ZIT@LTIWAT GAH OB@AHITOB W^AHTJB^

OLOBHWRO

@arbha arus afirah nbrat olfbdufar rbhgam, sijat jisis yahc obhahgai pbonatasah itu `b
arus agafam vis`lsitas. Olobhtuo gapat kuca gitrahsjbr lfbm cbra`ah dairah duram gah
munuhcah trahsjbr olobhtuo agafam sbnahgihc
sbnah gihc gbhcah rapat jfuiga (gbhsitas).

1.1 MR@RO
MR@RO HBSWLH
HBSWLH WBHWAH
WBHWAHC
C ZIT@LT
ZIT@LTIWA
IWAT
T (W^AHT
(W^AHTJB^
JB^ OLOBHW
OLOBHWRO
RO
OLFB@RF)

@itaa obhuhk
@it obhuhku``
u``ah
ah sbpasa
sbpasahc
hc pfat
pfat parafb
parafbff nbsar,
nbsar, oasihc
oasihc-oa
-oasih
sihc
c gbhcah
gbhcah arba
arba A, yahc
gipisam`ah lfbm suatu kara` Y. Gi gafao ruahc giahtara gua maf giatas agafam obhcafir
nai` suatu cas oaupuh suatu dairah. Tistbo ihi paga awafhya paga plsisi giao, tbtapi
paga wa`tu t? 5 pfat yahc fbnim rbhgam agafam obhccbra``ah obhkafah`ah aram plsitij x
paga suatu pbrdbpatah tbtap Z.@bti`a wa`tu nbrprlsbs, dairah obopbrlfbm olobhtuo,
gah a`mirh
a`mirhya
ya prljif
prljif pbrdbpa
pbrdbpatah
tah `bagaah
`bagaah stbagy
stbagy statb
statb yahc fi
fihib
hibrr yahc
yahc obhuhk
obhuhku``a
u``ah
h
`bagaah tbrnbhtu` . @ita obobrfu`ah yahc_ arus faoihbr("faoihbr" arus agafam yahc
kbhis afirahhya satu paga uouohya obhcaoati `bti`a syirup gituahc`ah, nbrfawahah

gbhcah " turnufbht" arus, yahc kbhis afirahhya tiga` nbraturah, arus tiga` nbraturah `bti`a
sbsblrahc obfimat suatu `bdbpatah tihcci oixbr). @bti`a `bagaah a`mir gari stbagy oltilh
tbfam gidapai, suatu `b`uatah tbtap J gipbrfu`ah uhtu` obhkaca cbra`ah pfat yahc fbnim
rbhgam. Ubrsaoaah yahc obhyata`ah munuhcah J tbrsbnut agafam sbnacai nbri`ut;

J?²Z
A

@b`uatah marus sbnahgihc gbhcah arba,pbrdbpatah, gah nbrnahgihc tbrnafi` gbhcah kara`
ahtara pfat.@btbtapah yahc prlplrtilhaf… agafam suatu prlpbrti dairah, gi`bhaf gbhcah
sbnutah vis`lsitas. Ubrsaoaah yahc pafihc sbgbrmaha yahc nisa ginuat uhtu` munuhcah
tb`ahah gah pbrdbpatah cragibh. Nacaioahapuh tbfam gitbou`ah pbhcmaonatah uhtu`
afirah gari sboua cas gah sboua dairah gbhcah nbrat olfb`ufar `urahc gari 2555. Dairah
ihi,
ihi, pa
paga
ga uouo
uouohya
hya,, obhc
obhccao
caona
nar`a
r`ah
h olob
olobht
htuo
uo tb
tbrm
rmag
agap
ap fa
fapi
pisa
sah
h da
dair
irah
ah yahc
yahc

nbrsbnbfamah, maf itu obhybnan`ah cbra`ah gbhcah

gbh cah aram x. Maf
M af itu gisbnan`ah `arbha x-
olobhtuo gipahdar`ah obfafui dairah gbhcah aram y plsitij.
plsitij. Ubhajsirah ihi obhyata`ah
`lhsistbh
`lhsistbh gbhcah caonarah
caonarah olfb`ufar
olfb`ufar olobhtuo yahc gitrahsjbr
gitrahsjbr gari tblri `ihbti`
`ihbti` cas
gah dairah. Maf Itu saoa gbhcah pbrsaoaah trahsjbr oassa gah pahas.. Niasahya afirah
gyhaoidist
gyhaoidistss obhccuha`ah
obhccuha`ah faonahc v uhtu` obhyata`ah
obhyata`ah vis`lsita
vis`lsitass yahc ginaci lfbm
gbhsitas ( oassa pbr vlfuo), sbpbrti;

Z?²/ρ

Zis`lsitas
Zis`lsitas dairah nbrnbga-nbga,
nbrnbga-nbga, vis`lsitas
vis`lsitas ugara paga >5D obhkagi
obhkagi 1,=x15-2
1,=x15-2 Ua.gah
vis`lsitas cfydbrlf obhkagi sb`itar 1Ua, nbnbrapa vis`lsitas
vis`lsitas paga oihya` sifi
sifi`lh
`lh obhkagi
fbnim `bhtaf . Gata pbrdlnaah uhtu` dairah yahc ourhi gitbtap`ah paga tb`ahah 1 ato.
Gidatat namwa uhtu` pbhccuhaah cas paga `bpagatah rbhgam, pbhihc`atah vis`lsitas
gbhcah
gbhcah `bhai`
`bhai`ah
ah sumu.
sumu. Tbgahc`
Tbgahc`ah
ah uhtu`
uhtu` dairah
dairah,, niasah
niasahya
ya aga pbhuru
pbhuruhah
hah vis`ls
vis`lsita
itass
gisb
gisbrt
rtai
ai gb
gbhca
hcah
h `b
`bhai
hai`a
`ah
h su
sumu
mu.. Gafa
Gafao
o trah
trahsj
sjbr
br olob
olobht
htuo
uo ca
cas,
s, ga
gaya
ya cb
cbra
ra`
` ah
ahta
tarr
olfb`ufhya nbnas., tbtapi pbhcahc`utah gi gafao dairah, sbnaciah nbsar nbrfahcsuhc
nbrgasar`ah atas `b`uatah ihtbrolfbdufar yahc olfb`ufhya nbrputar giahtara olfb`uf

faihhya.
1.> UBHYBWA^AAH MR@RO HBSWLH WBHWAHC ZIT@LTIWAT

Uaga mafaoah sbnbfuohya vis`lsitas yahc tbfam gicaonar`ah

gicaonar`ah lfbm Bq.1.1->,obrupa`ah
tbroihlflci afirah sbgbrmaha gi oaha Zx,obrupa`ah suatu juhcsi y sbhgiri,gah Zy gah
Zz hlf.
hlf. Ubhyaoa
Ubhyaoarat
rataah
aah ihi tiga`f
tiga`fam
am ougam,
ougam,ja`
ja`tah
tahya
ya para
para amfi
amfi obfa`u`
obfa`u`ah
ah pbhbfi
pbhbfitia
tiah
h
oatb
oatboat
oati`
i` tbht
tbhtah
ahc
c pbhybt
pbhybtar
araa
aah
h mu`uo
mu`uo Hbwtl
Hbwtlh
h maopbr
maopbr sb
sbtb
tbhc
hcam
am anag
anag uhtu`
uhtu`
obfa`u`
obfa`u`ahhy
ahhya.s
a.sbou
bouahya
ahya tiga`f
tiga`fam
am sbsuai
sbsuai gbhcah
gbhcah `ita
`ita uhtu`
uhtu` obhcbt
obhcbtamu
amuii sboua
sboua gbtif
gbtif
tbht
tbhtahc
ahc pbhcb
pbhcbon
onah
ahca
cah
h ihi,
ihi,Tb
Tbka
ka`
` gitb
gitbou
ou`a
`ah
h nu
nu`u
`u gi
giha
haoi
oi`a
`a af
afir
ir.o
.oa`a
a`a `l
`lop
oplhb
lhbh
h
pbrdbpatah sbnacai nbri`ut0

Zx ?Zx(x,y,z,t)0 Zy ?Zy(x,y,z,t)0 Zz ?Zz(x,y,z,t)

Uaga pusat bfbobht vlfuo agafam gi plsisi x,y,z.Uaga wa`tu tbrtbhtu gbhcah bfbobht
vlfuo `ita gapat irisah uhsur vlfuob sbgboi`iah uhtu` oboihgam`ah sbparum dairah gi
gafao.@ita gapat oboltlhc vlfuob tagi yahc tbca`furus tbrmagap oasihc-oasihc `b tica
aram `llrgihat.@bougiah `ita nisa obhyata`ah `b`uatah yahc tbfam gicuha`ah paga atas
pbrou`aah dairah yahc tbfam gipihgam`ah. @b`uatah vis`lsitas yahc oasu` `b gafao

dairah mahya `bti`a aga pbrdbpatah cragibh gi gafao dairah.Rouohya obrb`a nu`ah
tbca
tbca`f
`fur
urus
us tbrm
tbrmag
agap
ap uhsur
uhsur pb
pbro
rou`a
u`aah
ah oaupu
oaupuh
h paraf
parafbf
bf ta
tapi
pi,, aga nbnbr
nbnbrap
apaa yahc
yahc
gipbrou`aah dairah.

Rhtu` itu gitahya`ah

gitahya`ah nacaioaha `ita obhb`ah`ah
obhb`ah`ah munuhcah pbrdbpatah
pbrdbpatah cragibh dairah<
paga cbhbrafisasi Bq.1.1->, obharum nbnbrapa pbonatasah paga tbcahcah yaitu0
 Zis`lsitas obhb`ah`ah `lonihasi fihiar gari sboua pbrdbpatah cragibh0

 @ita obhyata`ah wa`tu itu yahc gbrivativb atau wa`tu yahc

ihtbcraf.
 @ita tiga` obhcmarap`ah
obhcmarap`ah vis`lsitas
vis`lsitas obhyaki`ah,
obhyaki`ah, ki`a dairah
gafao `bagaah pbrputarah ourhi. ki`a dairah agafam isltrlpid oa`a tiga` puhya aram

gah `lbjisibh gi gbpah

 A`mirh
A`mirhya
ya `bnahya
`bnahya`ah
`ah dairah
dairah gyhaoid
gyhaoidist
istss paga s`afar
s`afar tbt
tbtap.
ap.
@bsiop
@bsiopufa
ufah
h yahc pbhtih
pbhtihc
c agafam
agafam namwa
namwa `ita
`ita obopuhy
obopuhyai
ai suatu
suatu pbhyao
pbhyaoara
arataa
taah
h
Bq.1.1-
Bq.1.1->
> gah pbhyao
pbhyaoara
arataa
taah
h ihi tiga`
tiga` obfina
obfinat`a
t`ah
h satu
satu tbt
tbtapi
api gua `lbjis
`lbjisibh
ibh yahc
yahc
obhahgai dairah itu
itu yahc sijat vis`lsitas
vis`lsitas ² gah vis`lsitas gifatasi `.Niasahya
`.Niasahya gafao
obobdam`ah
obobdam`ah pbroasafama
pbroasafamah
h gihaoi`a
gihaoi`a afir itu tiga` ginutum`ah uhtu` obhcbtamui
obhcbtamui
`.Ki
`.Ki`a
`a da
dair
irah
ah ag
agaf
afam
am su
suat
atu
u ca
cas,
s,`i
`ita
ta sb
sbri
rihc
hc obhca
obhcasu
suos
osi`
i`ah
ah ca
cas,
s,pa
paga
ga `b
`baga
agaah
ah
olhlatloiid ` yahc igbhti` gbhcah hlf.Ki`a dairah agafam suatu dairah `ita sbrihc
obhcasuosi
obhcasuosi`ah
`ah ih`loprbsinb
ih`loprbsinbff gah gi (gafao) nan 4 `ita tbfam
tbfam gituhku`ah
gituhku`ah namwa
da
dair
irah
ah itu
itu ih`l
ih`lop
oprb
rbsi
sinb
nbff ( Z.v)
Z.v)?5
?5 ga
gah
h lfbm
lfbm `a
`arb
rbha
ha it
itu
u is
isti
tifa
fam
m ya
yahc
hc nb
nbri
risi
si `
ginuah
ginuahc.Ga
c.Gah
h sijat
sijat vis`ls
vis`lsita
itass yahc pbhtih
pbhtihc
c agafam
agafam obhcca
obhccaona
onar`a
r`ah
h pbhybra
pbhybrapah
pah
nuhyi0sbrasi gi gafao cas plfiatloi` gah gi gafaohya obhccaonar`ah gihaoi`a
afiraha dairah yahc nbrisi cbfbonuhc cas
1.4 ZITDLTIWAT GIUBHGBHDB WB^MAGAU WB@AHAH GAH WBOUB^AWR^

B`stbhsij gata tbhtahc vis`lsitas

vis`lsitas cas gah fiquig ourhi tbfam tbrsbgia paga nahya`
rbjbrbhsi. @bti`a gata b`spbriobh tbhtahc vis`lsitas tiga` oboagai, oa`a hifai
hifai
vis`lsitas gapat gi`btamui
gi`btamui gbhcah obtlgb bopiris. Obtlgb ihi gapat gicuha`ah gbhcah
obhccuha`ah gata yahc tbfam gi`btamui gari suatu zat yahc a`ah `ita `btamui hifai
vis`lsitashya.

Uaga craji` 1.4-1, obhuhku`ah munuhcah vis`lsitas rbgu`si (hifai vis`lsitas paga
tbopbraturb gah tb`ahah yahc tbfam `btamui ginaci gbhcah vis`lsitas paga titi` `ritishya)
gbhcah tbopbraturb rbgu`si gah tb`ahah rbgu`si. Zis`lsitas suat
suatu
u cas paga gbhsitas
gbhsitas

rbhgam a`ah obhihc`at gbhcah obhihc`athya tbopbraturb, sbgahc`ah vis`lsitas suatu

 tbopbratur. Gata b`spbriobh gari  d karahc
fiquig obhuruh gbhcah obhihc`athya tbopbratur.
tbrsbgia. Haouh, hifai tbrsbnut gapat gi`btamui gbhcah dara;

1. Apanifa hifai vis`lsitas gi`btamui paga tb`ahah gah tbopbraturb rbgu`si, oa`a hifai
hifai

  r
d
……………………… (1.1)

>. Ki`a mahya p  Z  W gata yahc tbrsbgia oa`a ;

 d  :1,: OWd 
1/ >
Zd  > / 4 ……………………………. (1.>)
1/ > >/4 1 / :
 d  3,35O p d Wd …………………………….
……………………………. (1.4)

@btbrahcah
 d ; vis`lsitas (oi`rlplisb)

Wd ; tbopbraturb
tbopbraturb `ritis (@bfvih)

Zd ; dd pbr crao olf

Rhtu` Obtlgb pbrtaoa hifai vis`lsitas
vis`lsitas `ritis gapat gi
gifimat
fimat paga tanfb ginawam ihi.

WANBF 4.1
IHWB^OLFB@RFA^ JL^DB UA^OBWB^ AHG D^IWIDAF U^LUB^WIBT
Dlhtlm 1
Mituhcfam vis`lsitas H> paga 25lD gah =27 ato, gioaha O ? >=c/c olf, pd ? 44,2 ato
gah Wd ? 1>:,> @ <
Kawan;
Obhccuha`ah pbrsaoaah (1.4)
1 > 1
3,35 >=  44,2 4 1>:,>    : 1
 1

d  > :  1=9  15 cdo sbd
>34,>  25 =27
Wr   >,2: pr   >2,2
1>:,> 44,2

Gari craji` 1.1  r  >,49

   d   /  d   1=9  15:  >,49  72>  15: cdo 1 sbd1

1.7 WBL^I ZITDLTIWAT

ZITDLTIWAT CAT UAGA GBHTIWAT ^BHGAM

Zis`lsitas cas paga gbhsitas rbhgam tbfam gipbfakari nai` sbdara tblri ataupuh sbdara
b`spbriobh. Ubhbhtuah vis`lsitas ihi sahcat pbhtihc gafao pbrmituhcah afirah yahc
nbrsijat vis`ls. Gioaha pbhbhtuah hifai vis`lsitas gifimat sbdara olfb`ufar.
Ubrmituhcah hifai vis`lsitas suatu cas, gioaha cas giasuosi`ah sbnacai cas ourhi yahc
ricig, giaobtbr g, oassa o gbhcah `lhsbhtrasi h olfb`uf pbr uhit vlfuob. Gioaha h
obopuhyai hifai yahc sahcat `bdif sbmihcca kara` rata-rata giahtara olfb`uf agafam g.
Nbrgasar`ah tblri `ihbti` cas, `bdbpatah olfb`ufar cas rbfatij tbrmagap `bdbpatah jfuiga,
sbmihcca oachitug rata-rata agafam

=`W
u ? ……………………….. (1.7-1)
o

@btbrahcah;
@ agafam `lhstahta Nlftsoah

Jrb`ubhsi olfb`ufar nlonargobht paga suatu sisi gi sbtiap pbrou`aah

pbrou`aah yahc tbtap paga
suatu cas pbr fuas agafam
1
[? hu ……………………………… (1.7->)
7
Kara` rata-rata yahc gitbopum lfbm olfb`uf paga tuonu`ah nbrturut-turut gisbnut obah
jrbb patm   

1
? …………………………. (1.7-4)
>g > h

Rhtu` obhbhtu`ah vis`lsitas cas gbhcah olfb`ufar prlpbrtis, `ita marus obhbtu`ah sijat
cas `bti`a cas tbrsbnut obhcafir sbdara pararbf `b  - axis gbhcah cragibht `bdbpatah

gv x
, Gioaha pbrsaoah giatas gicuha`ah paga `bagaah bquifinriuo, `bdbpatah ssbfurum
bfurum
gy

olfb`uf gimituhc rbfatij tbrmagap `bdbpatah rata-rata  paga gabram olfb`uf obhcafaoi
tuonu`ah tbra`mir. Jfux olobhtuo gbhcah aram  gbhcah `bdbpatah gbhcah aram y

 yx ?  o x y a ya - ov x ya ……………….. (1.7-7)

Ubrsaoah giatas gicuha`ah gbhcah asuosi sbfurum olfb`uf obopuhyai `bdbpatah yahc

obwa`ifi gabram yahc gituonu` tbra`mir gah prljif `bdbpatah v x  y  agafam fihbar.

> gv x
x ya  vx y   ……………………….. (1.7-2
4 gv y

> gv x
x y a  vx y   ………………………… (1.7-:)
4 gv y

@lonihasi pbrsaoaah 1.7, 1.:, 1.9 agafam

1 gv x
 yx   hou …………………….. (1.7-3)
4 gy
Ubrsaoah giatas nbr`lrbfasi gbhcah pbrsaoaah vis`lsitas Hbwtlh

1 1
  ho u   u ……………………… (1.7-=)
4 4

> o`W
  4 >
………………………….. (1.7-9)
4 > g

Ubrsaoah giatas gicuha`ah uhtu` vis`lsitas cas yahc ttbrgiri

brgiri gari fapisah `bras paga
gbhsitas rbhgam. Hifai b`spbriobh  gipbrfu`ah uhtu` obhbhtu`ah hifai giaobtbr
tuonu`ah (g).

Ubrsaoaah (1.7-9) gapat gicuha`ah uhtu` obhbhtu`ah vis`lsitas paga tb`ahah rbhgam,
gioaha  ihgbpbhgbht tbrmagap tb`ahah. Maf ihi sbsuai gbhcah gata b`spbriobh paga
tb`ahah fbnim 15 ato.
Wblri `ihbti` cas olhlatloi` paga gbhsitas rbhgam tbfam gi`bonahc`ah lfbm Dmapoah
gah Bhs`lc. Wblri Dmapoah-Bhs`lc obonbri`ah pbrsaoaah tbhtahc `lbjbsibh
pbrpihgamah gafao munuhcahya gbhcah bhbrci pltbhsiaf gari ihtbra`si ahtar olfb`uf

olfb`uf cas. Bhbrci pltbhsiaf  nbrmunuhcah gbhcah caya ihtbra`si yaitu


J  g ……………………………………
…………………………………… (1.7-15)
gr
r agafam kara` ahtara olfb`uf. Ubrsaoah (1.14) tiga` gapat `ita cuha`ah `arbha `ita tiga`
gapat obhcbtamui hifai yahc pasti gari caya ahtara olfb`uf cas.
Lfbm `arbha itu, Fbhharg-Klhbs obruous`ah juhcsi bhbrci pltbhsiaf

  1>    : 
  r   7       ……………………………..
…………………………….. (1.7-11)
 r   r  

@btbrahcah
  giaobtbr olfb`uf (giaobtbr tuonu`ah)
  ihtbra`si bhbrci ahtara olfb`uf

Ubrsaoah giatas gapat gicuha`ah paga olfb`uf hlhplfar. Hifai  gah  gapat gi`btamui
paga tanfb N-1. @bti`a hifai  gah  tiga` gi`btamui, `ita gapat obhcmituhc gari gata

prlpbrti jfuiga paga titi` `ritishya, fiquig paga hlroaf nlifihc pliht gah oatbriaf pagat
paga obftihc pliht.

1 1
  5,33d 4 W  4
   5,=71Zd
? >,77 d  ……………… (1.7-1>a,n,d)
 pd 
1
  1,12n 4
   1,1::Zd fiq
…………………………. (1.7-14a,n)
  1,9>
1
4
   1,>>>Z o
o
……………………………….
………………………………. (1.7-17a,n)

@btbrahcah;

 gah W gafao @bfvih,
 agafam gafao Ahcstrlo,

Z gafao do 4c-1olf-1,

Ud gafao atolsjbr.
Zis`lsitas cas uhtu` cas olhlatloi` ;
 OW
  >.::94  15  2 ……………………… (1.7-12)
 > 

@btbrahcah;

  cdo 1 sbd 1

W ? @bfvih
  Ahcstrlo

   


Ubrsaoaah (1.13) tiga` mahya gicuha`ah uhtu` cas olhlatloi`, obfaih`ah kuca gapat
kuca gicuha`ah uhtu` cas plfiatloi`. Zis`lsitas cas paga gbhsitas rbhgam sbnahgihc

gbhcah tbopbraturb. Hifai `W gapat gifimat paga tanfb ginawam ihi;


 WANBF 1.7
JRHDWILHT JL^ U^BGIDWILH LJ W^AHTUL^W U^LUB^WIBT LJ CATBT
AW FLS GBHTIWIBT

Craji` giatas sbsuai uhtu` pbrsaoaah (1.7-12).

Ki`a cas tbrnuat gari fapisah yahc ricig/`a`u gbhcah giaobtbr  , `bougia  obhyatu,

oa`a hifai  gapat gimituhc gari gbviasi fapisah ricig.

Wblri yahc ginuat lfbm Dmapoah-Bhs`lc tbfam gisbopurha`ah lfbm Durtiss gah
Mirsdmjbfgbr uhtu` `loplhbh daopurah cas paga gbhsitas rbhgam. Jlroufa itu gisbnut

Sif`b

h
xi  i
 oix   h
………………………………..
……………………………….. (1.7-1:)
 xiik
i 1

i 1

>
1   
1
>
1 
1    Oi 
> 7

 ik  1  O i  1    i    
……………………. (1.7-13)
=
 Ok     O




   
k k

@btbrahcah
h ; obrupa`ah kuofam gari daopurah cas O ; nbrat olfb`uf.
x ; obrupa`ah olf jra`si
 ; vis`lsitas

Dlhtlm >
Mituhcfam vis`lsitas DL> paga >55, 455, =55 l@ gah 1 ato<
l
Nbrgasar`ah tanfb 1.> hifai   195 @   4,99:  O ? 77,515

77,515W W
  >,::94  15   1,159  15 2
2

 4,99: >   

1.2 WBL^I ZIT@LTIWAT FIQRIG

Wblri `ihbti` gari trahsplrtasi prlpbrty olhlatloi` fiquig tbfam gi`bonahc`ah lfbm
@ir`wllg gah Dlwl`brs. Wblri yahc fbnim gamufu tbfam gi`bonahc`ah lfbm Byrihc
Byrihc gah
Dlwlr`brs, tblri ihi obonbri`ah caonarah obhcbhai quafitativb gari ob`ahisob cbra`
olobhtuo paga fiquig gah obhcikih`ah bstioasi vis`lsitas gari pmysidaf prlpbrtibs
yahc faih. Dairah ourhi paga `bagaah ihgiviguaf olfb`uf oboifi`i
oboifi`i cbra`ah yahc
`lhstah, `arbha sistbohya tbrtutup, sbdara caris nbsar cbra`ahhya ginatasi lfbm cbtarah
gari tiap olfb`uf gbhcah dacb yahc ginbhtu` lfbm olfb`uf tbrgb`at. Dacb ihi ginbhtu`

~
C ~
~ gioaha, C 5 agafam bhbrci nbnas olfar
ufahc lfbm bhbrci gbhcah tihcci
H
a`tivasi uhtu` obhihccaf`ah dacb paga jfuiga giao ( fimat jic1.2-1).

Obhurut Byrihc, fiquig paga saat istiramat obhcafaoi pbonbhtu``ah ufahc sbdara tbrus-
obhbrus, gioaha suatu olfb`uf paga wa`tu tbrtbhtu fbpas gari dacb
dacbhya
hya obhuku funahc
uhtu` nbrgaopihcah, gah olfb`uf itu nbrcbra` paga tiap `lrgihat gbhcah pahkahc a, paga
jrb`ubhsi v pbrolfb`uf, gbhcah pbrsaoaah jrb`ubhsi
  ~
v
m

bxp  C 5 / ^W  …………………………….. (1.2-1)

@btbrahcah;
 gah m agafam `lhstahta Nlftzoah gah Ufahd`
~ agafam nifahcah Avlcagrl
H
~
^  H` agafam `lhstahta cas (fimat apbhgi` J)

gv x
Afirah jfuiga paga aram x gah cragibh `bdbpatah , jrb`ubhsi pbhyusuhah `bonafi
gy

olfb`uf obhihc`at, a`inathya gapat gikbfas`ah lfbm bhbrci pltbhsiaf sbnacai `brusa`ah

ginawam tbcahcah  yx (fimat craji` 1.4), sbmihcca

~
 ~   ~   a   Z  ……………………….. (1.2->)
yx
C C 5
   > 

@btbrahcah
~ ; vlfuob olf fiquig
Z
~
 a   xyZ 
    ; `brka yahc gifa`u`ah paga olfb`uf, nbrcbra` gbhcah tbcahcah cbsbr,
   > 


obfawah tbcahcah cbsbr.

@ita obhgbjihisi`ah v sbnacai jrb`ubhsi flopatah `bgbpah gah v  sbnacai jrb`ubhsi



flopatah `bnbfa`ahc. Gari pbrsaoaah (1.>5) gah (1.>1),

(1.>1), gipbrlfbm

W ~ ~
v 
m
   
bxp  C5 / ^W bxp  a yxZ / >^W …………………….. (1.2-4)
@bdbpatah tltaf gioaha olfb`uf nbraga paga fapisah A sfip ambag lj tmlsb paga fapisah N
( fimat craji` 1.4) yaitu sbnacai kara` pbrpihgamah pbrflopatah (a) wa`tu gari pbrunamah

jrb`ubhsi paga flopatah oaku ( v v  ), gipbrlfbm 

  
v xA
v xN
a v v   …………………………. (1.2-7)

@bdbpatah nisa giahccap fihiar uhtu` kara` sahcat `bdif uhtu` ∎ ahtara fapisah A gah N,
sbmihcca gipbrlfbm

gv r a
    v   v   ……………………….. (1.2-2)
gy  

Gbhcah `lonihasi pbrsaoaah

pbrsaoaah (1.>>) gah (1.>7), gigapat;

gvx  a  W ~  ~ ~
     
bxp  C5 / ^W  bxp  a yxZ / ^W  bxp  a yxZ / >^W   
gy    m 
~ ….. (1.2-
 a  W ~  a yxZ 
   bxp  C5 / ^W   > sihm 
   m  >^W 


:)

Ki`a `bdbpatah giahccap hlh-fihiar ahtara tbcahcah cbsbr (olobhtuo jfux) gah cragibh
`bdbpatah gisbnut afirah hlh-Hbwtlhiah.
@bougiah `ita nias obhccuha`ah pbrsaoaah Wayflr sihm x ? x + (1/4!)x4 + (1/2!)x7
gv x
Ubrsaoaah (1.>2), gimunuhc`ah gbhcah pbrsaoaah  xy    , oa`a
gy
> ~
   m ~
    ~ bxp C5 / ^W   …………………………… (1.2-3)
a Z

Jadtlr  a nisa giahccap sbnacai satu uhit, pbhybgbrmahaah ihi tiga` obhcurahci
~
a`urasi, `arbha  5
C niasahya gitbhtu`ah sbdara bopiris uhtu` obhdldl``ah
pbrsaoaaah gbhcah gata vis`lsitas pbrdlnaah. Wbfam gi`btamui sbnbfuohya namwa bhbrci
~
nbnas a`tivasi, C 5 gitbhtu`ah lfbm pbrsaoaah (1.>:). Rhtu` gata pbrdlnaah, Zis`lsitas

vs W sbfafu `lhstah (uhtu` jfuiga) gah ougam gimunuhc`ah `b bhbrci gafao bvaplrasi
paga titi` gigim hlroaf yaitu

~ ~
C5  5.75=R vap …………………………….. (1.2-=)

Gbhcah ohbccuha`ah  a ? 1 , pbrsaoaah (1.>:) obhkagi

~
Hm ~
  ~ bxp 5.75= R vap / ^W  …………………… (1.2-9)
Z

Bhbrci bvaplrasi paga titi` gigim hlroaf nisa galat gimituhc sbdara `asar gbhcah
obhccuha`ah Wrlutlh’s rlfb.

~ ~
R vap   vap  ^Wn  9.7 ^Wn …………………….. (1.2-15)

Gbhcah pbrsaoaah yhc fbnim fahkut agafam

~
m
  ~ bxp 4.=Wn / W  ………………………. (1.2-11)
Z

Dlhtlm 4

Tlaf 1.2-1 mituhc vis`lsitas fiquig nbhzbhb,D:M:, paga >5D(>94.> `)

Kawan
Gbhcah obhcccuha`ah pbrsaoaah 1.2-11,gbhcah gata ;

Z ? =9.5 Do4/cr olf

Wn ? =5.1 D
Tbka` ihjlroasi ihi paga dcs, `ita cuha`ah nifahcah Avlcagrl gah Ufah`’s `lhstah paga
uhit yahc saoa.Tuntitusi`ah `bgafao pbrsaoaah (1.2-1>)

 :.5>4  15   :,:>7  15 
>4 >3
 4,=   >34,>  =5,1 
bxp   7,2  15  4 c
 =9,5 do.s
 >94,> 

ZITDLTIWY GAH OBDMAHITOT LJ

OLOBHWRO W^AHTUL^W
(Wucas @bflopl` Oata @ufiam Wrahsjbr Olobhtuo)

lfbm;

Glhi Uurhaoa ; 5212571544

Wionl Tinarahi ; 5:12571532

KR^RTAH WB@HI@ @IOIA

JA@RFWAT WB@HI@
RHIZB^TIWAT FAOURHC
>55=