of what has happened in the debriefing.

• Check if follow-up meetings are necessary.
18.10 DEALING WITH YOUR OWN TRAUMA

Take the time now to reflect on your own relationship with trauma.
Reflections Answers
Do you have a personal relationship with
trauma?
What does trauma look like when it visits
you?
When do you invite trauma to have conver-
sations with you?
Who does most of the talking in the relation-
ship / who has the most power in the rela-
tionship?
When does trauma appear as an “uninvited
guest” in your thoughts / dreams / emo-
tions / life?
Who else knows about your relationship
with trauma?
Have you ever discussed your relationship
with trauma with anyone?
Do you foresee that your relationship with
trauma might be different after working
through this chapter? How will it be differ-
ent?
If you had to rename trauma, what would
you like to call it?
If you had the opportunity to predict your
future relationship with trauma, what will it
look like?
18.11 CONCLUSION
We might not always be able to anticipate when trauma will enter our lives, but we can play a
significant role in the “power relationship” with trauma. Healing can only take place when we
are willing to have conversations with trauma and about trauma.
In dealing with trauma, we can feel better through engaging in positive self-talk and also hav-
ing someone with whom to talk freely about our experiences. Healing is also possible when we
are able to acknowledge that there is a place in our lives where trauma exists, but that we do
230 not have to fit our lives into trauma – rather that trauma needs to fit into a “safe space” in our
lives.
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18
R E FER E N C E S
Allen, RD. 1999. Handbook of post-disaster interventions. Orner, R.J. & Schnyder, U. 2003. Reconstructing early
Corte Madera: Select Press. intervention after trauma. Oxford: Oxford University
Black, D., Newman, M., Harris-Hendriks, J. & Mezey, Press.
G. 1997. Psychological trauma – a developmental Parkinson, F. 1993. Post-trauma stress. London: Shel-
approach. London: Royal College. don Press.
Lewis, S. 1999. An adult’s guide to childhood trauma: Petersen, K.C., Prout, M.F. & Schwarz, R.A. 1991.
understanding traumatised children in South Africa. Post-traumatic stress disorder – clinician’s guide. New
Cape Town: David Philip. York: Plenum Press.
Meck, C.L. 1990. Post-traumatic stress disorder: assess- Samios, C, Rodzik, A.K. & Abel, L.M. 2012. Second-
ment and differential diagnosis and forensic evaluation. ary traumatic stress and adjustment in therapists
Sarasota: Professional Resource Exchange Inc. who work with sexual violence survivors: the
Meichenbaum, D. 1994. A clinical handbook / practical moderating role of post-traumatic growth. British
therapist manual for assessing and treating adults with Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 40(4): 341–356.
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Waterloo, Sears, O.D., Peplau, L.A., Freedman, J.L. & Taylor,
Ontario: Institute Press. S.E. 1988. Social psychology, 6th ed. Englewood
Meichenbaum, D. 1997. Treating post-traumatic stress Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.
disorder – a handbook and manual for practice. Chi- Sexton, L. 2007. Vicarious traumatization of counsel-
chester: John Wiley & Sons. lors and effects on their workplaces. British Journal
Meichenbaum, D. 2001. A clinical handbook / practical of Guidance and Counselling, 27(3): 393–403.
therapist manual for assessing and treating adults with Stromnes, J. 1999. The incident of post-traumatic stress
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Ontario, Can- among police officers. Unpublished master’s disserta-
ada: Institute Press. tion. Pretoria: Unisa.
231
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SLIDES
19 Coping with
loss and
bereavement
F RANC E TTE B EDFORD
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Meeting death
O U T CO MES
19.2.1 Death has a thousand faces
19.2.2 Conversations about death
19.2.3 A conversation with death n have an awareness of the concept of grief and
bereavement and how loss could affect you on
19.3 Grief and bereavement
a mental, emotional and behavioural level
19.3.1 A metaphor for grief and bereavement
n be able to reflect on your own unique reaction
19.3.2 There is no way out of the desert to loss in general
except through it
n understand the concept of “normalising” grief
19.3.3 The journey
n have an awareness of methods and resources
19.3.4 Resources on your journey that assist in the healing process
19.3.5 Enemies that will keep you in the de- n be able to identify complicated grief and the
sert (complicated or prolonged grief) factors that contribute to delayed grief
19.3.6 What waits on the other side of the n be aware of your own attitude, anxieties and
journey? fear around death
19.4 An oasis in the desert – helping people grieve n find meaning in your own life by reflecting on
19.5 Self-care strategies for the caregiver death
References n be able to identify self-care strategies for the
Additional reading professional dealing with loss and dying.
19.1 INTRODUCTION
How we view death can have a profound impact on how we live, and how we deal with losses.
In our society we steer away from talking about death. We do not even want to think of it. Yet
it is the only thing we can be 100 per cent sure of. We will all die.
People around us are being confronted with death constantly. Violent crime and HIV and
AIDS are common phenomena, yet we only talk about prevention, cure, making sure we are
232 safe. Although these aspects are important, one very important aspect – death as part of life – is
often ignored or denied.
Through reflection and conversations with death, we can find meaning in our own lives. Our
biggest enemy in life is not death, but our inability to live!
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COPING WITH LOSS AND BEREAVEMENT
19
19.2 MEETING DEATH
Some people claim they have met you, death, but in their descriptions of their experiences
I have come to the conclusion that they met life after death. Others have written books
about dying and bereavement, a biography about death – or is it rather about life continu-
ing after death? I have seen evidence that you exist, but honestly I don’t know you.
Maybe death is just a mere description, or a word used to describe change? Change from the
known to the unknown. Change from one form of life to another?
19.2.1 Death has a thousand faces

Close your eyes and visualise death:
• What does it look like to you?
• Use colours that you think represent death.
• What emotions do you see on death’s face?
• What does he / she / it (death) sound like?
• Is it big or small?
• What is it doing? Is it staring at you? Is it lying down? Is it moving?
• What does it feel like – is it soft and warm, or is it hard and cold?
Create your own picture and shape the image you have of death. Either draw a picture or
describe it in words.
Reflect on the following: what does your picture of death illustrate about your perception of
loss?
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233
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What emotions did you experience when you made your picture? What emotions do you feel
now – does the picture scare you? Why / why not? Does the picture make you feel uncomfort-
able? Write down all the emotions you experience.
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What in the picture you drew made you experience these emotions? For example, if the
drawing evoked anxiety – what exactly are you scared of? If it made you feel uncomfortable
– what exactly are you uncomfortable about? If it made you feel overwhelmed – what is it
about death that overwhelms you?
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19.2.2 Conversations about death

For all of us death will have a different face – our pictures will all look different: pictures of the
same thing, but yet so unlike!
My opinions of many things in life – like marriage – have been influenced by what I’ve
read, conversations I’ve heard about married life, my own parents’ marriage, etc. These
preconceptions have had a profound influence on my own ideas about marriage. There-
fore, before I’ve even met this thing called marriage, I already have pretty strong feelings
about it! I’ve already drawn my own picture of what marriage looks like. It is the same
with death: before I’ve even met it, I’ve already drawn a strong mental picture of it. This
picture is based on what I’ve heard about death.
Reflect on the following: where did your ideas about death come from? Who or what influ-
enced your ideas and thoughts about death? For instance – what did your parents tell you
about death? What conversations have you heard that influenced your opinion about it?
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19.2.3 A conversation with death
So many approaches to health and wellbeing focus on death as the ultimate enemy. Medi-
cine and science are aimed at keeping us alive for as long as possible! We feel that we
need to eliminate death! But even healthy people die – death is our natural inheritance.
Even if we try to alienate death, asking it to wait outside, we cannot avoid it. It is part of
the cycle of life.
If we think of life as a picture with all the aspects that we consider part of life (our friends,
family, studies, money, religion, and so on – all the parts of our universe), what will happen if
we also invite death into our understanding of our own universe?
Dream as if you’ll live forever.
Reflect on the following questions: Live as if you’ll die today.
What will happen if you invite death into your home / universe, without asking it to stay
outside or just ignoring it?
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If death becomes a guest in your home – a part of your life, knowing and acknowledging
that death is present every day – will it change the way you live your life?
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Will this new guest change your relationships?
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Do you think death can become a friend? Why / why not?
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What do you think death will tell you – what message will death give you?
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19.3 GRIEF AND BEREAVEMENT

There are many grief and bereavement theories, but no amount of knowledge can really pre-
pare us for what we will go through when we lose someone.
Each theory on grief and bereavement is an attempt to help and guide us through the pain
associated with death. Most theories focus on the stages of grief, or phases in the grief process.
We squeeze grief into phases and stages in our human attempt to try to make sense of it; loss is
often chaotic. Although there may be evidence of some aspects described in the phases of grief,
these descriptions are at times simplistic and over-generalised. Sometimes the mere description
of these stages might become a burden for someone experiencing loss.
As an academic exercise it might be helpful to read about the phases of grief, but it would be
better to focus on your own individual and unique experience. Remember, after any kind of
loss you experience some kind of grief. Therefore, even if you have not experienced the loss of
a loved one through death, you could have experienced loss and grief after
• breaking up with a boyfriend / girlfriend
• losing a friendship
• divorce
• losing a limb or bodily function
• losing a job
• moving out of your family home.
Add other losses you have experienced.
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19.3.1 A metaphor for grief and bereavement

After each loss there is a time of mourning, a time we call grief and bereavement.
Try to think of a time when you experienced loss. Try to think of a metaphor that describes
that time: was it like a storm, a marathon, was it like sitting in peak traffic, or maybe like a trip
through the desert? Think of your own metaphor for grief and bereavement.
Write down your metaphor: For me, grief is like ...
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Describe your metaphor for grief in detail; for instance, if grief is like a storm, describe the
storm – the wind, the thunder, and so on.
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A time of mourning – Catherine’s story

Immediately after the death of my husband I felt numb, as if I were dreaming, or under
anaesthetic. I think God makes you feel this way after losing a loved one, to just soften the
blow, protect you somehow. I was like a robot, and this actually helped me to deal with
the immediate stuff: the funeral planning, and immediate administrative arrangements.
It took a few months before I really comprehended the reality of my loss. My identity
changed from married to widow; suddenly I needed to redefine who I was without my
husband.
Intense feelings of fear, emptiness and loss overwhelmed me. I was sad all the time. Noth-
ing gave me any joy, or hope. These feelings seemed ever present, and exhausted me!
Gradually, for no particular reason, I realised that there were moments where I felt calm-
er, more at peace, and even enjoyment. This gave me hope, but then the feelings of intense
loss would resurface again. After a few years, my feelings became less intense, and per-
iods of intense longing became less frequent. Life will never be the same, but I’ve learned
to focus on new things, broadened my horizons. Loss forced me to climb out of my com-
fort zone, to look at life with a deeper appreciation of the things that really matter, and it
showed me I was strong.
19.3.1.1 Grief and bereavement as a journey through the desert 237

Let us look at grief as if it were a journey through the wasteland. For everybody the journey
will be unique. The speed at which you travel, the people you meet on this journey and even
the resources you bring with you will impact on your experience of this journey.
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A trip through an unknown desert by inexperienced travellers cannot be easy. What do you
see, think and feel when you think of a desert? (Imagine being alone in an unknown desert.)
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When I think of a desert, I think of extreme heat during the day – no trees to protect me
from the sun. I think of sunburn, sensitive red skin. I think of sandstorms, and kilometres
of nothing except white sand. I think of a place where everything looks the same – no
sense of direction, being lost.
The story of Sandy and her trip through the desert

Sandy woke up with a headache – her sister’s funeral was finally over, and most people
had gone back to their homes. People had stopped calling, and suddenly Sandy was left
with only her own thoughts and feelings. She knew there was a long journey ahead;
she couldn’t just return home from the funeral like the other people ... she had to travel
through the desert. This was the only way back home.
Sandy had tried to postpone her journey through the desert for several days, but as she
stared through the window this morning she realised that all she could see was the very
desert she had been trying to avoid ... She started to panic: “I’m not prepared for this.
There’s no way that I’ll make it!” For a moment she even climbed back into bed, thinking
that if she woke up late, the desert would be gone. Everything is just a dream, she kept
telling herself.
But the desert did not go away. Slowly she came to know the terrain around her ... noth-
ing like she’d ever experienced before, and not what she had expected the desert would
be like.
At times Sandy tried to do the things she used to do – but nothing was the same anymore.
One day, as she washed the dishes, she saw a heavy, thick desert sandstorm from the
east. It was an angry storm that blew all the windows open, all the walls started to rattle.
Sandy felt scared – the anger in the storm was like her own feelings of anger – she was
angry at God for taking away her sister. She was angry at herself for not doing more, not
being there for her sister. It was as if anger touched every aspect of her life – just like the
wind, the anger pushed and pulled at every wall of her existence.
The sandstorm passed and Sandy slowly started to clean up the sand, re-attach loose win-
dow brackets. She thought that her house would never be the same again – she even won-
238 dered if her house would be able to withstand these sandstorms and the excruciating sun.
One evening before Sandy went to bed, her eye caught a photograph of her and her sis-
ter. She picked it up and remembered the time when the picture had been taken. It had
Q
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19
been a difficult time in her sister’s life – and Sandy remembered that she had been very
busy with her own life. She had never thought about this much, but now a feeling of guilt
about things she could have done for her sister haunted her all through the night.
Sandy woke up exhausted, without strength to do even the smallest things – like making
up her bed. The sun’s heat had burned her skin raw, leaving it very sensitive.
Today would have been her sister’s birthday. Sandy had never felt this sad – she missed
her sister and yearned for just one minute with her again. Sandy had never cried this
much; she started to think that things would never be better again. She didn’t know when
the next sandstorm was coming, and felt as if the desert would never pass.
One night when Sandy couldn’t sleep once again, she remembered that she hadn’t written
anything in her diary for months. When she opened up her diary to the last inscription
she started to cry ... 18 August 2000, just two days before the death of her sister. Reading
what she had written reminded her of her sister’s pain. Only now did she remember how
her sister had thanked her, describing her as her angel. Sandy started to smile; somehow
these memories made her feel at peace.
Sandy started to write down all her thoughts and feelings. Somehow this helped. One
morning as she woke up, she decided to make her favourite breakfast – she even picked a
little desert flower for the table. This reminded her that even in the desert, one could find
beauty. Then something extraordinary happened – it started to rain. For the first time,
Sandy saw little streams of water; she couldn’t help herself, she just had to have a taste.
The healthy breakfast and water helped Sandy to regain some strength and for the first
time in months she noticed that there were other people in the desert. She realised she
was not alone. Talking to the other desert people made her realise that she was not the
only one experiencing sandstorms, sunburn and other consequences of desert life. No one
could ever replace her sister, but somehow life seemed worth living again ...
19.3.2 There is no way out of the desert except through it

When you lose someone, the pain associated with your loss might be so overwhelming and
painful that you want to stop right in front of the “desert” of pain and find another way around
it. You might want to avoid the pain associated with your loss.
How do you think you – or people in general – might try to avoid the pain associated with
loss?
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Some people avoid pain by keeping themselves busy with things that distract them from their
pain – such as overworking. Sometimes we try to avoid or lessen pain by drinking or using 239
drugs. Sometimes we suppress our feelings of pain and hurt and substitute other feelings that
we feel more comfortable with – like anger. Sometimes we avoid pain by avoiding certain
places or people.
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Losing someone is very painful – and therefore holding onto someone even after they have
passed away is a normal reaction. Through talking to the deceased and holding onto things
that remind us of them, we try to keep them alive. It is too painful to let go.
Death is the only certainty in life.
My mother’s sister was diagnosed with leukaemia five years ago. After being diagnosed,
she lived for one year and 10 months.
My mother’s story
I was in the Johannesburg hospital waiting for the blood test results of my sister. She had
been complaining of severe fatigue for weeks. Since my sister was one of the most ener-
getic and lively people I knew, this was odd.
When I entered the room my sister simply said: “Bad news ... I’ve got leukaemia.” The
doctors were very honest about her condition, and therefore I knew that she was dying,
and that the treatment would only prolong her life for a while.
I took it upon myself to make sure my sister had a full life up to the end. She always lived
life to the full. I wanted to make sure that her remaining time was filled with everything
she loved doing. Seeing places, long walks, gardening, drinking tea at small, interesting
cafés – all had to be part of her life. Even if she didn’t feel like dressing up and going
somewhere, I urged her to make the best of every day. Helping her to enjoy her last days
became my life’s purpose, and obsession.
I kept her going; I kept her “alive” ... I wanted to keep her the way she always had been,
full of energy, young and vibrant. In retrospect, this was my way of avoiding the reality.
Even after her death, it was extremely hard to let go. Because I tried to keep up her life-
style, not wanting to admit the pain and physical deterioration associated with her sick-
ness, it was harder to let go in the end. I should have let her go sooner ...
19.3.3 The journey

If you need to go through the desert, what can you expect? What will the journey look like?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
In your travels, your route will be unique. The speed you travel and the tools you use will
depend on your personality, circumstances, beliefs, culture, attitude, and so on. There is no
240 map with specific destinations, landmarks and kilometres that indicate how far you are from
the next stop. However, other people’s experiences in the desert can help you through your
journey. Your own past experiences of loss (remember, as we discussed earlier, loss does not
only refer to death – loss of a boyfriend / girlfriend, loss of the security at home because you
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19
moved away to study, loss of material things because of crime, etc.) can prepare you for your
journey through the desert.
Looking at our own and other people’s experiences of grief may help us to get a better under-
standing of the terrain we deal with when we travel through the desert.
Recall the time you experienced a loss. Write it down.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
What were your feelings during this time?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
What was your behaviour like?
____________________________________________________________________________________
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____________________________________________________________________________________
What did you say to yourself and others during this time?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Interview someone who has gone through or is busy going through the process of grief. Ask
them about their experience – their emotions, thoughts and behaviour.
____________________________________________________________________________________
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241
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My mother’s story (continued)

After my sister’s death, I felt as if I wanted to sit in a corner and cry. I felt an overwhelm-
ing sadness. When I worked in the garden I thought, “She would have loved this.” Every-
thing I did reminded me of how much she would have enjoyed it. I didn’t ... I couldn’t
enjoy anything that had brought me pleasure before.
People phoned and offered support, but this left me cold. I was in my own world filled
with sadness – no one could reach the place where I was. My thoughts were filled with
my sister; I could not stop the recurring reminders of what she would have done, felt,
enjoyed ...
I spoke about my sister to people – friends – but after a while I stopped. I thought they
found it boring, and once again I was left alone in my own world of sadness. Life just
went on, and I had responsibilities to fulfil. At times I could stay in my own world of sad-
ness, but life and the people around me “forced” me to continue. I just kept going because
I had to.
19.3.4 Resources on your journey

Reflect on the loss you described in section 19.3.3. What helped you through that time of
pain? Think of things you did that helped you. Did people play a helpful role in your
“desert”? Were there other resources – your faith, a book – that supported you?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Remembering your interview with someone who had been through a process of grief and
mourning, reflect on those aspects that this person found / finds helpful.
____________________________________________________________________________________
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19
My mother’s story (continued)

The fact that I had responsibilities – people needed me – kept me going. I had to take
care of my husband and children’s needs. I had to take care of responsibilities around our
home; this helped because it forced me to keep going.
I also think time plays a huge role – my feelings are less intense. At one stage I also made
a mental decision not to think of my sister whenever I did the things we used to enjoy.
It was a cognitive decision; I forced myself not always to associate her with the things I
enjoyed.
At one stage I also wrote her a letter – telling her everything I wanted her to know. I took
this letter, with a photograph of us – looking almost like twins – to the cemetery. Some-
how visiting her grave and writing this letter gave me closure.
According to Denis Boyd (2004), the following suggestions will assist you during the grief pro-
cess:
• Accept the turmoil. Going through the emotions associated with grief might at times feel as
if you are “losing it”. It is helpful to tell yourself it is OK – give yourself permission to feel
this way.
• There is no rush. There is a tendency to feel as if we need to get over our grief quickly, that
we should feel a certain way at a certain stage. But remember each person is unique, it is
your own unique journey with no time frame.
• Avoid shoulds and oughts. Social expectations of what we should do and what is normal
should be avoided – there is no “right” way; you are unique! Ruth Davis (2011) argues that
multiple aspects play a role in the way we experience and react to grief. She provides exam-
ples of such aspects as the specific relationship you had with the deceased, your age, culture,
personality, age of the deceased, the way they died, etc.
• Write down your experiences. Writing down your experiences of grief will give you the
opportunity to write about your feelings without being judged by others. It will also help
you to see that over time there is indeed a slow healing process taking place.
• Consider writing a letter or two. Writing a letter to the person who has left or died will give
you the opportunity to say what was left unsaid.
• Coach those close to you on how to help you. People find it very hard to deal with death,
and often do not know what to say to people in time of grief. Tell the people around you
what they can do to help. Just listening is sometimes all you want.
• Go for long walks. Walking is a simple exercise that will release stress and tension.
• Distract yourself regularly. Any type of hobby, work, music or sport can be helpful. Spend-
ing a lot of time focusing on your loss will not speed up the healing process. Grief can
become overwhelming without a break from it.
• Shift your focus. Instead of focusing on the disappointment, sadness, anger or loss, celebrate
good times, celebrate their life. Every time you feel tempted to become even sadder by wal-
lowing in the negative aspects, grab a diary and refocus your mind on the good, the positive 243
life or times you shared.
• Go where you fear to go. There will probably be a number of places and activities that will
remind you of your loved one. Avoiding these places will only perpetuate the upset you feel
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when you contemplate them. Going to these places might at first be very hard and painful,
but each visit will become easier to handle.
• Expect “anniversary upset”. Special days might put you back in the “desert” of pain, but this
experience is a normal “anniversary reaction” and does not mean you have slid backwards.
• Nurture yourself. Do things for yourself that will make you feel pampered – listen to your
favourite music, etc. This will remind you that life holds positive experiences. Also remem-
ber to look after yourself; rest and sleep well.
•
Mindful grieving. According to Sameet Kumar (2005), mindful grieving (the art of not
engaging with the constant flow of thoughts overwhelming your mind), is a helpful tool in
grieving. It is a cognitive decision to focus, even just for a moment, on the here and the now,
what you are doing at this moment – not being stuck in the past or thinking about the future.
Clients that use this kind of meditation claim that detaching from the numerous overwhelm-
ing feelings experienced after a loss is crucial, as this mindful moment gives them some form
of calm and energy to rebuild their lives.
• Express your grief in a creative way. Smith and Segal (2013) describes how utilising your
creativity in making scrapbooks or a photo album to celebrate the person’s life, or getting
involved in an organisation or cause that was important to him or her, can assist in your
healing.
• Save momentos that remind you of the person you lost, as there is comfort in knowing the
love, friendship or family ties still exist and will always be part of you.
Research by Dale Lund at the California State University (2008) indicated that being able
to draw on happy memories and humour had a significant effect on the healing process of
most (75%) grieving men interviewed.
19.3.5 Enemies that will keep you in the desert (complicated or prolonged grief)
What do you think might be the things that would keep us in the desert? How do people get
“stuck” in grief?
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____________________________________________________________________________________
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____________________________________________________________________________________
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244 Denis Boyd (2004) says the following about delayed or prolonged grief:
• You might experience delayed or prolonged grief because you have not let go of the person
who left or died. It is sometimes helpful to do something symbolic to help you let go, like
writing a letter to this person and burning it.
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19
• Delayed grief is often the symptom of a busy lifestyle. Not slowing down after a loss can be
your way of avoiding the hurt that comes with it. Slowing down and allowing yourself to
feel grief from time to time will be important.
• Not feeling any different from before the loss and avoiding any sadness even when you are
alone signifies that you are probably repressing your feelings. Open up a little on your own
or with a friend.
• Grief is like a rollercoaster ride with a variety of feelings – and ups and downs. If you only
feel one emotion, like anger or depression, your feelings might be “distorted”. Sharing your
feelings and focusing on “other” feelings might be helpful. Having “unfinished” business
with the person who left you might also be responsible for distorted feelings. Dealing with
“unfinished” business will therefore be a key to healing.
• Because of the high crime and accident rate in our country, death is often very sudden, vio-
lent and sometimes includes additional trauma – such as facing life-threatening situations
like carjackings or seeing damaged corpses (in a violent protest or accident). These factors
often complicate grief. Making sense out of death when it is sudden, unnatural or violent is
very difficult.
19.3.6 What waits on the other side of the journey?

Write down what you think awaits you after you have made this journey.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
I believe that life can never go back to the way it was before you experienced your loss –
your journey through the desert will change your life.
19.4 AN OASIS IN THE DESERT – HELPING PEOPLE GRIEVE

Dr Tony Leon (1984: 88) stresses the fact that all support given must be of such a nature that it
does not cost the person going through grief more energy. If your help becomes a burden to the
person going through grief, you are not helping!
When is offering help a burden to the other person?
• When you expect something in return – their gratitude, or even the fact that you expect the
person to do things the way you suggest
• When you insist on giving help when the person going through grief does not want it
• When you do not allow the person going through grief his or her “own space” – everybody
copes differently with grief. Insisting that your way is the right way will only burden the 245
person grieving. The speed with which a person heals might differ from your expectations
– do not force your way! For instance, do not advise them to discard clothing and other per-
sonal belongings of the deceased before they are ready.
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• When you are helping and supporting as an attempt primarily to make yourself feel bet-
ter, you have ulterior motives and therefore your help is not focused on the person going
through grief, but rather focused on yourself.
Leon talks about giving “free gifts” – in other words, a gift that enables the person to go
through the stages of grief, at their own speed, allowing them space to mourn. Some basic
guidelines in effective help are as follows:
• Just be there for the person – you can be of great value by just being there without doing
anything.
• When we start to do something – like try to cheer them up or to make them feel better – we
are only delaying the process of grief. Allow the other person to grieve and mourn. Never
say: “It was for the best” or “At least she did not suffer”. Trying to find something posi-
tive about the death does not console – it will only make the person grieving feel that they
should not feel sad.
• Use your basic helping skills as discussed in this book. Listening with empathy is core.
• It is important that you recognise your own limitations. Do not give more than you can
spare, and do not get so involved that you create dependency.
• Look after yourself. Supporting people going through grief takes a lot of emotional energy.
19.5 SELF-CARE STRATEGIES FOR THE CAREGIVER

In the helping professions, we are often experts at helping others, but poor at taking care of
ourselves:
• Look after yourself by following your own advice. As caregivers, we often tell people to eat
correctly, exercise, manage their stress, etc. Practise what you preach.
• The best way to make sure you recharge your battery is to have a balanced life outside the
office or hospital, i.e. your work environment.
• Keep a healthy sense of who you are – positive self-worth is very important.
• Support groups can be very helpful, but should not only be a bunch of people complaining –
rather people who can assist you with problem solving and practical advice.
Compile a list of positive strategies that you can implement in your life that will ensure that
you also take care of yourself.
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19.6 CONCLUSION
It is clear that you cannot simply allow grief to take over your life. It is important that you
should allow a normal and healthy period of grieving but also that you should work at this
246 deliberately – at least to some degree. In this chapter we discussed practical and useful ways
to deal constructively with grief and loss. It remains important, however, that you understand
what is happening to you (or a person you care for) and how the process unfolds. Acquiring
professional help could also be the most appropriate action to take.
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R E FER E N C E S
Boyd, D. 2004. Med broadcast health feature. Avail- Kumar, S.M. 2005. Grieving mindfully: a compassionate
able at: http://www.medbroadcast.com (accessed and spiritual guide to coping with loss. Oakland, CA:
on 15 November 2003). New Harbinger.
Lake, T. 1984. Living with grief. London: Sheldon Konigsberg, R.D. 2011. The truth about grief: the myth
Press. of its five stages and the new science of loss. New York:
Simon & Schuster.
Visit the following websites for further information: Frequently asked questions about grief:
• Unique grieving, supporting the bereaved and http://www.hospicenet.org
hospice: http://www.elderhope.com/modules/ Cancercare: Caring for the dying, burnout, Coping
smartsection/category.php?categoryid= with loss, and grief: http://www.cancercare.org/
• Caring for the dying: Caregiver burnout: tagged/grief_and_loss
http://dying.about.com
• Elizabeth Kübler Ross: Stages of grief:
http://www.elisabethkublerross.com
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19
BON VOYAGE
P A R T IV
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Section 7
Pause a
moment
… check
your travel
documents
SLIDES
20 Getting your passport

and travel documents
ready: building a
portfolio
H E LE N A K RI E L
20.1 Introduction: portfolio, CV, résumé 20.6 Writing a covering letter
20.2 Know what you want and how to get it 20.7 Conclusion
20.3 Compiling your portfolio Reference
20.3.1 What is on offer? Additional reading
20.3.2 What do you need?
20.3.3 Putting it all together O U T CO MES
20.4 Writing your knock-out CV After working through this chapter, you should
20.4.1 Understanding your target n understand the process of compiling a portfolio
20.4.2 Horses for courses n have some knowledge of the different styles of CV
20.5 Create an effective résumé writing.
20.1 INTRODUCTION: PORTFOLIO, CV, RÉSUMÉ

You are now ready to enter foreign territory – the world of work! Like all travellers journeying
to distant places, you will need to prepare very important travel documents. If you are not in
possession of these documents, you will not be allowed across the border from the now-famil-
iar landscape of higher education into the challenging world out there.
You will need to prepare a portfolio, curriculum vitae (CV) and résumé. Each of these travel
documents has a specific place and time of application:
• A portfolio is a well-organised collection of documents that can serve as proof of the state-
ments you make in your CV. Prospective employers might ask to see your portfolio during a
job interview.
• The term curriculum vitae is of Latin origin and literally means “the course of life”. A CV
therefore is a document two or three pages long that summarises your education, skills, 251
achievements and work experience.
• A résumé is limited to one page only. It needs to be brief and concise, as the reader will often
spend only a minute or so reading it to review your qualifications and experience.
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PART IV BON VOYAGE
SECTION 7 PAUSE A MOMENT … CHECK YOUR TRAVEL DOCUMENTS
In many contexts the terms “CV” and “résumé” are used interchangeably. For the purpose of
this discussion, we will treat them as different documents, with different applications. Both
documents need to include your name and accurate contact details.
Exercise 20.1
Make a colourful drawing of your dream job. Give attention to all factors that will con-
tribute to it being your perfect occupation.
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GETTING YOUR PASSPORT AND TRAVEL DOCUMENTS READY: BUILDING A PORTFOLIO
20
20.2 KNOW WHAT YOU WANT AND HOW TO GET IT

No traveller would go on a journey without knowing his or her destination. In order to find
your dream job, you will need to do something very important at the outset: you will need to
decide what your dream job is! Very few people start off in their dream job, but if you know
where you want to be, your first job can be a step in the right direction. Therefore, just as a
well-prepared traveller starts off with an itinerary, entering the job market also requires a plan.
Only then can you start to prepare your travel documents.
The process of identifying your dream job and writing your itinerary can never start too early.
Even as a first-year student at an institution of higher education, you can engage in activities
that will enhance your marketability by the time you obtain your qualification. Besides work-
ing hard at your academic subjects and obtaining good results, you can also get involved extra-
murally. Choose your activities carefully so as to enhance your leadership and teamwork skills.
You will thus be developing transferable skills.
20.3 COMPILING YOUR PORTFOLIO

To compile a portfolio, you need to gather all your personal records, for example certificates,
testimonials, letters of acknowledgement, awards, and so on. Everything and anything that
may serve to substantiate information given in your CV should be taken into consideration.
20.3.1 What is on offer?

When you travel to different countries, you need different travel documents. You cannot enter
one country with another country’s visa. In the same way, you need to customise your job-
search documents to the specific position for which you are applying. When compiling a cus-
tomised portfolio for a specific job, it is important to have a clear idea of the job content and
skills required. Research the company thoroughly and then choose from your collection of
documents only those that showcase transferable skills and knowledge relevant to that particu-
lar situation.
20.3.2 What do you need?

You will need a binder, preferably three-ring, in which to organise your documents. This will
make it easy for you to insert and extract pages, depending on what you need. Keep the docu-
ments neat, clean and well organised – a plastic slip-cover per document should help you
accomplish this.
It is a good idea to have certified copies of the official documents in your portfolio in case a
prospective employer requests them.
20.3.3 Putting it all together

Use the space below to create your own checklist of documents that you should prepare for
inclusion in your general portfolio. Remember that if you have a comprehensive portfolio
ready at all times, it becomes easy to compile a specific portfolio in a short time, when needed.
• _________________________________ • _________________________________
253
• _________________________________ • _________________________________
• _________________________________ • _________________________________
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PART IV BON VOYAGE
• _________________________________ • _________________________________
• _________________________________ • _________________________________
• _________________________________ • _________________________________
20.4 WRITING YOUR KNOCK-OUT CV

A CV is a summary of your education, skills, knowledge, work experience and achievements.
The perfect CV
is the CV that
Richard Bolles (2002: 4) says that it is “essentially an argument, from your past, as to what you
achieves the inter- will be able to accomplish for them (prospective employers) in the future”. It is a selling docu-
view. No more, no ment, your personal marketing brochure, advertising you to prospective employers. A CV is
less. When the CV a living, dynamic document and both its appearance and content need constant development.
puts your name on You can generally use your CV to
the interview short
list, it has done • reply to advertisements in newspapers or professional journals
its job. • distribute to personnel agencies
Max Eggert • post on the internet
• make personal contact with prospective employers
• hand to your network.
Employers usually use CVs as a scanning tool to compile a shortlist of candidates to be inter-
viewed for a particular job. Your CV can thus make or break your chance of being offered your
dream job, and you need to spend some time and effort on it.
In order to write an effective CV, you first of all need to know what skills, experiences and
achievements you are going to summarise.
Exercise 20.2
Make a list of the things that you are good at – maybe better than most other people,
things that other people say you are good at. Keep in mind that you also have transfer-
able skills, for example those you might have developed by being involved in a student
society and not necessarily through formal education.
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254
_______________________________________________________________________________
Q
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20
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
Now jot down your achievements. Think of the bigger picture and remember that
achievements show how well you have carried out your duties and responsibilities.
_______________________________________________________________________________
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_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
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255
Remember: transferable skills are skills developed in one context that can be applied in
another work context and can be relevant for employers.
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PART IV BON VOYAGE
20.4.1 Understanding your target

Many job seekers write a CV, make hundreds of copies, mail a copy to all and sundry, and
then cannot understand why they are not invited for a job interview. This is called the shotgun
approach and it is often ineffective. A CV is a dynamic document. If you really want your dream
job, you will prepare a customised version for every specific job for which you apply.
Before aiming at a target, you need to be able to identify that target, know what it looks like
and what will be required from you to hit it. Employers receive many CVs, and research has
shown that they spend between 20 and 30 seconds on each one. Your target is a moving one
and you need to shoot fast and accurately!
When you have gathered all the information on your skills, experience and achievements, you
can write a customised CV – with impact. Having your database electronically available will
enable you to create various versions of your CV quickly, as and when required.
Most recruitment agencies and websites seem to agree that the skills most sought after by
employers in graduates are the following:
• Interpersonal skills
• Leadership
• Flexibility
• Teamwork
• Communication (oral and written)
• Problem solving ability
• Self-motivation
• Time management
20.4.2 Horses for courses

In order to get noticed, it is important to use the CV format that will best represent you in
the job market. There are many possibilities in CV writing, which can be reduced to five basic
examples:
•
Chronological CV. The traditional approach, with biographical information, education and
work experience in chronological order.
•
Performance CV. In the performance CV, employment history is given in reverse chrono-
logical order. Job titles and company names are strongly emphasised and responsibilities
and achievements are described under every job title.
•
Functional CV. The functional CV highlights main functions and achievements of your total
career and is therefore very useful if you have had a varied career or want a change in career
direction.
•
Targeted CV. This CV focuses on abilities and achievements which are directly linked to a
specific job target.
•
Alternative CV. This type of CV is suitable for creative careers, e.g. writing, designing or
acting.
256
Some people seem to be of the opinion that in the South African context, only the old-fash-
ioned chronological CV is still acceptable, while the more modern functional CV is American
and only useful there. However, the influence of globalisation is changing the fashions in the
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20
employment market, as everywhere else, and every job seeker should make sure to use the
most acceptable format for CV writing – this may change every six months or so. It might even
be a good idea to contact the human resources department of the company you plan to apply
to, and ask what format they would prefer.
Some further examples of types of CV and when to make use of them are given below.
20.4.2.1 Student CV
Although this is not a conventional format, it allows for a modern appearance, but keeps in
mind that new graduates often do not have years of work experience behind them. It is almost
a combination of the chronological, functional and target formats.
20.4.2.2 Targeted CV
This is the format you use when you have a specific job title at a specific company or employer
in mind. The targeted CV will be the ideal format to use when you, for example, react to an
advertisement in a newspaper. When compiling a CV using this format, the focus is on achieve-
ments and skills directly relevant to the job on offer.
20.4.2.3 Performance CV
When using this format, emphasis is placed on achievements and prior work experience, by
making use of a reversed chronological order. That means that you will list your latest achieve-
ments and experiences first and your earliest achievements and experience last. This format
is often used by people wanting the same kind of job they are currently doing and is often
reported to be the kind favoured by South African employers.
20.4.2.4 Online CV
We are living in the cyber age. Web-based companies matching job seekers with possible
employers, or job boards, are rising like mushrooms. As a result, a new way of preparing a CV
has emerged. Posting an effective CV on the web takes a lot of skill. Some of these recruitment
companies post templates on their sites and you need only complete the required information,
but in other cases, you need to be very sure that you have enough action words to ensure hits
and matches with jobs posted on the internet.
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PART IV BON VOYAGE
Example 20.1: Student CV
Carol Smith
ID 780511 0030 081
45 Maple Crest
Arcadia
Cell: 084 589 4587
Profile
An accountancy student who is keen to find a position as trainee accountant.
Accurate, trustworthy, dependable and determined to be successful. Did holiday
work at firm of chartered accountants for two years and gained a good under-
standing of what is required of an accountant. Able to work on own initiative or as
part of a team. Computer literate.
Education
2000–2003 BTech (Accounting) at Technikon Pretoria
Subjects: financial accounting; cost and management accounting;
corporate law; economics and taxation
1995–1999 Bellville High School

Subjects: English HG (B); Afrikaans HG (D); mathematics SG (B);
physical science SG (D); accountancy HG (C); typing SG (A)
Experience
Summer 2002–Summer 2001 JOHNSON AND PROCTOR
Administrative assistant
A vacation job, stretching over two summers, work-
ing for a large firm of accountants
Responsibilities and achievements: assisting the
senior partner in conducting major audits in com-
panies in the area
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20
Example 20.2: Targeted CV
Christopher Jones
24 Mansfield Drive
Monument Park
Tel: 012 555 0056
Profile
A self-motivated quality assurance technician with a wide range of experience
in the food industry. Able to work on own initiative and as part of a team. Proven
leadership skills involving managing, developing and motivating teams to achieve
objectives. Dedicated to maintaining high quality standards.
Abilities
•
Managing all quality assurance procedures and systems in a modern food
manufacturing environment
• Leading a team; assigning them tasks and motivating them to achieve dead-
lines
• Performing quality assurance audits, which includes analysing procedures and
making recommendations for improvements
• Organising and conducting the training of quality assurance personnel
• Presenting reports and demonstrating quality assurance procedures to clients
Achievements
• Implemented a new quality assurance system for a major manufacturing client
which will save them R1 000 000 per annum
• Solved major quality assurance problems which temporarily halted production
at a well-known food manufacturer’s plant
Experience
1989–date GEPO FOODS LIMITED: Senior quality assurance technician
1985–1989 SURRET FOOD LIMITED: Research technician
Qualifications
BSc (Hons) Biochemistry (University of Pretoria)
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PART IV BON VOYAGE
Example 20.3: Performance CV
Phyl Mahlangu
58 Brook Heights
SUNNYSIDE
Tel: 012 859 4895
Profile
A senior food service manager with a wide range of experience in the catering
industry. Able to work individually as well as part of a team. Proven leadership
ability involving managing, developing and motivating teams to achieve their set
goals. First-class interpersonal and time management skills. Very creative.
Major achievements
• Improved quality of food preparation to clients’ satisfaction
• Saved company R25 000 a year by improving storage system
• Solved labour dispute to the satisfaction of all concerned parties
Experience
1995–date FABULOUS FOOD CAFETERIA
2001–date Senior food service manager

Fabulous Foods Cafeteria provides full meals to the employees of
three government department head offices in Pretoria. Responsibil-
ities and achievements:
• Managed quality assurance process
• Managed a team of 16 people, assigning them tasks and motiv-
ating them to meet quality specifications and time frames
• Managed customer relations
• Managed a R2 million budget
1995–2001 Food service manager

• Created computerised system, with the help of a programmer,
to streamline storage system.
• Managed a team of 5 people; assigning them tasks and insuring
quality service.
• Managed quality assurance process in specific environment.
Qualifications
BTech (Food Service Management); Technikon Vaal Triangle (1994)
Further training
Courses in: quality assurance, team leadership, business writing
260
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20.4.2.5 General tips on CV writing
• Tailoring your CV should be an ongoing process throughout your career. Review it every six
months, so that you can develop the skills that you need to move into new positions.
• Have different versions of your CV for different types of positions.
• The average South African employer prefers CVs to be three pages long. It is well docu-
mented that employers spend between 20 to 30 seconds on the initial screening of a CV.
• Keep the information relevant. Companies receive hundreds of CVs and employers do not
have the time to read through information that has nothing to do with the position at hand.
• Make use of action words such as designed, developed, established, etc.
• Be concise in style, but not in information – gather all the information you possibly can
beforehand and then fit the content into the structure, layout and space available.
• Sections and headings make it easier for the readers to find what they want quickly and eas-
ily.
• Use bullet points for the same reason.
• Keep to the third party and avoid “I”.
• Employment history should leave no chronological gaps. Start with the most recent position
first and then work backwards. More information is required for the more recent posts and
less for the earlier positions. Focus on responsibilities and achievements.
• Remember: part-time work is also employment.
• Avoid blasé statements – demonstrate your skill through your achievements.
• Avoid including a salary; state it at the end of your covering letter only if you are requested
to do so.
• Follow your career experience with your professional qualifications and education, again
from the most recent backwards.
• Interests should be included if they illustrate leadership and / or interpersonal skills.
• Avoid using company / training institution jargon and abbreviations or acronyms which
might be annoying to a recruiter who does not understand them.
• Create a career profile at the head of your CV. The keywords and phrases should describe
what you are and be designed to target the role for which you are applying. Avoid sounding
hype.
• Print out your CV on high-quality paper – people equate good quality presentation with
good quality content. Use white paper – the quality when faxed or copied is much better.
• Always have a typewritten CV. Use a single, simple, legible font size 11 or 12.
• Dates and names will be checked – keep your CV honest.
• If the position requires a driver’s licence and own vehicle, make sure that you state that.
• Always have your CV proofread – potential employers tolerate no spelling or grammar mis-
takes on CVs. Do not rely on the spell check function on your computer program.
• When you have finished proofreading your CV, proofread it again.
• Leave out: photos, any kind of failure, reasons for leaving each job, fancy patterns / borders,
age, weight, height, health or any other personal information.
• Use graphics only if they actually add some value. Avoid using obvious Clip Art – it might 261
look tacky.
• CVs should not be placed in fancy covers and should never be stapled.
• Always add a suitable covering letter.
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PART IV BON VOYAGE
• Your CV should arrive at its destination unfolded and in pristine condition.

• Never use poor photocopies of your CV.
Action words that might be useful when compiling your CV:

achieved administered analysed applied
assisted created compiled coordinated
convened designed developed enhanced
established executed excelled expanded
evaluated generated identified implemented
initiated invented instructed maintained
managed negotiated operated organised
planned practised presented processed
projected provided produced researched
revived specialised supplemented trained
20.5 CREATE AN EFFECTIVE RÉSUMÉ

The résumé is an American concept, as in that country you will use a CV only in very specific
circumstances, for example when applying for an international, specialised or academic pos-
ition. In South Africa, as in most European countries, the use of a CV is more common, and
résumés more limited to situations where only a fax line is available or where employers expect
to receive a lot of applications and want to minimise the initial paperwork. Often the résumé
needs to be followed by a more comprehensive CV.
A résumé is often referred to in advertisements as a shortened CV, and is exactly that. Never to
exceed one page, a résumé should focus on the qualifications, experience, skills and achieve-
ments absolutely relevant to the position for which you are applying. It is important for the
résumé to include accurate contact details, as you might lose out on an interview if the employ-
er has difficulty reaching you.
A résumé should be
• concise – only one page
• customised – tailor-made for the relevant position
• clear – easily read and understood
• current – always up-to-date
• catchy – you only have 20 seconds to attract attention.
Writing an effective résumé takes skill and it is important that you take as much trouble in cre-
ating this document as you would in compiling your portfolio or writing your CV. A once-off,
good-for-all approach will not suffice, as the person receiving this document will very easily
262 spot the lack of thorough consideration. Remember that prospective employers have shopping
lists and you have one opportunity to interest them in what you have to offer. If your résumé
does not catch the attention of the person reading it, he or she will not want to meet you and
you will thus not be invited to an interview – bye-bye dream job!
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Example 20.4: Résumé
AJ Fox
7 Mulberry
Forrest Hill
5555
Cell: 073 025 3256
Objective
Office assistant, where typing skills, knowledge of all major word-processing soft-
ware, absolute commitment to deadlines, detail orientation, organisation skills
and a positive attitude are required.
Education
Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria: NDip Business Management (2004)
Learned to type 50+ wpm with maximum accuracy
Summer employment
Casual worker, Exclusive Foods
During summer holidays from 2001–2003, I worked as a casual worker at Exclusive
Foods and had the responsibility of assisting clients in placing orders and making
purchases. I reported directly to the owner, who also relied on me to organise
small promotional functions and was very complimentary about the attention I
gave to detail.
Skills
• Thorough knowledge of word-processing software
• Clear and effective communication with customers
• Proven organisational skills
• Well-developed time management skills
20.6 WRITING A COVERING LETTER

No CV or résumé should ever be faxed, mailed, e-mailed or even delivered personally without
being accompanied by a covering letter. The function of the covering letter is to inform the
recipients of the reason for your sending your CV or résumé to them, as well as to highlight the
important points stated in your CV or résumé. In other words, you will use the covering letter
to persuade the recipient to read your CV.
Your covering letter should to be concise; it should never exceed one page. If an employer takes
20–30 seconds to read through a three-page CV, you cannot bargain on much more time being
spent on your covering letter. You need to make a good first impression, so use an appealing
layout.
Make use of the same good quality, unlined, white paper that you used for your CV. Keep in 263
mind that coloured paper does not fax or copy well. (Often the person who receives the docu-
mentation needs to make copies for other role players, such as members of an interviewing
panel.)
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PART IV BON VOYAGE
A covering letter should always be typewritten, except if the advertisement specifies a hand-
written application. It goes without saying that the spelling and grammar of your covering
letter need to be checked with the same precision as your CV. First impressions last, and a
document full of errors creates the impression that you are lazy, inaccurate, poorly educated
and not someone suitable to represent the business.
When writing your covering letter, try to keep to simple, straightforward language and avoid
the use of jargon or very formal language. Keep the paragraphs short and to the point. Try not
to start every paragraph with “I”.
If at all possible, address the covering letter to somebody specific. This might mean that you
need to do some research into, for example, who the human resource manager at the company
is. Often newspaper advertisements state the name of the contact person – take note! People
enjoy being addressed by their names; use this to your advantage.
Example 20.5: Covering letter
475 Brooke Street

Impala Hill
0123
24 May 2004
Mr C Kruger
Human Resource Manager
Exclusive Foods
PO Box 4569
Port Elizabeth
5623
Dear Mr Kruger
I would like to apply for the position as trainee accountant, advertised in the East
Coast Sun on 23 May 2004.
After completing my National Diploma (Accountancy) at Border Technikon, I

enrolled for a BTech (Accountancy) at Port Elizabeth Technikon. I completed this
qualification during 2003. As you will see from my CV, I am currently performing
accounting duties, on a part-time basis, for a retail bookstore. I was involved in
assisting the accountant to prepare for the annual audit.
During my training, I achieved good results for accountancy as well as cost

management and enjoyed both subjects thoroughly. I am fully computer literate
with a working knowledge of Microsoft Windows 2000, Microsoft Word and Excel,
as well as Corel Word Perfect and Presentations.
I am keen to apply for the position of trainee accountant at your company. Over
the last few months, I have often noted your being mentioned in the media, and
was very excited to see a position at such a dynamic enterprise advertised.
I am available for an interview at your convenience, and I look forward to hearing

from you soon.
264 Yours sincerely
John Sithole
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20.7 CONCLUSION
Your travel documents are now ready. Time to brace yourself and tackle the big wide world-
of-work out there! In the next chapter we will take a close look at job search and self-marketing
strategies.
R E FER E N C E
Bolles, R.N. 2002. What color is your parachute? A practical manual for job-hunters and career-changers. 32nd ed.
Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed Press.
The following publications and websites might be Whitmore, T. 2009. How to write an impressive CV and
useful if you want to know more about portfolios, cover letter. London: Constable and Robinson.
CVs and résumés: http://jobsearch.about.com
Bolles, R.N. 2012. What colour is your parachute? A http://www.michaelpage.co.za
practical manual for job-hunters and career-changers. http://www.businessballs.com
40th ed. Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed Press.
http://www.theguardian.com/culture-profession-
Talabi, M. 2011. 7 keys to a winning CV. London: Har- al-network
riman House.
265
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SLIDES
21 Job search and

self-marketing
strategies
H E LE N A K RI EL
T HE C H A P T ER AT A G LA N C E
21.1 Introduction
21.3.10 Using a combination of reactive and
21.2 The ever-changing world of work
proactive strategies
21.3 Planning your job search strategies
21.4 Making a checklist
21.3.1 Newspaper advertisements
21.5 Networking: your most powerful tool
21.3.2 Recruitment agencies
21.6 Job hunting on the internet: facts and myths
21.3.3 Advertisements in professional or
21.7 Conclusion: the dos and don’ts of job hunting
trade journals or special interest
magazines References
21.3.4 CV mailing Additional reading
21.3.5 Electronic job boards and career
websites O U T CO MES
21.3.6 Identify companies where you After working through this chapter, you should
would like to work
n demonstrate an awareness of the dynamics of
21.3.7 Volunteering the job market
21.3.8 Do not ignore small firms n have an understanding of the process of entering
21.3.9 Networking this market.
21.1 INTRODUCTION
You have collected all the information you need to prepare the essential travel documents, as
well as identified what your dream job looks like. Now is the time to go out there, look for this
dream job and sell yourself and your skills and qualities to an employer. Ideally, you should
take the first steps in your job search as early as possible – even in your first year as a student.
Remember that you need an itinerary if you want to go on a journey. You need to have your
strategy in mind in order to prepare yourself properly.
266 21.2 THE EVER-CHANGING WORLD OF WORK

In the postmodernistic world we live in, we can be assured of only two things: death and escal-
ating change in the world of work. Because we know that the face of work, or the job market, is
forever changing, the job hunter needs to be abreast of these changes at all times.
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JOB SEARCH AND SELF-MARKETING STRATEGIES
21
Traditionally, it was believed that successful job hunters were in the right place at the right
time. This has all changed. The belief now is that if you want to be a successful job hunter, you
need to take control of your career, know yourself and know what you want from the job you
are seeking. You are not merely looking for a job, but for a job that you will love!
Look upon yourself as a company with a product to sell and keep in mind that employers
hire employees who offer them the best results and the best value for money. Page back to the
previous chapter and look at the list you made regarding your skills and achievements. What
benefits and results can you offer employers? Are your skills marketable and up to date?
To give yourself a competitive advantage, analyse what other employees in the field are offer-
ing. It is not enough to offer as much as they do; you need to have the competitive edge.
Take a few minutes and write down those things that will differentiate you from your competi-
tors in the job market. Try to assess yourself as objectively as possible in order to identify your
marketable features.
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21.3 PLANNING YOUR JOB SEARCH STRATEGIES

Most unsuccessful job hunters seem to have something in common: they are not working
according to a well-developed plan and they rely on a single sector, for example newspaper
advertisements, to obtain information on possibilities.
At the outset, you need to define and prioritise your short-term and long-term career goals. As
one online career adviser noted: “Job searching isn’t just about applying for jobs and hoping to
get called for an interview anymore. It’s more complicated than that, especially in a competitive
job market. The most successful job seekers utilize a variety of job search strategies to help them
stand out from the crowd” (http://jobsearch.about.com).
Make a list of your long-term career goals. (Revisit the picture of your dream job that you
drew in Chapter 19.)
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267
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Now make a list of the short-term goals you need to achieve in order to realise your long-
term goals.
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After you have identified your goals, or drawn your plan, you need to decide whether you are
going to follow the traditional job-hunting strategy, or try your hand at a more creative strat-
egy. It is also possible to use a combination of the two, if you wish.
It is a myth that there are no jobs out there. There are more jobs available at the moment than at
any given time in history. The only difference is that the competition is also steeper than at any
other time in history. If you cannot find a job it is because it was not advertised or you are not
using the right method to find it.
The traditional job search strategies are also known as the reactive strategies. These include all
strategies that imply that job vacancies are “out in the open”.
21.3.1 Newspaper advertisements

When thinking of job hunting, one automatically reaches for the newspaper. Newspapers
advertise hundreds of jobs on a daily or weekly basis. The truth of the matter, though, is that
getting a job through a newspaper is not as common as one would think. It is costly to advertise
in newspapers, especially the really reputable ones, and therefore usually only senior positions
are advertised. Furthermore there is no legislation forcing companies to advertise all their pos-
itions in newspapers. Somewhere out there, vacancies exist that you might miss if you rely on
newspaper ads alone. According to Bolles (2002), research projects have shown this strategy
has a 5–24 per cent success rate. Dorio (1995) says that “although the success rate seems rather
low, our world is virtually buried under all the want ads”.
Newspaper advertisements and appointment pages are useful, though, as a source of informa-
tion that you can use in your research into current requirements of employers and interesting
movements in the job market.
21.3.2 Recruitment agencies

There are a huge number of employment or recruitment agencies out there, many of them spe-
cialising in specific fields of expertise. Some of these agencies focus on temporary and / or con-
tract workers. The agencies will most likely not act as your agent, but rather as the agent of
employers. This means that they will not scout for a job for you, but rather keep your informa-
tion on a central database and when an employer’s specifications meet your details, they will
forward your information to the employer. At most they will set up an interview and brief you
somewhat on the business of the company. The recruitment agency acts as a screening service
268 and usually receives a commission from the employer for a suitable placement made.
Most researchers note a success rate of between five and 28 per cent when using only this strat-
egy. It is very useful though to register with a relevant agency if you are interested in doing
temporary or contract work.
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21.3.3 Advertisements in professional or trade journals or special interest magazines

These advertisements, in a journal or magazine devoted to a specific field of interest, can yield
a somewhat better success rate than newspaper ads alone. If you decide to include this meth-
od in your job search strategy, you need to research the type and availability of publications
in your specific field of interest. You can contact your lecturers, professionals in the field, or a
good bookstore to assist you in identifying what you seek.
21.3.4 CV mailing
You can, of course, send a copy of your CV to every conceivable employer that comes to mind.
This method of job hunting is, however, pointless and almost guaranteed to fail:
• “When doing a mass mailing, it is both very inefficient and ineffective to simply send out a
resume to any employer in your geographical area of interest” (http://www.legalauthority.
com/articles).
• “The statistics are that for every 1000 resumes you send to employers you can expect to get
two interviews” (http://www.positivelyminnesota.com/JobSeekers).
The most negative aspect of this strategy is the fact that you will feel as if you are working
extremely hard to get a job – after all, you have sent out 3000 CVs! – but have no success. The
result? You fall into the trap of thinking that there are no jobs out there, or that you are simply
not good enough to get a job.
21.3.5 Electronic job boards and career websites

There are an increasing number of electronic sites available on which you can post your CV.
These are extremely popular, and most probably here to stay. Unfortunately these sites very
seldom divulge hiring success rates and often create false expectations. The hard truth is that
these sites have a success rate of about four per cent. Because this needs to be discussed at
length, the issue of online job hunting will be covered in detail later in section 21.6.
There is a totally different approach to job hunting that is referred to as creative job search strat-
egies. These strategies focus on hidden jobs out there and allow you to identify opportunities
even before they are advertised.
21.3.6 Identify companies where you would like to work

Which companies will give you the opportunity to reach for and achieve your dream? You
need to research the companies that interest you carefully and thoroughly to find out which of
them is most likely going to offer you a job.
How does one go about this? It is a good idea to start from the general and work down to the
specific. You may, for example, start on newspaper business sections and find out what compan-
ies are involved in newsworthy activities. You may be able to identify a contribution that you can
make to their latest venture, or just learn a few names of executives or people with the clout to
hire you. You can visit the websites of these companies or their stalls at expos. At this stage, you
are looking for as much information about these companies and their business as you can find.
If you get the name of a person with hiring authority, you can create a customised, and impres-
sive, version of your CV and write a personalised covering letter addressed to that specific, liv-
ing, identifiable person. Customise and personalise by using the information that you have 269
worked hard to gather. It is also an option to make an appointment with this person and deliv-
er your CV personally. According to research, this method of job hunting yields up to 47 per
cent success (Bolles, 2002).
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PART IV BON VOYAGE
This method of job hunting takes a lot of time and effort. You cannot leave it until you are
desperate for a job. Start today! Make a list of the companies that you would like to explore
with your dream job in mind.
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____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
21.3.7 Volunteering
At the beginning of a career, it is often difficult to obtain the necessary experience to get a foot
into the corporate world. It might be worthwhile to consider doing voluntary work in your
chosen career field in order to accumulate much-needed experience. Volunteering will more
often than not bring you in touch with influential people who might know of a friend of a
friend who is looking for someone with your qualities. This is an option you should only con-
sider if you are really committed and have the time to be involved in volunteer work. Often
this will mean working after hours and on weekends.
Volunteering is invaluable for developing transferable skills and something that you can start
doing from your first year onwards. By the time you graduate, you will have three to four
years’ experience on your CV.
Identify opportunities for volunteer work that will help you obtain transferable skills and
build your network.
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21.3.8 Do not ignore small firms

It is well-documented that for almost the past three decades, two out of three jobs have been
created by companies with 100 employees or less. If you target small and medium enterprises
in your job search, chances are that it will be much easier to get face-to-face with the person
empowered to hire you. Often these companies are not as flooded with job seekers as big cor-
porations and the competition may be a little less stiff.
270 21.3.9 Networking

Almost all reputable books on job hunting and career planning have one thing in common:
they agree that networking is the most effective way of landing a job. According to Mahoney
(1992), networking refers to an informal exploration of possible opportunities by reaching out
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to other people for advice, information, feedback and referrals. Because this is such an import-
ant strategy, it will be discussed in detail in section 21.5.
21.3.10 Using a combination of reactive and proactive strategies

It is possible to use any combination of the strategies listed above in your job search. Remem-
ber there are jobs out there, and it is up to you to create a competitive edge for yourself in order
to find not just any job, but your dream job.
21.4 MAKING A CHECKLIST

At this point it may be a good idea for you to go through a personal checklist to see where in
the process you are and what you may still need to do in order to be a successful job hunter.
My personal job search checklist:

£ I have identified my dream job.
£ I have determined my long-term career goals.
£ I have developed short-term career goals.
£ I know my skills and abilities.
£ I have a database of achievements.
£ I have a general portfolio, which I can easily customise.
£ I have an electronic CV, which I can easily customise.
£ I can produce a shortened version of my CV in no time at all.
£ I have a record-keeping system for all correspondence regarding my career.
£ I have a list of companies which I am going to research.
£ I know how to develop my transferable skills.
£ I know what gives me the edge over other job seekers.
£ I have a clear idea of how to establish a network.
£ I know how to write a personalised covering letter.
£ I know the odds of using only one strategy in my job hunt.
£ I know that I need to take control over my career.
£ I am excited about my job search.
21.5 NETWORKING: YOUR MOST POWERFUL TOOL

Dorio (1995: 131) describes networking as the “systematic acquisition of contacts”. This defin-
ition has specific implications. For one, if something is systematic, it is also planned. Something
can only be planned if it has a clear goal. You cannot network if you do not have a clear picture
of your dream job. Secondly, “contacts” mean people. In order to network you need to get to
know people, you need to know about people and very importantly, people need to get to 271
know you.
As was said before, traditional job search methods usually focus on jobs that are “in the
open”, and you are fishing in a very shallow pond. Experts say that 80 per cent of jobs are
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PART IV BON VOYAGE
found through the hidden market, those informal communication channels that exist between
employers and job seekers. Networking gives you the opportunity to find out about unposted
openings and might give you a hand in obtaining one. Mahoney (1992: 77) says: “AND you get
to know about employment options that are not yet published, budget requisitions in the pipe-
line for authorisation, operating needs in departments that will shortly be the source of staffing
requests and problems that you could address as temporary consultant”.
Networking has been around since the early 1980s and many people feel that as a strategy, it
has been exhausted. However, it has proved a very successful tool. You just need to have a
subtle approach, maybe a new angle, for example doing volunteer work, instead of letting your
uncle put in a good word for you.
You can start off by asking family members, friends of the family, neighbours or members of
your community a simple question: “Do you maybe know about somebody who is looking to
hire somebody who can ... {name your skill(s)}?” If the answer is no, you might ask them to
help keep an eye and ear out there for you. The more people who know that you are looking
for a job, the better chance you have of being informed when something becomes available.
Make a list of the people that you might include in your network.
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21.6 JOB HUNTING ON THE INTERNET: FACTS AND MYTHS

The internet changed the world forever. It has also changed job hunting forever – or so it
seems, at least at the first glance. Hundreds of career sites have appeared during the last dec-
ade, all promising you the job of your dreams. You only need to take three easy steps: prepare
your CV, post your CV on whatever job board takes your fancy, and while you sleep, the won-
derful world of technology will find you a job. Unfortunately, on closer inspection, it is not all
that straightforward.
Experts seem to agree more and more that online job hunting is totally overrated and some
sources even indicate that if this is your only means of job hunting, you have a 96 per cent
chance of being unsuccessful in obtaining a position.
On his website, Richard Bolles states: “For most people who are job-hunting on the Internet,
this is where the rubber meets the road. When most people are job-hunting, their instinct is
272 to go directly to the job boards and see what is available. Some are richly rewarded; some are
bitterly disappointed. Clearly, this is not what the Internet does best when you are job-hunting;
even though it is probably what the Internet should do best” (http://www.JobHuntersBible.
com).
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A correspondent on emailresume.com makes the following contribution: “Networking is

where the majority of anyone’s job-search effort should be directed. I’d use the Internet to find
the opportunity and then aggressively get a ‘live’ contact to get me noticed”.
Something to think about ... if the information highway of the world, otherwise known as the
internet, is not the most successful way of hunting for a job, why do you think so many career
sites have emerged during the past few years? What would be an effective way of utilising this
resource?
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21.7 CONCLUSION: THE DOS AND DON’TS OF JOB HUNTING

In conclusion, let us have a last look at those important bits of information that can make your
job search so much easier and more exciting.
The dos:
• Know yourself and know your dream job.
• Gather all the information you possibly can on the world of work.
• Start networking today.
• Fine-tune your CV regularly and keep it up to date.
• Remember that no one owes you a job.
• Treat job hunting as a full-time job.
• Tell everybody who will listen what kind of job you would like to do.
• Remember that the more time you spend effectively, the better your chances of success.
• Volunteer.
• Keep your head up.
• Be persistent.
• Be patient.
• Be creative.
The don’ts
• Do not make use of only one job search strategy.
• Do not despair, getting a job takes time.
• Do not become desperate; rather spend your time volunteering. 273
• Do not wait until you have graduated to develop a plan for your career.
• Do not think that the tooth fairy will bring you a job if you wait long enough.
• Do not only focus on megacorporations in your job search.
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PART IV BON VOYAGE
R E FE R E N C E S
Bolles, R.N. 2002. What color is your parachute? A prac- Mahoney, M. 1992. Strategic resumes: writing for
tical manual for job-hunters and career-changers. 32nd results. Los Altos, CA: Crisp Publications.
ed. Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed Press.
Dorio, M. 1995. The complete idiot’s guide to getting the
job you want. New York: Alpha Books.
Bolles, R.N. 2012. What color is your parachute? A prac- Lees, J. 2003. How to get the job you’ll love: a practical
tical manual for job-hunters and career-changers. 40th guide to unlocking your talents and finding your ideal
ed. Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed Press. career. Berkshire, UK: McGraw-Hill Professional.
Bolt, L.G. 2003. How to find the work you love. London,
UK: Penguin.
W E BS I T E S
http://www.businessballs.com http://www.careers.com
http://www.forbes.com http://www.careercentre.dtwd.wa.gov.au
http://www.4u2work.co.za
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SLIDES
22 Making the job

interview work
for you
M E LI S S A BRO K E NSHA
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Interview preparation
22.5.2 Answering questions
22.2.1 Know yourself
22.5.3 Asking questions
22.2.2 Know the employer and the field
22.6 Post-interview
22.2.3 Practise for the interview
22.6.1 The follow-up
22.3 The interview
22.6.2 Interview afterthoughts
22.3.1 Dressing for the interview
22.6.3 Factors that can cost you the interview
22.3.2 Establishing rapport
22.7 Interview planner
22.3.3 Non-verbal communication and
body language 22.8 Conclusion
22.3.4 Interview etiquette References
22.4 Types of interview Additional reading
22.4.1 The screening interview
22.4.2 The selection interview O U T CO MES
22.4.3 The group interview After working through this chapter, you should
22.4.4 The panel interview n understand the interviewing process
22.4.5 Behaviour-based interviews – n be able to prepare yourself well for an interview
targeted selection n know the types of questions that may be asked
22.4.6 Psychometric testing n know the types of questions you can ask
22.5 Questions n demonstrate good interpersonal skills while in an
22.5.1 Guidelines for handling the interview
questions in a job interview n know how to follow up after an interview.
22.1 INTRODUCTION
Well done! You have finally been invited for a job interview. Based on your curriculum vitae 275
(CV), your qualifications appear to match those the employer is seeking in a candidate. The
next step is the interview, where you will have the opportunity to present yourself and your
skills to your best advantage.
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The CV tells the employer what you have done; the interview gives you the opportunity
to tell the employer what you have learned from what you have done.
In this chapter, we will explore the interview as a two-way conversation. You will see the
interview as a meeting between two parties for the exchange of information. The job interview
allows you to gain insight into the job and the organisation, as well as to determine whether
the company will give you the opportunities you seek. It also gives the employer the oppor-
tunity to determine if you have the skills, capabilities and level of experience needed for the
available position.
22.2 INTERVIEW PREPARATION

Whether or not you get offered the job often depends not on your qualifications or experience,
but on the way that you present yourself in the interview and the way in which you address
the questions asked.
Being prepared in advance has several advantages. Preparation is critical in portraying a posi-
tive and polished image and having a productive and successful interview. Before leaping
blindly into your first interview, there are three steps to take in order to prepare yourself: know
yourself, know the employer and the field, and practise for the interview.
22.2.1 Know yourself

It is time to sit down and do a little self-research. If you know what it is that you want, can do
and are good at, you will come across in a confident manner to the employer. If you have not
really thought about these aspects of yourself, you will hesitate when your answering and it
could indicate that you are not very sure of yourself or your direction or goals. Here is a list of
things you can consider:
• Think about your skills, interests and values.
• Consider your strengths and weaknesses.
• Be able to discuss decisions you have made and the thought process behind them.
• Identify achievements you are proud of and things you might have done differently.
• Provide examples to demonstrate how you have developed your skills.
• Be able to articulate why you are interested in this field.
• Define your long-term goals.
• Ask colleagues or friends / family to list some characteristics about you that they most
admire (work related).
22.2.2 Know the employer and the field

Many people forget to do this part of the preparation, yet it is vital. You need to do a bit of
homework and gather as much information about the employer or company as possible. Not
only will you appear informed and intelligent, it will also help you to make a decision if a job
offer is eventually made. You also need to learn as much as you can about the position. It is no
276 use accepting a potential job offer if you realise through your research that the position does
not offer what you want. Things you can consider:
• Research the employer, the position, and the industry or field.
• Know what salary range is usual for this type of position.
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MAKING THE JOB INTERVIEW WORK FOR YOU
22
• Read current articles and journals to learn about current trends in the field.
• Review mission statements, annual reports and company literature.
• Visit the company website.
• Think about the company’s competitors, its clients or customers.
• Be familiar with the company’s organisational structure.
22.2.3 Practise for the interview

This is the step that gives you that extra boost of confidence. You want to be spontaneous in
the interview, but you also need to appear self-confident. The way to do this is to rehearse, not
exactly what you will say, but how you will say it. There is a big difference between thinking
and writing about what you will say and actually saying it out aloud. The best way to do this is
to videotape yourself, or stand in front of a mirror:
• Study your posture and the way you make eye contact.
• Be aware of your body language and what it is conveying.
• Have a friend role-play the interview with you.
• Become aware of how you will talk to one person or to a group.
• Practise asking questions.
• Familiarise yourself with the vocabulary of the industry.
• Never use words whose definitions you do not understand.
22.3 THE INTERVIEW

This is where you are given the opportunity to expand on your CV. The employer hopes to
learn as much as possible about you in the interview. However, there is more to the interview
than just this. Let us take a look at the process that is involved.
22.3.1 Dressing for the interview

Whether we like it or not, our appearance speaks for us before we have even opened our
mouths. Therefore it is important that you consider how you should dress for the interview.
Generally you should be dressed smartly or appropriately for the context. This means no jeans
and takkies, hoodies or miniskirts. You cannot go wrong with a suit or jacket, but if you are not
sure, the best way is to match your dress to that of employees in the workplace in which you
are being interviewed, and then take it up a notch. To get a good idea of how people in a par-
ticular environment dress, visit the parking lot at the start or end of the work day.
Being well groomed also affects the interview process. Your hair should be clean, neat and
stylish. Your nails should be clean and trimmed. Your clothes should be clean and ironed. Most
importantly, wear deodorant. It is normal to be anxious before an interview, and unfortunately
we sweat when we are anxious. There is nothing worse than interviewing someone who has
bad body odour. If you are not sure, ask a good friend if you smell all right. However, perfume
or cologne should be avoided as some people find the scents offensive.
22.3.2 Establishing rapport

The interviewer will not only be looking at your skills, but also your personality. He or she
needs to assess whether you will fit into the organisation’s culture. Establishing rapport begins 277
the instant you walk through the door. Let the interviewer set the tone, wait for him or her to
offer his or her hand first and be ready to shake it. Try and mirror the interviewer’s behaviour
in a natural way – for example, if the interviewer is speaking softly, so should you. Part of
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PART IV BON VOYAGE
establishing rapport involves our non-verbal communication. Body language and facial expres-
sions can also assist in establishing rapport.
22.3.3 Non-verbal communication and body language

Take note of the following:
•
Eye contact. This is very important. If you have a habit of looking away while listening, it
shows a lack of interest and a short attention span. If you fail to maintain eye contact while
speaking, it shows a lack of confidence in what you are saying and can send out a subtle
message that you may be lying. Do not just assume that you have good eye contact. Ask
others if you lack eye contact. If they respond that indeed your eye contact is lacking, ask
them if it is while you are speaking or listening. Record and watch yourself if you can. Then
sit down with a friend and practise until you are comfortable maintaining sincere, continu-
ous eye contact. Be careful not to stare down your interviewer. It is normal to break eye con-
tact every three to four seconds and then resume.
•
Facial expressions. Many people are unaware of the look on their face during an interview.
Often they look sullen, bewildered, bored, dazed, or to the other extreme, mildly hysterical.
Take a good, long, hard look at yourself in the mirror. Look at yourself as others would.
What are your eyes doing, what is your mouth doing? Try to practise lightening up your
eyes, rather than allowing them to droop. Then add your winning feature, a smile – a genu-
ine smile that tells the interviewer that you are a happy person and delighted to be inter-
viewed by his company. A smiling, relaxed face is very inviting.
•
Posture. This often indicates your confidence and power potential. Stand tall, walk tall, and
most of all, sit tall. It is not your height that is important, but your posture. When you are
seated, make sure you sit at the front edge of the chair, leaning slightly forward, intent on
the subject at hand.
•
Gestures. Contrary to popular belief, gestures should be limited during the interview. When
you do use gestures, make sure they are sincere and appropriate. If you normally move your
hands a lot when talking, tone it down a bit. You do not want to look too stiff, but you do not
want to come across as a bundle of nervous energy either. Hands resting casually in your lap
rather than arms folded across your chest is more inviting.
Messages are conveyed during an interview by what you say and by how you say it. Posi-
tive non-verbal communication will reinforce your verbal message:
• Greet the employer with a firm handshake (there is nothing worse than being offered a
limp hand).
• Maintain steady eye contact with the interviewer.
• Use positive vocal qualities and facial expressions.
• Sit attentively to demonstrate your interest and enthusiasm.
• Dress in a suitable manner to convey a polished, professional image.
22.3.4 Interview etiquette

278
There are some rules, mostly unwritten, for the interview situation. Keep these in mind as they
could make or break your opportunity:
• Arrive on time, preferably 10–15 minutes early.
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• Bring a copy of your CV with you.

• Read the company materials (magazines, newsletters) while you wait.
• Introduce yourself, smile and give a firm handshake.
• Get the correct spelling and pronunciation of the person’s name and his or her exact title.
Ask for a business card.
• Do not call the interviewer by first name unless invited to do so.
• Do not ask about salary and benefits until the employer brings up the subject.
• Ask about the next step in the process.
• Thank the interviewer.
• Send a thank you note or email to the company or interviewer.
In the next section, we will take a closer look at the different types of interview you may
encounter.
22.4 TYPES OF INTERVIEW

22.4.1 The screening interview
This is usually your first interview with the employer and will probably be with someone from
the human resources department. It may take place in person or over the telephone. He or she
will have a copy of your CV and will be confirming the information on it with you and asking
for clarity on certain aspects. The human resources person will want to find out if you meet the
minimum requirements for the job, and if you do, you will be passed on to the next step.
22.4.2 The selection interview

At this stage, the employer knows that you have the necessary requirements and qualifications
for the job. The selection interview is used to find out more about you and whether you have
the personality necessary to “fit in”. Someone who cannot interact well with management and
colleagues may disrupt the functioning of an entire department. Many experts feel that this can
be determined within the first few minutes of an interview. This, however, is not the only rea-
son for the selection interview; it is also necessary when you have more than one person who
fits the requirements for the position. Often job candidates are invited back for several inter-
views with different people before a final decision is made.
22.4.3 The group interview

This takes place when the employer interviews more than one candidate at a time. The employ-
er groups together several job candidates and interviews them together. Here the interviewer
is trying to separate the leaders from the followers. This is a natural process for any group. It is
not necessarily a good thing or a bad thing to be a leader or a follower. It all depends on what
the interviewer is looking for. The interviewer may also be trying to find out if you are a “team
player”. The type of personality the interviewer is looking for determines the outcome of this
interview. There is nothing you can do except act naturally. Acting like a leader when you are
not one, may put you into a job for which you are not appropriate.
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22.4.4 The panel interview
In this type of interview, the candidate is usually interviewed by several people at once. It can
be quite intimidating because questions are fired at you and you need to establish some form
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PART IV BON VOYAGE
of rapport with more than one person. You should try to remain calm and establish eye contact
with each person on the panel.
Give specific behavioural examples that show clear evidence to back up what you are say-
ing.
22.4.5 Behaviour-based interviews – targeted selection

Many companies conduct interviews that focus on experiences, behaviours and dimensions
that are job related. Behaviour-based interviewing or “targeted selection” rests on the philoso-
phy that past behaviour (performance) predicts future behaviour (performance). Examples of
past behaviour may be drawn from courses, work experience, activities or internships.
Your answer to a behaviour-based question must tell a story by giving a specific example of
a situation you handled successfully. If your response is not specific, you will find the inter-
viewer will continue to ask questions, perhaps phrased in a different manner, until you have
provided concrete examples. The key to managing the behavioural interview is preparation:
• Decide what your chief skills or strengths are.
• Identify examples from your past experience where you demonstrated these skills.
• Be sure to recall dates, names, measurements of success, and other details that will convey
these realities to interviewers.
• Understand the job description for which you are being interviewed and be prepared to
recall specific actions and behaviours that address the skills needed in the job.
• Be prepared to answer questions such as:
– Tell me about the time you had to work for a difficult boss.
– Give me an example of where you took charge.
– Please describe a situation in which you were involved in a project as part of a team.
22.4.6 Psychometric testing

If you have been successful during your first-round interview and the employer is serious-
ly considering you for the position, he might call you in to complete a battery of tests. The
employer may also use these psychometric tests to identify the best candidate for the position,
if more than one was successful after the first round of interviews. Tests can be administrated
by computer, pencil and paper, and even via the internet. The tests give information to the
employer about your personality style, how you interact with other people, your thinking
style, your cognitive ability and much more. Certain tests may only be administered and inter-
preted by a registered psychometrist or psychologist.
You should always answer the questions honestly. Do not try to guess what the employer is
looking for; you may be completely wrong and rule yourself out of the running. Some tests
have a built-in moderator that checks if you have faked positively (putting yourself in too good
a light) or faked negatively (putting yourself in too negative a light). People often find psycho-
metric tests a little bit daunting. You really have no need to worry. With many of the tests,
except the cognitive tests, there is no wrong or right answer.
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22.5 QUESTIONS
When it comes down to it, this is the main point of the interview. To answer questions appro-
priately, remember the guidelines that follow.
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22.5.1 Guidelines for handling the questions in a job interview

During an interview, do the following:
• Listen carefully. If you feel the question is unclear, ask politely for clarification.
• Pause before answering to consider all facts that may substantiate your response.
• Always offer positive information.
• Get directly to the point. Ask if the listener would like you to go into great detail before you
do.
• Discuss only the facts needed to respond to the question.
• Do not open yourself up to areas of questioning that could pose difficulties for you.
• Be truthful, but do not offer unwanted information.
• Focus and refocus attention on your successes.
22.5.2 Answering questions

Before attending a job interview, you should think about your responses to the following ques-
tions. Your answers may depend on the job or company in question, so you should go through
your responses just before each interview:
•
Why do you want this job? Think carefully about this question. Stress the positive aspects
that attracted you to applying for this position. Do not mention the negative aspects of your
current job or the job in question.
•
What qualities do you think will be required for this job? Their advertisement for the job
may help you a bit, but you should also think of the other qualities that may be required.
These may include leadership ability, supervisory skills, communication skills, interpersonal
skills, problem solving, analytical skills, etc.
•
What can you contribute? This is your chance to shine! Tell them about your achievements
in your previous positions which are relevant to the new position for which you are apply-
ing, and describe your speciality or main focus area.
•
Why do you want to work for this company? Emphasise the positive reasons why you want
to join their company, but avoid aspects such as money or shorter hours.
•
What do you know about this company? This is your chance to impress the interviewer
with your knowledge of their company. Give them a rundown of their products / services,
sales figures, news, company figures, customers, etc. They are also checking to see if you are
motivated enough to do some homework. If you can address how the corporate culture fits
your personality and the type of person it hires, you will make an impression.
•
What interests you about our product / service? Again, your research into the company
should help you with this question.
•
What can we (the new company) offer that your previous company cannot offer? Tread
carefully here. Again, do not mention money as the main reason. Stress opportunities for
personal growth, new challenges, etc.
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•
Tell me about yourself. Do not tell the interviewer where you were born and raised. Focus
on your education and experience. Ask yourself: what are the top five things I want this per-
son to know about me?
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•
What do you see yourself doing five years from now? The interviewer wants to hear some-
thing related to business. He or she does not want to hear that you want to have a holiday
abroad or have three children. This question is designed to help the interviewer find out if
the applicant will be happy in that position or if he or she wants to work in it only for as long
as it takes to find something better.
•
What is your greatest strength? Do not just talk about your strength, relate it to the position.
•
What is your greatest weakness? Be prepared for this question and phrase your answer in
a positive, proactive manner, for example: “I would say my greatest weakness has been my
lack of proper planning in the past. I would overcommit myself with too many tasks, then
not be able to fully accomplish each as I would like. However, I have taken steps to correct
this. I now carry a diary with me, so that I can plan all my appointments and ‘to do’ items”.
Or, you could say something like, “I am not a very organised person, and so I have to plan
my day. I always answer my emails and phone calls right away. I am aware of the problem
and have strategies to deal with it.”
•
Tell me about a time when you had to resolve a problem with no rules or guidelines in
place. The interviewer is probably looking for initiative in solving the problem.
•
Can you prove that you have the ability to learn and apply information? Discuss different
types of technical or theoretical knowledge you have acquired. Emphasise when and how
you acquired it, particularly if you did it in your own time, on your own initiative.
•
How would you demonstrate effective problem-solving skills? Give the interviewer two
or three past examples of challenges you faced, what you did to solve the problem and the
result.
•
Demonstrate how you would plan and execute projects. Again, mention past examples, but
this time emphasise the process you used. Give concrete examples of how you planned pro-
jects, worked around roadblocks and obstacles, and solved problems.
•
Demonstrate how you would get things done through people. Share examples of working
with team members, customers or clients to get things done or to resolve disagreements.
Include details of how you interacted with the team, organised work, clarified each person’s
role, and got everyone to work together to solve a difficult problem. You should stress the
benefits of team work.
•
Why do you think it is important to get along with people and work closely with them?
The interviewer is searching specifically for your people skills. Stress the importance of
cooperating with colleagues and bosses, and the value of accepting criticism.
•
Do you consider yourself a motivated person? Organisations like people who give them the
most for their money. That means hiring people who think work activities are very import-
ant. It is about what you can do for the company, not what the company can do for you.
•
Can you give examples that show your motivation? Show how you are conscientious about
your work, giving examples of quality and caring. Inform them of the time when you went
above and beyond job expectations.
282 •
How do you know this job is right for you? To plan for this question, make a list of jobs
you liked the most or least, and the reasons why. Focus on work conditions like freedom
vs structure, casual vs formal, independent vs team orientated, innovative vs conventional.
You need to know what you like and dislike before you can answer the question.
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Sample questions that you may be asked in an interview

• What do you know about our company?
• Why should we hire you?
• What can you do for us that someone else cannot?
• What do you look for in a job?
• What skills and qualifications are essential for success in the position of ____________?
• How long would it take for you to make a meaningful contribution?
• Describe your management style.
• What do you believe is the most difficult part of being a supervisor of people?
• Why are you looking for a new career?
• How would your colleagues describe you?
• How would your boss describe you?
• How would you describe yourself?
• What do you think of your present or past boss?
• What were the five most significant accomplishments in your last assignment?
• What are the five most significant accomplishments in your career so far?
• Can you work well to deadlines or under pressure?
• What salary or remuneration do you expect if we offer you this position?
• Why do you want to work for us?
• What other positions are you considering?
• Have you kept up in your field with additional training?
• What are your career goals?
• What are your strong points?
• What are your weak points?
• How did you do in school?
• What position do you expect to have in two to five years?
• If you took the job, what would you accomplish in the first year?
• What is / was wrong with your current or last position?
• What kind of hours are you used to working or would you like to work?
• Do you have your reference list with you? (Do not give it out unless it is requested. You
do not want to look over-eager to validate yourself.)
• What questions did I not ask that you expected?
• If you could have your choice of any job, what would it be and why?
• Why do you want to go into this field?
• What are your short- and long-range goals and how do you expect to achieve them?
• What does success mean to you? How do you measure it?
• What motivates you?
• Do you plan to further your education? If so, to what extent? 283
• What have you done to improve yourself during the past year?
• If you could relive the last 15 years, what changes would you make?
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• What do you consider your greatest achievement and greatest disappointment?

• What are some of your weaknesses?
• Tell me about the best and worst bosses you have ever had.
• What constructive criticism have you received from employers?
• What else do you think I should know about you?
• When did you leave your last job and why?
• How long have you been out of work?
• What have you been doing since you left your last job?
• What did you like most and least about your last job?
• At your last job, how much of the work did you perform independently?
• At your last job, how much was performed by a team?
• Do you prefer working independently or as part of a team?
• What are some of the problems you have encountered in your past jobs?
• How did you solve the problems?
• Have you ever offered suggestions to management? How did management respond?
• What prevented you from advancing in your former positions?
• What could you contribute to our facility?
• If you feel you have any weaknesses with regard to this job, what would they be?
• What do you expect to experience in this job that you did not experience in your past
jobs?
• Assuming we make you an offer, what do you see as your future here?
• How do you feel about evening work? Weekend work?
• Are you considering other positions at this time?
• How does this job compare with them?
• What is your leadership style?
• How do you feel about relocating?
• Are you switching careers?
• You do not have a degree or diploma. Why should we hire you?
• You do not have the necessary experience or background for this position. Why do you
believe that you could handle it?
• Since you are overqualified for this position, what do you hope to gain from it?
• What are your financial needs?
• What is the minimum salary you will accept?
• What is your salary history?
22.5.3 Asking questions

It is important to remember that this is a two-way process. Just as the interviewer needs to
284 find out information about you to see whether you fit the job, you need to find out information
about the company and position to see whether the job fits you. You need to prepare a few
questions before the time. There is nothing worse than when an interviewer asks if you have
any questions and you say, “Uh, um, I don’t really have any.”
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You should ask about what a typical day would entail. You could also ask what special pro-
jects you would be working on. By doing this, you are trying to show the employer how you
can fill the company’s needs. By asking about a typical day on the job and special projects, you
are putting yourself in the job and showing the employer how you will satisfy the employer’s
needs. Ask about the company’s direction and stability, why people stay or leave the organisa-
tion, and where the department is going.
The money question: Do not ask questions about salary, benefits and leave. These questions
should be asked after an offer is made. However, the interviewer might bring it up first and in
this case you need to be prepared for it. Find out what others in the same position are earning.
Always give a range, not an exact number. This will keep you from pricing yourself out of a
job.
Sample questions to ask during an interview

These questions are meant to help you prepare for the interview. Some questions may or
may not be appropriate for your interviewing situation:
• Why is this position open?
• How often has it been filled in the past five years? What were the main reasons for this?
• What would you like done differently by the next person who fills this position?
• What are some of the objectives you would like to see accomplished in this job?
• What is most pressing? What would you like to have done in the next three months?
• What are some of the long-term objectives you would like to see completed?
• What are some of the more difficult problems one would have to face in this position?
• How do you think these could best be handled?
• What type of support does this position receive in terms of people and finances?
• What freedom would I have in determining my own work objectives, deadlines, and
methods of performance measurement?
• What advancement opportunities are available for the person who is successful in this
position, and within what time frame?
• In what ways has this organisation been most successful in terms of products and servi-
ces over the years?
• What significant changes do you foresee in the near future?
• How is one evaluated in this position?
• What accounts for success within the company?
• What is the size of the division, sales volume and earnings?
• Does the company plan to expand?
• What are the significant trends in the industry?
• Who is the owner, chief executive or president?
• What is his or her character and how does this influence the organisation?
• How does the organisation rank within its field?
• What is the public image of the company?
• What is the reputation of the department to which I am applying?
• What are the greatest problems of this department and company?
• What are the greatest strengths of this department and company?
285
• What responsibilities have the highest priority?
• How much time should be devoted to each area of responsibility?
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• How might these responsibilities and priorities change?

• What qualifications are you looking for in the person who fills this job?
• What are the initial projects for which I would be responsible?
• What are some examples of the achievements of others who have been in this position?
• How much travel is involved?
• Why is this job not being filled from within?
• What is the history of this position?
• Where are the people who held this job previously now?
• How soon do you expect to make a decision?
• If I am offered the position, how soon will you need my response?
• To whom would I report?
• What is your management style?
• What are the benefits and perks?
• What is the salary range?
• What is my earning potential in one, three, five, and ten years?
22.6 POST-INTERVIEW
22.6.1 The follow-up
This is something that is often neglected but could help you stand apart from the rest. It is
important to send a thank you note, email or follow-up letter. Send it promptly after your
interview, expressing enthusiasm and appreciation. It is your chance to reiterate something
you mentioned in the interview or bring up a point you neglected to mention in the interview.
It is also a nice gesture and a simple matter of politeness.
22.6.2 Interview afterthoughts

If you are managing to get invited to interviews, but are not landing yourself the offer, you
need to look carefully at your interview performance. It is a positive sign that you are at least
getting the interviews; this shows that your CV and qualifications are working for you. A
post-interview assessment can help improve your interview technique and continue to build
your confidence and skills.
You should try and get as much feedback as possible from the people who interviewed you. If you
have been unsuccessful in obtaining a job, call the interviewer and ask him or her where he or she
thinks you went wrong and how he or she thinks you could do better. Once you have feedback,
you can modify your interview technique and hopefully do better at the next interview.
Discuss the interview with someone who listens well and can be honest with you about how
you can improve on your interview skills. Ask yourself what your strengths were in the inter-
view, what did not go as planned, and what you can do differently next time. Of course, we
must not forget that to be good at something we need to practise. Consider your first few inter-
views as practice rounds for the big one.
286 22.6.3 Factors that can cost you the interview

Watch out for the following:
• Being unprepared for the interview – it stops you from feeling confident
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22
• Poor or limp handshake

• Saying unfavourable things about previous employers
• Not being able to communicate clearly and effectively
• Excessive talking combined with arrogance – trying to prove how smart you are
• Being aggressive or acting in a superior way
• Not giving the interviewer a chance to ask questions
• Not giving the interviewer enough information – the interviewer is left with a feeling of try-
ing to get blood from a stone
• Making excuses for failures
• Lacking focus – you come across as a jack of all trades, which can sometimes indicate a lack
of direction
• References shooting you down – consider carefully who you list as your referees
• Wanting too much money – you may come across as caring more about salary and benefits
than about making a contribution
• Failing to understand responsibilities of the job position
22.7 INTERVIEW PLANNER

This planner will help you to prepare for your interviews. It helps you remember key facts,
such as your major accomplishments, and questions or concerns. Do not read from the sheet.
Keep it handy; go through it just before your interview and perhaps towards the end of the
interview, you may want to review it, to make sure that you have mentioned everything that
you wanted to mention.
Interview Major Management or Things you need to

information accomplishments work style know about me
Date: 1. 1. 1.
Name: 2. 2. 2.
Title: 3. 3. 3.
Company: 4. 4. 4.
Telephone: 5. 5.
Fax: 6. 6.
Cell:
Email:
Reason I left last job Answers to difficult My strengths and Questions to ask
questions weaknesses interviewer
1. 1. 1.
2. 2. 2.
3. 3. 3.
4. 4.
5.
6.
Things I can do for What I wore (to prevent wearing the same clothing repeatedly)
you
287
1.
2.
3.
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PART IV BON VOYAGE
22.8 CONCLUSION
You should understand now that firstly your preparation and secondly how you present your-
self during a job interview can determine whether you acquire employment or not – irrespec-
tive of what your abilities or qualifications are. It is therefore worth your while to prepare well
and practise some of the aspects discussed. You can make the job interview work for you. It is
not the time to be humble and self-defeating but rather an opportunity to promote yourself in a
positive and constructive manner.
R E FE R E N C E S
Career Development Centre. 2004. Available at: edu/topic.jhtml?t=career_effectiveness (accessed

http://rock.careers.csulb.edu/interview_tech- on 7 May 2004).
niques.html (accessed on 7 May 2004). Weinstein, B. 2001. Brace yourself for the behavioural
Hiatt Career Centre. 2003. Available at: http://www. interview. Available at: http://www.itworld.com/
brandeis.edu/hiatt/ (accessed on 7 May 2004). Career/1834/ITW010426interview5/ (accessed on
Morgan, N. 2003. Working knowledge. Sharpen your 7 May 2004).
job interview skills. Available at: http://hbswk.hbs.
McLintock-Rudnick, C. 2001.The business of becoming Yate, M.J. 2001. Great answers to tough interview ques-
employed: a guide for South African job seekers. Cape tions. London: Kogan Page.
Town: Spearhead.
288
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SLIDES
23 Work ethics and

professional
behaviour in the
workplace
LYNNE M ALAN
THE C HAPT E R AT A G LA N C E
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Ethics at work
23.2.1 Definition of ethics
23.7 Conclusion
23.2.2 Where do my ethics come from?
Reference
23.2.3 Definition of “work ethics”
Additional reading
23.3 Professionalism at work
23.3.1 How can you encourage professional
O U T CO MES
behaviour in others?
23.3.2 How do you promote professional After working through this chapter, you should be
behaviour in yourself? able to
23.3.3 What is unprofessional behaviour? n understand the concept of work ethics and pro-
23.4 What are the grounds for dismissal? fessionalism
23.5 Expectations at the workplace n understand the formation and origin of ethics
23.5.1 What do employers expect of you? n understand the relationship between work and
23.5.2 What are your expectations of your personal ethics, integrity and career success
employers? n gauge the expectations of employers
23.6 How do you learn what the organisation’s n determine personal expectations
ethics are? n understand organisational culture and ethics.
23.1 INTRODUCTION
Congratulations! You survived the job interview and the job is all yours. Now it is time to show
everybody what you are made of. This is where your skills – not only your academic skills
but also your personal and interpersonal skills – become important. You will need to adapt to 289
your new working environment, meet new people and make use of the knowledge that you
acquired in your studies. Your employer will expect you to be able to do the required work and
to do this work efficiently and with a positive attitude.
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PART IV BON VOYAGE
Personal skills refer to how well you manage yourself and how you deal with life. This
refers to aspects like how well you manage stress, conflict and disappointment. Interper-
sonal skills refer to how you interact and communicate with other people. Both of these
concepts are linked and have a huge impact on each other.
The following two concepts will play a vital role in your success in your chosen career and
your behaviour in the workplace: work ethics and professionalism.
23.2 ETHICS AT WORK

23.2.1 Definition of ethics
Ethics can be defined as a set of rules or standards that regulate our lives and that we use
to make decisions. Each individual has his or her own personal ethics and what is important
to one person may not be important to another. Our ethics help us to decide what we see as
right or wrong, and can dictate the direction of our lives. Our personal ethics will also have an
impact on how we see life and how we treat people.
The following are some examples of ethics:
• The winner takes it all.
• I will do anything to get all the credit.
• I will keep my personal issues separate from my work.
• Teamwork is the most important thing.
• I will not participate in dishonest activities.
What is your personal code of ethics?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
23.2.2 Where do my ethics come from?

Our own personal code of ethics usually comes from our families, the people we interact
with and our upbringing. The experiences that we have in life and the type of future that we
envision for ourselves also have an impact.
Ethics change as we change, and very often our personal ethics shift as we experience things in
life and our view of the world expands. Consider the following:
• Have your personal ethics changed over the years?
290 • Which ones have changed?
• Why have they changed?
• Is there anything in your current code of ethics that you feel needs to be changed and why?
• Who or what has had an impact on your personal ethics?
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WORK ETHICS AND PROFESSIONAL BEHAVIOUR IN THE WORKPLACE
23
23.2.3 Definition of “work ethics”

”Work ethics” refers to the type of behaviour that we exhibit at work as well as the principles
that govern our behaviour at work. Our work ethics will have an impact on how we approach
the work that we do and how we feel about the work that we do. Remember, your work ethics
will not only play a role in how well you perform your work, but will also have an impact on
how your employer views you and rates your potential.
The following are examples of work ethics:
• I will work hard and give it my all every day.
• I will only work hard if I get a big salary.
• I am only working to make a salary.
• Why do things today when I can do them tomorrow?
• My clients all deserve my attention.
• My work ends strictly at 5 pm.
What are your work ethics? Why do you feel this way?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Why is it important to know what your work ethics are?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
23.3 PROFESSIONALISM AT WORK

Professional work behaviour refers to a very specific way of behaving in your workplace. It
also refers to the attitude that you have about your work and how you approach your work.
Your ethics will have a definite impact on whether or not you act in a professional manner.
Professionalism also refers to a desire to want to do your work well.
Professionalism is also dependent on job satisfaction. If you are happy in your career, it is often
easier to act in a professional manner. When you are unhappy and feeling demotivated, profes- 291
sionalism requires sustained effort and energy, and it is harder to look past personal difficul-
ties and see the needs of others. It is therefore of huge importance to make sure that you place
yourself in a career or job that you are passionate about.
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PART IV BON VOYAGE
According to Maister (1997), professionalism is not a label that you give to yourself, but rather
something that you hope people will give to you. He further states that professionalism is not
about money, but rather about the dedication to offering excellent service to customers.
Maister (1997) considers professional behaviour to include
• being on time for appointments
• smiling at clients
• helping even if it not in your job description
• returning people’s calls
• completing tasks on time
• taking pride in your work
• showing personal commitment
• showing and taking the initiative
• doing whatever it takes to get the job done
• always looking for ways to make things easier for people
• being eager to learn and take on new challenges
• listening to the needs of others
• being a team player
• being responsible and trustworthy
• being open to constructive critique
• looking for ways to improve
• keeping personal issues separate from work issues.
23.3.1 How can you encourage professional behaviour in others?

According to Maister (1997), the following steps can be taken:
• Show appreciation for exceptional behaviour.
• Give people assignments and let them try again with some pointers if they fail.
• Get people involved in conversations about the big picture and how everybody fits into it.
• Take the time to help people learn and pass on your skills.
• Recognise all members of a team, not only the team leader, and in that way you will also
promote a positive attitude towards teamwork.
Can you add to this list?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
292 23.3.2 How do you promote professional behaviour in yourself?

Often we are not aware of our own behaviour. This is why it is important that if we get feed-
back from a work colleague indicating that we are not acting in a professional manner, we give
some serious consideration to what has been said and not simply dismiss it.
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23
If you are concerned about your behaviour, or if it has been mentioned, you should reflect on
the following:
• The attitude that you have towards your career or job
• Why you are in this career or job
• Your feelings about your career or job
• What is influencing your behaviour at work
Once you have done this, you need to decide on practical and concrete changes to make to
your life and then implement them, keeping in mind that there may be certain things about
your workplace that you cannot change.
23.3.3 What is unprofessional behaviour?

Unprofessional behaviour can be described as any type of behaviour that creates difficul-
ties and tension in the workplace and with your client. It has a negative impact on the work
environment, the quality of the product or service on offer, the client and also your colleagues.
Some examples of unprofessional behaviour are the following:
• Poor work quality
• Being late for work on a chronic basis
• Dishonesty
• Stealing
• Disrespectful attitude towards clients and colleagues
• Not returning phone calls
• Not giving the clients the correct information
• Not being helpful
Can you add anything to the list?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
23.4 WHAT ARE THE GROUNDS FOR DISMISSAL?

Although organisations differ, as do the procedures that a company follows when dismissing
an employee, there are a few behaviours we can highlight that may lead to dismissal at most
companies. You may notice that many characteristics of unprofessional behaviour are also
grounds for dismissal. Examples are as follows:
• Sexual harassment
• Stealing
• Poor work quality 293
• Poor customer service
• Disrespect for superiors
• Chronic lateness
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PART IV BON VOYAGE
23.5 EXPECTATIONS AT THE WORKPLACE

23.5.1 What do employers expect of you?
It is always important to remember that once you have been employed, your employer has cer-
tain expectations of you. Your employer will want you to show a positive work ethic and to be
professional at all times. Other expectations may be as follows:
• Good interpersonal skills, e.g. the ability to relate to your colleagues and treat them in a
respectful manner
• Acting assertively and not aggressively
• Good stress management skills
• Good conflict management skills
• Being able to solve problems creatively
• Being calm and acting in a calm manner
• A willingness to learn
• Taking the initiative and not always waiting to be told what to do
• Making good use of resources
• Being able to prioritise and organise
• Being able to express your ideas
• Being able to work with constructive critique
• Managing your time well
• Being enthusiastic
• Being able to listen to and execute instructions
23.5.2 What are your expectations of your employers?

Not only do your employers have expectations of you, but you also have expectations of them.
It is important to figure out what your expectations are and to evaluate whether or not they are
realistic. Some realistic expectations include the following:
• Mutual respect
• To be treated with dignity
• To be paid a fair wage
• Mutual transparency
• Promotion possibilities
• Training opportunities
What are your expectations?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
294
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
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23
23.6 HOW DO YOU LEARN WHAT THE ORGANISATION’S ETHICS ARE?

Learning about the organisations ethics is actually quite simple. All you need to do is observe
your colleagues’ behaviour. It is important to see how difficulties and challenges are managed,
how people are treated and the role of teamwork in the organisation. It is also important to get
a sense of what the company’s vision and mission are. Make sure that you are also aware of
how disciplinary matters are dealt with and the disciplinary processes that are involved in this.
23.7 CONCLUSION
Now that you have thought about work ethics, professionalism and expectations, take some
time to reflect on your thoughts. What is your opinion on this chapter? What are your work
ethics and your career? Why have you chosen your specific career? Are you willing to act in a
professional manner? What motivates your behaviour?
By answering these questions, reflecting on your own behaviour and making the necessary
changes to how you see things and how you behave, you can make your entry into the work-
ing world smooth and problem free.
R EFE R E N C E
Maister, D.H. 1997. True professionalism: the courage to care about your people, your clients and your career. New
York: Free Press.
295
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FLASHCARDS
GLOSSARY ON THE GO
GLOSSARY
ad hominum the personal character of the source ly centres on such basic feelings as love, fear,
is attacked in an effort to discredit the source, anger, sorrow, anxiety, frustration and depres-
rather than discrediting the argument sion, and involves the understanding, empathy
achievement goal orientation theory the type of and support of one person for another
goal towards which a person is working has a empathy the ability to understand and share the
tremendous impact on how he or she pursues feelings of another
the goal ethics a set of rules or standards that regulate
analytical thinking critical thinking (see below) our lives and that we use to make decisions
that includes assessing information for its fallacy an unsound argument (see above) that
accuracy, sound reasoning and logic, and hid- uses deception and / or emotional appeals to
den assumptions try to persuade us
argument a set of claims (see below) happiness a general sense of satisfaction with
binge drinking drinking more than five alcohol- life and experiencing more positive than nega-
ic drinks per occasion tive emotions
claims declarative sentences or statements that inductive reasoning the line of reasoning moves
can be true or false from the specific to the general
collaboration trying to achieve a resolution to a interpersonal relationship an association
situation / problem that meets each person’s between two or more people that may range in
duration from brief to enduring
needs as much as possible
interpersonal skills how you interact and com-
communication roadblocks anything that stops
municate with other people
communication, breaks it down or hinders the
process life skills skills that we use every day to com-
municate and interact with other people, indi-
conflict a strong disagreement between two or
vidually and / or in groups
more individuals, usually in relation to inter-
ests or ideas that are personally meaningful to long-term memory the memory system where
either one or all of them memories are stored and held for long per-
iods of time; it has an unlimited capacity and
creativity the process of producing something enables us to remember very large amounts of
that is both original and worthwhile information
critical thinking thinking that is reasonable and memorisation the act of committing something
reflective, and directed at deciding what to (anything) to memory
believe or do
mindful grieving the art of not engaging with
curriculum vitae (CV) a document two or three the constant flow of thoughts overwhelming
pages long that summarises your education, your mind
skills, achievements and work experience
networking the purposeful acquiring of contacts
deductive reasoning the line of reasoning com- both professionally and personally – getting to
mences with the general and moves to the know people and letting people get to know
specific you
drug dependence the repeated use of drugs non-verbal communication the process whereby
296 resulting in psychological or physical depend- a person conveys a message by means of sig-
ence and tolerance nals or body language
emotional need a psychological or mental optimism the tendency to be hopeful and confi-
requirement of intrapsychic origin that usual- dent about oneself and the future
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GLOSSARY
peer pressure when friends influence and short-term memory the memory system which
encourage a young person to take drugs in stores information over very brief intervals of
order to be accepted time, usually only seconds or a few hours
personality traits behavioural tendencies SMART specific, measurable, attainable,
personality type the psychological classification relevant, time bound
of different types of individuals stress the body’s reactions to any demands made
personal skills how well you manage yourself upon it
and how you deal with life study sheet a complete set of notes – a combin-
pessimism the tendency to expect that the worst ation of lecture and textbook notes, research
will come to pass information and your own ideas
physical drug dependence the body adapts to substance abuse acquiring drugs illegally and
a drug to the point where it cannot function using them excessively, too much over too
unless the drug is taken, or it needs increased long a period, for other than medical purposes
dosages to function; if the drug is not taken the success the progressive realisation of a worthy
body gets withdrawal symptoms goal or ideal
portfolio a well-organised collection of docu- summary a short written version of a larger text
ments that can serve as proof of the statements transferable skills skills developed in one con-
you make in your curriculum vitae (CV) (see text that can be applied in another work con-
above) text
post-traumatic stress symptoms of stress occur trauma an experience that involves actual injury
for days after the incident, but do not exceed a or death, or a threat of injury or death
month
trigger words keywords that “trigger” your
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) when the memory by enabling you to remember other
symptoms of post-traumatic stress are present supporting details of the topic
for a period of at least one month
unprofessional behaviour any type of behav-
procrastination putting things off / postpon- iour that creates difficulties and tension in the
ing / deferring something until a future time workplace and with your client
psychological debriefing the victim of trauma values opinion of what is good or bad, generally
speaks about the factual experiences, and asso- passed down from parents or through culture;
ciated feelings and reactions, after exposure to an enduring belief that a specific mode of con-
a traumatic incident duct is preferable
psychological drug dependence a strong desire verbal communication the process of conveying
for the sensation a drug produces, such as ela- a message by speech from one person to
tion, stimulation or sedation another
résumé a one-page, concise summary of your work ethics the type of behaviour that we exhib-
qualifications and experience it at work as well as the principles that govern
self-efficacy one’s belief in one’s ability to com- our behaviour at work
plete a certain task or achieve a specific goal
self-esteem the value that people place on them-
selves
297
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FLASHCARDS
GLOSSARY ON THE GO
Student resources
The following student resources have been created for distribution to your students:
 Flashcards
 Glossary-on-the-go
Flashcards
 The glossary terms have been supplied as Flashcards for student use.
 Students can download and read from most devices, including: PCs, Tablets and Smart
phones. All they have to do is download a PDF reader (Recommend Adobe Reader (PC and
mobile versions available) and download the file. Best suited for tablets and Smart phones.
 Navigate through the file by using the bookmarks or the hyperlinked List of terms.
 The flashcards may be printed out and we recommend that students select a 2x4 setting and
use the cut and fold lines to create hard-copy versions.
These files can be downloaded and distributed to all students who are using Life skills –my journey,
my destiny second edition as their prescribed textbook.
Glossary-on-the-go
 The glossary terms have been supplied as an eBook.
 Students can download and read from most devices, including: PCs, Tablets and Smart
phones. All they have to do is download an ePUB reader (Recommend Bluefire [available for
IOS and Android devices) and download the file
(http://www.adobe.com/solutions/ebook/digital-editions/download.html). Best suited for
tablets and Smart phones.
 Navigate through the file by using the bookmarks or the hyperlinked List of terms.
These files can be downloaded and distributed to all students who are using Life skills –my journey,
my destiny second edition as their prescribed textbook.
For any queries or comments please contact the Van Schaik Publisher’s digital department at
digital@vanschaiknet.com

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Welcome

Your Lecturer’s Copy includes the following features:

* FUNCTIONALITY OF THIS EBOOK IS DEPENDENT ON THE EREADER USED

Integrated supplementary material

Figures and tables

Elmarie van Heerden-Pieterse

First edition 2005

ISBN 978 0 627 02953 0

eISBN 978 0 627 03045 1

Commissioning editor Marike von Moltke

Website addresses and links were correct at time of publication.

After all, it is your journey and it is your destiny.

By all means, start painting.

Only you can.

About the contributors

Henry Mason is a practitioner at the Tshwane University of Technology focusing on trauma,

Ivy Sarah Morulane is a practitioner at the Tshwane University of Technology specialising in

Stephan Potgieter is a psychologist specialising in student counselling who provides special-

PART I A JOURNEY TO PERSONAL SUCCESS

Section 2 Obstacles on the journey

4 Diversity and change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Section 3 Enjoying the journey

7 Travel companions: interpersonal relationships that work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

9 Substance abuse: detour or dead end . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

PART II FIRST DESTINATION – ACADEMIC SUCCESS

11 Critical and analytical thinking in higher education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

Section 5 Pit stop: check your classroom skills

14 Manage the workload: summarising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

16 Managing assignments and assessments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

18 Trauma debriefing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

PART IV BON VOYAGE

21 Job search and self-marketing strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266

22 Making the job interview work for you . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

23 Work ethics and professional behaviour in the workplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

1.2 GOALS AND MOTIVATION

1.3 SOME GOLDEN RULES FOR SMART GOALS

Rule 1: Goals must motivate us.

Example Your response

“Acquire an excellent job with good remunera- What is your goal?

f) To have control of the study contents I must ___________________________________

Rule 2: Goals must be smart.

S Specific Clear, well defined, precise and specific (not vague)

A Attainable Not easy, but achievable; realistic, but challenging

Rule 3: Goals must be written down.

Mindtools (2013) gives two tips on writing a goal:

Rule 4: Develop an action plan.

Strengths How to sustain By whom? When? Review date

Disciplined Keep working on Tebo Daily Weekly review of

Motivated Keep focus, visit Tebo End of first After predicate

Healthy Continue with daily Tebo Daily and End of every

Good in Study the tables to Tebo Three-hour Practical exam on

Strengths How to sustain By whom? When? Review date

Objectives Actions to take Others Achieve by Review date

Achieve Pass subjects Self November of Year end

Do in-service training Self Second June

Secure a Update CV Self January next November this

Improve teamwork Self

Objectives Actions to take Others Achieve by Review date

1.4 MYTHS ABOUT GOAL SETTING

Total: Yes answers No answers