TefflDCl'GtuN and Heat

, Teme,ratJr:c is defined as the measure of degree of hotness or coldness of o body.

Example:- A cup of hot soup or o scoop of Ice.-cream.
The S.L Unit of Temperature is Kelvin (K) and some of the commonly used units are; Fahrenheit ("F)
and Celsius (0 C)

, Heot is the form of energy transferred between two (or more) systems or a system and its
surroundings by virtue of temperature difference.

For e.g. :- o cup of hot coffee can be considered as system 11nd anything apart from hot co ·
surroundings. Then the heat will flow from one obJect to another as there Is dlff re.
u..., ..- ...

After some ttme we will see thlS hot _;; c~ui:..-, -•,.r
os there will be transfer of heat,

Uu1
The S.I Unit of Heat is joule of the commonly used
units ore:: coiorie and kilocnfi""'"'-

tcolorie=4.18 Joules
lkikxolorle = 1000 color,es

Measurement of Temper~: Temp • ~~ ured wtth the help of thermometer.

Mucury and Alcohol ore commonly use.d 11 -in-glass thermometus.

• The tee and steam point in peroture scale are 32°F and 212 °F resp. It
hos 180 equal intervals •j,11,i!""lftto4eference points.

• On Celsius Scale valu nd 100°C for ice and steam point resp. It hos 100 equol
intervals between t

I Mercury-in-Thermometer

The r.,...,, "lr temperoture ,n Celsius ond in Fahrenheit ,s 91.en by t he equation 1s:

: ' '.
Whe.re I f = F renhe.it tempe.roture . t, = Celsius temperature.
,,
Ill ·····-····-· - --

~,• l.,,.

Ideal-gas Equation and Absolute Ternpera11N •

A thermometer that uses any gos, however, gives the some readings r~dless of which gos is used
because all gases hove some expansion at low 1empero1ure.

Variables that describe the behaviour of gos ore:, Quont iiy(moss). Pressure, Volume. Temperature
6oses which have low density obey ceMoin lows: -

I.Boyle's LG. PV = conston1 {when tempera1ure T ,s constant)

Z.Chartu' Law- V/T = cons1an1 (when prl'SSure P tS cons1on1)

• I f combine both t he obove lows the e<jUOTlon becomes PV = RT where R 1s called unlver sol 90$
constant ond its value= 8.31 J mol· ' 1(' 1,

• PV = RT tS th£ ideal gas equation which tS oppl1cable only al low tvnpe.rotun,,

• For orry quantity of dilute gos. PV = µRT whereµ , is the numbu of moles in the go.s.
• In o constant volume go.s thermometer temperature varies with respect to p,-essu e a1ure
changes linearly with ,ncreose ,n pressure

Absolut, Z,NI: Absolute Zero ,s defined os minimum absolute temperoiu,O

• The relation between the temperature 1n kelvin and in ~lsius scale

T = t c • 273.15 ~
Cogarfspn of K,Mn C.Jsfm gnd fghNllheft tr• gtw:, Sc91M

Q,,ae"' Pf>lr, 313, IS Ir. • 100.00-c 212.00"'F

! 2. 00"f

- ,. . . 3" o.oOK 21a. 1s -c _.,s9.69"F

Jbtcmgl f?rnemion: Therm

1ncre.ase in its t £.mperot
~ the phenomenon of ,ncreose ,n dimensoons of o body due to

e expansion in area..

ion :- The expansion in volwnc .

Li019C Expjp,sjon: Linear Expansion means e><pons1on 1n lengt h due to increase In temperature.
As we eon see ,mage.s rne lengt I, has been increased from I to I •
Al

If t he solid is in the: fo rm of long rod, t hen for small change in t emperature,

AT, the f ract ional change in length. Al/I. is directly proport ional to AT.

~ Where OF th& coefficient of !,near exponsoon

~
• It is denoted by a,. It is chorocteristic of The material of the rod. It varies for differ£11t substance.

A,..a Expansion: Area Expons,on can be dd,ned as expansion ,n area due 10 ,,,creose 11, temperature. In
case of areo expansion there ,s increase ,n both length wise and breodth wise

t:.A I A =<1, l>T

Where Q, = coeffici£11T of areo expansion.

· Coeffic,enl of Area Expansion is defined as degre = eo

expansion divided by t he change: in temp,erctun!. !hue
Is increase ,n oreo of an obJeCI w,th !he c~ ure.

• It ,s denoted by a.. II ,s characteristic of the substance ond ,1 vnriesfJ'. h ~~-

Volume fmnsion: It can be defined as expansion in volume due lo'"~ ~ eralure, ThlS
meons there is increo.se in length, breadth and height of a substance ~
.C.V I V =a• .C.T
./
Where o. =coe~ f

Coefficie ( ' ~o"""-,.air be. ~fined as degree of volume

/ /
c.xpons1 . ,y ~ 111 . cm~rot~.

• It is denoted by a,. It ,s chorocleri once, It A

varies with tempera1ure. ....,,_ 1f 6
~ a.(111't<•) ~
C~ i ient o vol ,c ansion o r rature- /

Tempsr•tur-C t:j c:::>-

AIIOfflGIOUS
al 0°C, it
~~
4S,~ ~ .,a'
a..
O "Water: Water shows same exceptional behaviour that it is heated
of expanding and ii happens till it reaches 4 °C. The volume of a given amount of
,s when

water :~ Ill therefore ,ts density is maximum (Refer the Fig). After 4 •c water starts
expanding,11"~ '# . the volume increases. and therdore t he density decreases. This meons water has
maximum del'llliJf a t 4 •c.
,.
• Adwntogu of Anomolous behaviour of Wotu i.043H
• Because of rh,s property of water in lakes and ponds Volume of 1kg
freeze only at the top foyer and at the bottom it does d w-ater(xto->m 1)
not, but if the water freezes at the bottom also t hen
animal and plant life would not be poss ible. 1.00013
1.00000 ....,...._..._
L ' ~ " _ _._._ _.__T
0 5 10 100
Rolqtjon bttwua qv qnd qi: the r-dation between coefficient of volume expansion end coefficient of
linear uponsion 1s o, : 3a,

Thermgl stw-«:n;· M"chonical stress induced by a body when some or all of its
ports ore not free to expand or contract in response to change in temperature.

Example:- While designing structures like concrete highways gaps or" left which ore
filled by some flexible material so that concrete is allowed to expand or contract.

reJected by substance IS characterised by Q quont,ty called the heat capacity o...._ca..c:: e.

• It Is denoted by S. ~

S : llQ/ AT

Where LIQ= omomt of heat supplied to the substance and T to T ~Mi!' nits temperature.

Specific Heat Capacity: Specific heat is defined eat per unit mass absorbed or
reJt,Ctt,d by th" substonce to chonge ,ts temperot,l,ii'll.,~ -

•--mS ---
I AQ
mAT
• It depends on the nat ure of the su

Molar s cific heat t s the defined as the amal.Wlt of heat (in m-oles) absorbed or
e subS1once to ch0f19e ,ts temperature by one urut.

ature of the substance end its temperatur-e.

• olar specific heat capaetty 1s J mo1·1 K·'

Molar specific heat capacity (Cp):- If rhe gas ,s held under constant pressure during the heat transfer.
then t he corresponding molar spec,f,c heat capacity ,s coiled molor specific heat c:opac,ty at constant
pressure (Cp).

Molar spcc:ifk heat capacity (C.):- If th" volum£ of the gos 1s 111!11nla1ned during the heat transfer, t hen
the corresponding molar specific heat capacity is calle.d molar specific heat capacity at constant volume
(C.).
Calorimetry: Calorimetry is defined as heat Transfers from o body at o higher teznperoture too body or
o lower temperature !Provided There ,s no loss of heat lo the atmosphere.

• Principle of Color,melry IS heat lost by one body is equal to the heat gained by another body.

• The Dev,ce wh ich measi,res Colorimetry is known as Colori-1•r.

• C>escrlpllon of Colorl~ ter

Chang• of Stcrta: The trons,t,on from either solid to hqu,d or gos ond gos to either 1,qr-{ solid ,s
termed as ch9!'9! of stat•, ~
,., ,-- - - Change from sol,d (1cc) to l1qu1d (water) ,s known ~

,_,.,• ..., '<I \ - - '- - - - - - Change from hqu,d (wat er) to S<>hd (ice) ls ~ ~

► Th1r,nql Equilibrium: - At t htS stole there is no loss or go,n of place.

The temperature at which the solid and the liquid states ear~ in The:nnaJ e:quilibril..ffl
with each other is called its - lt ing point.

It is depends on The- Substance, Pressure.

The melting point of a substance al standard , ·-·-...::« Stre is coiled its inonnal molt ing point .

► Regelation: R.egt,lalion con be ddined n which the fr,;e.zing point of wotu is lower,;d by
the application of pressure. ~
, Vaporisation: - The change of o d 10 vapour (or gas) is called vaporisation.

• The temperorure at wh1~ and the vapour states of The substance coexist is called
its bo1l1ng point. ~

• Boil,ng · ospheric pressure is known os normal boilira point.

substance & presStre

• ~ · r ~ in pressure and vice verso.

, Sli6R5 ~ ..,g the subl1mal1on (sol,d changes to vapour w1lhoul go,ng through hqu,d stole)
process e solid and vapour stoles of o substance coex,st 1n thermal equ1hbr1urn

Exomple:-Dry ice (solid CO1 ) sublimes iodine.

• Nophthol,u,e bolls sublnnes 10 goseous stat&.

Lat•nt Heat: The amount of hoot 1hot o unll moss of o substance requires to change its store 01 o constant
Tanpero lure IS kMwn OS Lot ent Heat.

, Spec:lfic ~ Heat: The amount of heot that leods to the change of state of !kg of o port,culor substance.
 L =Q/m where, m is moss of substance and Q ,s Heat reJe.ased or consl.111ed

► Lotent Heat of Fusion: When ht.crt is either consumed or released 111 0f'der to chcnge the state of solid 10
liquid is called 1..o1ut Hmt of fusion.

, Lotent Heat of V I /Mic,n: Whv, there is a change of state from liqLid ro gos vther through the rel1!02
of heat or by its consumption, it is called t.arent Hmt of Vaponmrion

Heat Tl'GftSfcr-: Transfer of heat from one body to onothe.r is

called heat transfer.

l Conduction: In this method, heat is transferred from one body to

another body due to the molecules that keep vibrating at their memi
positions.

2. Qin.er;tion: The trnnsfer af hmt due to the difference in

temperatire:s in either liquids oc- gases is called C11m1Eetiol\

3. Radicrtion: Heat is transferred from one ploce to another throuc""'-

ele.ctromagnetic waves is called rodiotiol\

• Sun's heat and light reach a,r Earth's surface th it is the fastest method of heat

Newton's Law of Cooling; It states that the by a body is directly rroportion to the
drfference in t ~hre between the body · areas. In a laymM"s terms. the hotter the body
,s. the foster it cools down. He.re is its equot i

~~ = -k(T-Ts) it~
WhereT = Tempm,1'Ur"eof ~he
TS =Tempe.rann, af the SU
["."IW
k =Constant L"-,.,.......
~ A"""'\.',
Thumody,lcunics: It Is that branch of physics whu:h deals with concepts of heat and
temperature ond t~ir relation to energy ond work.

Thermal Equilibrium: Two systems are said to be in thermal equilibrium if the

temperatures of the two systems ore equal.
• In mechanics if the net force on a system is zero. the system is in equilibrium.
• In ThermodyM111ics equilibrium meons all the macroscopic variables (pressu ,
temperature ond volume) don·t chonge with time. They ore constont thr .

System and SUrroundings •

Sys111111: System is defined as arry port of universe e.nclosed by some
exchange of heat or energy takes place.
Surroundings: Arry part of the universe which is not a syst

• For example: - If we consider a hot coffee in a cup t -~..,,-P is the system and
everything else 1s the surroundings.

• System and surroundings constiMe UM =~il.

TYJl!S of Systems
I. 9Rto §xst1m: In th is system there · of energy ond matter. For Example: - Water
bo ils 1in a pon without lid. a cup of dif'f~ !..

2. Cloud sxs:r,m: In this syst eq~ 11¢of matter does not toke place but exchange of
energy takes place_ For E . ..,,....,.. n filled with gas.
3_ IsolcrtJd Svste,n : I There 1s neither change 1n matter nor change 1n energy_For
example: -

I. ~~fb~~~ 1s an insulating wall wh,ch doesn't allow heat to flow from one
er. This me.ans temperature of both the syst ems won't change with

For e.xample: - Thermos Flask.

2. Diotbtf:mie WQII: - It is o conducting wall which allows tht flow of htot

betweuo arry 2 systems.
For e.xomple:-Hot tea in a cup.
- Law of ~ " ' " z~tt, ,~
equilibrium with 1roch othe.r. C
of"~-,~'"'~ ''"
whw -
systems ore. 1n thermal equilibrium through a third system separately the.n the.yore in thermal
I
Systems A and B ore. 1n thermal equilibrium with C. The.n the.y woll
8
be on e.qu1l1bnum with ench othe.r.

Thermodyna,nic stote variables: Thermodynamic state variables ore. the. mocroj'i9f'

quantities which determine the thermodynamic equilibrium state of a system. ~

Types of tncnnodynamic: state YOl'ioblu:-

I. Extnixt yqcjqblcs: Extensive vorioble.s ore t hose that de.pen 4J,,.,....,......,l t he system
or the number of particles in the system. Example: volume.~
2. IlltenslYe varlobles: They don·r depend on size of The sysre ~
Example: Pressure. and Temperature. ore known as intefillV@,~ i les.

Equation of State : Equation of State de.pie nship between the. state. vorioble..s
(pressure, moss. volume. del\Sity).
• Consider on ideal gas the equation K .S'lm ~ -#

PV=µRTwhere.
• f>, V and T ore state vor,aU,
ed os the sum of kinetic e.ne.rgies and pote.ntiol energies of the

• It

•
• lt cnsovc varlO.blc Q!. 1t depends on the size of t he syst em.
• Tt r.nn hr. ~r11,:r:ifi.,.d hy vnl11.-.,; uf fw.....,.;-..,,,...,., vol11ri,F. nnd t,...rnpn'ntrn••! nl thnt pcH'ti,:ulnr tirn"-.

Two different modes to change Internal energy ore: - H1rot and Work.

!... !:!!g!: Due to transfer of h1rot kinetic energy and potential energy changes from bottle. to the
balloon. This results in t he change of internal energy.

L Jtiids: • We. con do some. work on the. system as a result the internal energy of t he syst em
changes.
 Internal energy increases when the system absorbs heat and some wo,-k is done on the system
similarly internal energy decreases if we change the conditions.

How Intemol e,wrqy Is differem from Woric and Heat

• He.at and work ore not state variables unlike internal energy.

• They ore modes of energy transfer to system resulting in change in internal energy.

Eirst Law of 'Thermodynamics: The change in the Internal energy of a clo

equal to the amount of heat supphed to th,: system. minus the amount of work d fM!lsvstem
on it s surrouru!lngs.
Mathematically:- t.Q = t.U + t.W •
Where: t.Q is the heat supplied to the system by the surroundings

• t,.W is the work done by the system by the surroundi

• t,.U is the change In Internal energy of t he system

t.Q - t.W = AU where

• (t,.Q and l:J.W ore path dependent q t.U is path independent quantity)

Case 1:- System 1mde.rgoes o process such t h me.ans onte.rnal energy is constont

AQ = AW

• this me.ans he.at supplied ~ ; )~ ndings is equal to the work done by the. system on
the surroundings. ~
Case 2:- System is o gos i · with movable piston, by moving the piston we con change the
volume of the gos .
• If we ownwords some work is done ond 1t con be given as:-

• = Force x displacement
= P x Are.a x displacement
= PAV (AV= Are.ax displacement)

• Therefore by first low of thermodynamics

AQ = AU • PAV where AV= change in volume

Specific heat cqpgcity (s): Specific: he.at is de.fined os the amount of he.at required to raise
the temperotire of a body per unit moss.
It depends on: Nature of substance, Temperature.

Mathematically:- s = (AQ / mAT)

• where m= mass of the body

• 6Q = amount of h~t absorbed or rejected by the substance

• 6 T = temperature change

• Unit - J kg·' K·1

absorbed or r ejected by the substance to change its temperature by ~l'\,."'\:

It depends on: nature of substance, Temperatire, Conditions under, ~~ supplied.

C = S/µ= 6Q / µ6T ~
Where, µ = amount of substance in moles

• 6Q = amount of heat absorbed or rejected by

• 6 T = temperature change

• SI Unit: J / mol/ K

Socciftc b,qt c2mc~ty of wtar

Calorie: - One calorie is defined nt of heat required to raise the temperature of lg
of water from 14.5 •c to 15.5 •c

• In SI units, the s f'~~itt capacity of water is 4186 J kg·' K"'.

I
,~-~~~~~~~~
• The specific h epends on the process or ;;
~
the cond· ch heat capacity transfer tokes
I '""'
place. Specihc 1000
He.t
• ~ h· Iii est specific heat of capacity because of 0_...,
=• JO 00 N> Hl{I
, ed as a coolant in automobile radiators and l emperatuce , ·<· ,-
in ,? erbags.

Molgc Specjfic heat cqpqcify qt constant P"!Jl'I'! (Cp): If the gas is held under constant
pressure during the heat transfer, then it is called molar specif ic heat capacity at constant
pres.s ure {Cp).

Molar Specjfic heat C"POC;!Y qt constant NW (C.): If the volume of the gos is constant
during the heat transfer. then it is called molar spec ific heat capacity at constant volume (C.).

For ideal go.s C, -C.=R

Thertnodynamic pn,c:csscs -
Quasi Static Process: It 1s a hypothetical construct which means it
is not in real.

• It is an inf initely slow process.

• System changes it s variables (P. T. and V) so slowly that it

remains in equilibrium with its surroundings throughout. T+llT
• There should not be arry accelerated motion. Not large temperature gradie,tttm~erature
gradient means the difference in temperature (T,-T2). ~

In a quasi-static process. the t emperature of the surrounding reservoi~ nd ~ al

pressure differ only infinitely small from the t emperature and presswV~lfn.

Isothermal ftoc•1s, : In Isot hermal process the temperatur'E'4:~ constant throughout

while all other variables change.

• For an ideal gas PV : nRT

Where, n = no. of moles (constant). R = ..-.11o., constant.

T =constant for isot hermal process.

• This implies PV = constant

Volln'19:
• Pr essur e and volume are i ionol to each other.
• This cirve is known as

Adiabatic P _---c,r- a process: in which there is no heat flaw takes place between
the syst em and .

• re sudden.
• C..,Oili,i,il the container should be ad iabotic

a ,abotic process of an ,deal gas From Boyle's law

PV • = constant

Wihere v = c,JC,, Specif ic heat rotio

Adiabatic change of 1111 ideal gas: It implies how much work is done during adiabat ic change of
an ideal gas.
• By solving Work done W• R/ (y- l )(Tr T 1). where

• T2 = final Temperature
 • Ti =init ial temperature
, R=UniversoJ gas constant

• y = Specific heat ratio

• This is the work done during adiabatic change.

• Consider W= R/ (y-l)(Tr T,)

•
Isothermal
l~ -Z
\. - ~Adl•batlc
A.cf~ebatic"::,...___

----3
ls:othcrmnl

Volume

P-V curves for fsothu-mol and adiabatic proce:sse.s of o

Isochoric Processes : Isochoric process onstont while all other variables

change.
• As volume 1s kept constant th ork is done on or by the gas.
• Heat absorbed by the go ly used to change its internal energy and its
temperature.

llQ= llU

Isobgcjc rocess pressire is constant while all other variables change.

essure is constant.

Cydjc Pcoc•sas: A Process in which the system will come back to its initial stotie.
• ll U = 0 this meons the total heat absorbed equals t he work done by t he system.
Example: - Heat Engine, Heat Pump
Second law of Thermodynamics:
-
•r-.pn ,.,.,,p,tements of second low of
t hermodynom,cs given by t wo scient ists:

• Kelvin-Planck JStat-,rt: No le whose result is t he absorpt ion of heat

from a re.suvoir and t ion of the heat into work.
• C1qusius 11P11msnt: ssible whose result is the transfer of heot from o
colder obJect too ho ..,,:•_:::::::.,.,...,

Bfvealblt u
Ra rmodynamic process ,s reversible of the process c011 be turned bock
surroundings return to their original states, woth no other chonge

:- Isot hermol expansion and compression, Electrolysis

• A process is reversible if :- It is quasi-static. No dissipative forces (that is no loss of

heot by friction etc.), Both initial and final st at es of the system ore in thennodynomic
equilibrium with eoch other.

In-cversible f'r:ocgs: Irreversible processes ore those that c011nOt be reversed.

, Two causes which give rise to irreversilble processes

c Irreversible processes takes place at a very fost rote.

o Dissipative Effects.

• Examples: Plastic defonnotion, Combustion, Diffusion. Falling of woter from hill.

Carnot engine: It ,so reversible heot eng,ne operating between two temperatures.

• I t hos o maximum efficiency which no other engine con hove.

Cycle of procasa In a Camot ,ngine

Bosic Function of ony heat engine is it will toke heot Q, from o hot reservoir at t·l::t...·-e
I ~
Toand give heat Q, to a cold reservoir at temperature Tz.
, The effocoency of Cornot engine is given by:- o..,.
11 : I - Tz/T, ~ '\~
The groph below depicts the Cornot cycle for a heat eng,ne 4•t n as thit working
substance

~
Pt'Uturt

' ltothtmal

'';:-.~
Ad11b1t1 ,
••baa,
J

Volu,,.,
~~
Kinetic Theory: Kint t ic theo,y explains tht bd,a.,our of gose.s lxlstd on rop,dly "'°""'9 atoms or
molecults.

Molecular nature of matter: Everything in This universe is mode up of a Toms.

• Atom movt around 1n a perpetual ord,:r otlroctrng each other when they ore: l,ttl,o dist ance apon .
Bu1 rf they or-e forced vtry d ose to each other then they r,:pel

• pqltgn't qtomis theory: This th~ory proves that mat ter 1$ made up of mol~cule.s wh, turn ore
mod,: up of atoms.

• Goy Lussoc's low: when go.SLS combin,: chvn,colly to yield anothu gos. their atios of
small integers.

• Ayoggdpfs law: Equal volumes of all gosts at equal temperature and pr

of mol«ults.

• Conclusiol\! • .11 11 th,:se lows proved 1h,: molecular notur,: o

Behaviour of Gases: Gases at low pre.ssure.s and high t h above: Thon.

PV = KT _ ...( I)

• Th,s ,s th,: universal relat10n which ,s soh where P. V. Tore pressure. volume ond
tempuoT~ rtsptctively ond IC is the .

K = Nlka w ber of moluults

. BolnmoM Constant and its value nEYU change.

From e,iuot,on (I}

Therefore or oil gases)

• For 2gcs
N 2T2

• ~i elation is satisf ied by all gose.s at low pressure and high temperature.

t"L~ Jllh:flf fnm: nnt!:PD pf 991: Avogadro's hypothesis Slat es thot equal volumes of all gases
at e,iuol t,:mpuoture: and pressure hove the some number of molecules

• Avogadro number is denoted by N,.

• N, = 6 .02x102-', I t ISumve:rsoJ value.

• ExperimentoJly it hos bun found thot th,: moss of 22 .4 htres of any gos ,s equal t o mol,:culor
we,ght ,n grC1J!1\s at standard tefflperoturt and pre.ssurt.
ftrl,st i,: fmmlsm: Perfect gos equation ,s g1Ye11 by·
P V • µ RT.

• Where P.V are pressur£. volumt., T = obsolutt. temperoturt.. µ = numbt.r of molt.Sand R = un,vusal
gas constant . (R = 8.314Jmol·1K·1)

Ideol Gas: A gos that sot1sftt.S Th., perfec1 gos equation exocTly al all pressures and Temperatures.
• No real gos Is truly ,dtol. A gos which ,s ,deol ,s known as real gos.

fltsl en,,, sftyiqti9o from Ideal 991

• Real gases oppro4ch The ,deal gOJJ> r w
ldtalCH
pre.ssurt.S and high tcmperolures .•

• Graph should be a STrOJghT x-axis) for tdt.al

r, gos.

h • Tht.s me.ans ,t hos co t afl temperature and all

pressure.

o 200 •oo 600 eoo

"°'""" approach Ideal gas behaviour
PC•tm)
• Rt.al gases opprooch kit.al gos ~hovlour 01,,...,_,.. nd high temperan.res.

Deduction of •• 1- and Charla low Ion:

I. Bpylt.'s law:- According To Boyl , I temperotur... prt.Ssure vouno v

of a given moss of gos vor1t.S in h volume.

PV=constont. tt::,;;:,,
P ex 1/V ~ Poessi,•P

Z Qll!C!~LISl!L''- 1,~ r1es·s low for o f,xed pressure. w lume of o gas ,s

empcroture.

Dalton'• •- of pcrtlol :,:,res: Dalton's law of partial pr..ssure stot"s that the Total pressure of a
mue1ure of ,de.al gose.s is t he sum of partial pressurt.S.

P : Pi • Pz • - - -

To show how PIC'.tect gg 19Y9!ion sonsluda OIiton·, lgw of pcrtiql Pr:1ss1r:1:-

• By perfect go.s equoToo,, PV: µRT

As t hue ore mhctur" of gases there fore is=µ,•w- •·- s o°"·

 PV: ( µ,•µr )RT

P: ( µ,•µ, • .. )RT/V: µ,RT/V • µ,RT/V • · -

Kinetic Theory of an Ideal Gas:

• Molecu lM of gos org ,n 1ncMsont random mo1,on coll,d,ng ogoJI\St one another and w,tt, the walls of the
conto,ner 1//JJ#
..-==-- - - -
• All collis,ons ore elastic.
w
• Total l(ine1lc UU<"!JY ls consuwd ~ V
• Total momentum 1s conserved. V
• In cllSI! of on elnst1e colhs1on total KiMtlC ,energy and rnornen1um before ,4P~ W
,s equal to t he total Kine.rw: ..,..,,-gy and momentum ofter cclloSJon ~ W 41,

Pl'USlft of an idcril gq•:

P = ( l/3)n m v',,.., where. P = pressure
n = no. of molerules per uni"-J'II..
v'.,,.: overage of v'

ltion of
• DC9rel!S of Freedom con~ defined d,splocements or rotot,ons rnat specify the
or,ientot1on of a body or systvn.

• A molecule. free to move. in sPf/...,.~ e coordmate.s to specify its location.

C91fflriy of Qcng of Ea ·p~

1. Translat,onal degru of f ~
Z. Rotallonal d o

~ om.

1) T : Translation means motion of the body ns a whole from one point to

another.
• A rmolecule which ,s fru to move"' space and so it wijl nee.cf 3
y TIYM pos.11bl•
coord,notes (x. y. z) to specrfy ,ts locor,on. Therefore 11 hos 3 1n,•1tl.Uon•I mollOl'I d 1
f'!IO.-tOlll•t 1noletlA1
de.grees of frud om

• A molecule wh,ch ,s free to move ,n a plane wh,ch ,s 2

d 1mens,onol and so IT needs 2 coord,notes t o specify •IS locot ron.
Thereforg 11 has 2 degr,ees of f reedom
_.,>,o- - - - - - - x
 • Simllorly o mol«ule wh,ch ,s free to move ,n l,nc ,t needs I coord,note t o sp«1fy ,ts locat ion.
Therefore rf hos I dc9r« of freedom.

• Mol«ulcs of monootomic gos hove only tronslotionol dcgr-ccs of freedom. Th,s means goscs wh1<h
hove only one otom.

• Th,s ,s Kirettc energy which IS involv..d with IM motion of rhc mol«ulr. fn,m ore point to onothu
E, = (1/Z) mv, 1 • (l/2)mv} • (1/ 2)mv/
• In thermo! equilibrium. thr. overage term 1s (3/ 2) I<.T.

2) Rotational l>ea-ce of fi:!• 1 m· Independ£1't rotations t hot sp«ify the orie.nta w·• o1 or
system. Thcn ,s rotation of one port of the body w,th resp«! to the oth

~ • Rotational dc9rec of frudom hoppcn

• D,atom,c molecules hove rotat,onol

trcnslotionol degrecs of fre.ed-~,,._,

• Rotot,onol vor,oble of mot, om ongulor momentum 'w '

E..:(112)1 w'

• The totol ltllCrgy controbut oon due to t he m for oxyg.,, molecule.

• rototionol d£9ree of freedom =E, • E,

: (l/ ■ mv,' • (1/ Z)nw,1 • (1/Z)I,w,' • (1/Z)I,w,'

3) Vib • o.sc:11fate afong the. 1nter-atom1c axis ltke. a one.-d1 me.ns.1onaJ

oscillator

• This vibrotlon is e molecules.

• The vib ~ """' c-0ntoin square of vibrat,onol Wll"iables

>-------·
•
• energy tum E, : (1/2) m (dy/dt)2• (1/2) ky2 where 1

• J degree of freedom contributes Z terms .

Law of EqyiP9Ctitlon of fllli9t: Accord,ng to t h,s low, ln equ1l1br1um, the tot ol energy is equally
distributed ,n oll poss,ble energy modes, w, th eoch mode hoving on overage energy equal to (1/Z)ktT

I. Eoch tronslat,onol degree of freedom cont r,butcs (1/2) k,

2. Eoch rotollonol degree of freedom contributes (1/Z) ko

3 Each v,brot,onol degree of freedom conrributcs Zx (1/Z)ka

Specific Heat Co.pacity for monoatomic gases
• Monootomlc gaso.s will only have translat ional degree of freedom.

• Maximum they can have tS Thra translat,onal ckgreo.s of freedom.

• Each degree of fradom will contribute (1/2) ka. Therefore 3 degras of fradom will contribute
{3/2) k1
• the total internal e~rgy of I mole of gas U =(3/ 2) kaTxN, =(3/ 2) RT

• Specific hl!Ot capacity at constant volume Cv= dU/ dT = (3 / 2) RT

For an ideal gas C,-Cv = R,

From ,q C, = (5/2)R

Ratio of spe;cif ic heots. y = C,/Cv = (5/3)

Specific Heat of Diatomic gases (rigid): rigid diatomic

A will have tronslotional
as well as rotaroonal degree of fradom bur not vibrational.

• A r1g1d d1atom1c molecule will have 3 tronslat1anol d ar,d 2 rotot1onal degrees of

frt.edom. Total 5 degrus of freedom.

• By law of equipartition of eN.r(Jt. each d will contribute (1/2) ka

• Therefore 5 degree of freedom will co

There.fore. the total internal ene

{Cy) =dU/dT:(5/2

C,:[7/2y;t

y--.w/C -

ifi A no-r igid diatomic gas has tronslotional,

nal,4~ II lb onal degrees of fradom.

3 transla110nal d£gre.es of freedom and 2 rotational degrees of freedom and I

gree of freedom.

• Total conTribut ion by translational= (1/ 2) ksT. rototionol=2x (l/2)ki T ond v1brot ionol =ka
• Total Int~ energy for 1 mole =(5/ 2)kaT•ka T = (7/2)k,T= (J /2)RT.

Cv=dU/ dT = (7/2) ll

C,.:Cv- R= (9/2) ll

v= C.ICv =(9/7)
Specific Heat Capacity for polyatomic gases: Polyctomoc gases will hove 3 trnnslotional degree
of freedom. 3 rotot1onol degrus of freedom and 'f' number of v1brot1onal modes.

Total ,ntcrnal energy of I mole of gos =(3x(l/ 2)kt T • 3x( l/2)kt T• fka T)x N,

C,:dU/ dT : (3 • f)A

u=C.-R=(4• f)A

y: C,/C, = (4 •f)/(3•f)

Specific Heat Ccpocitv for solids: consider there ore N atoms in a solod. Ea~ h ~ ilkrte
aboot its mean position.

• ThcttfO<'c: vibrot,onal degree of freedom : ka T iffe

.
In one-d1mcns1onol average energy•k1T. 1n three-dimensional avera : 1T

Therefore. rotol internal c~rgy (U) of I mole of sol,d : 31C~Tx •

A, constonr pressure. LIQ : LIU • PLIV change 1n volume ,s sohds

Therefore. LIV : 0. ~
AQ = AU

• Cv=(dU/dT).

• C;,=(dQ/ dT)as t.Q = t.U. Therefore: -,,---.,""'-

Thettforc C.=Cv= 3R

• ,ons1 waler hove 'N' l\\.ffibe.r of atoms.

Th ave.ra~ energy =3 ka T

Mean fcec pqth: Mean free: path is the a v ~ distance between the two successive collisions.

E,gnsslon foe IMM free P9lb

• Consider t.OCh molecule of gos ,s a sphere of d-ter (d). ~ ave.rage spud of each molecule 1s <v>

Suppose the molecule sutte.rs collision with any other molecule

within the dLS1ance (d). Any molecule which comes within the
dis1ance range of its diameter this molecule will hove: collision w11h
that molecule.

The volume w1,l11n which o molecul« suffer collos1on .,v,Lltnct'

Lei number of molecules per un,t volume : n

Therefore the total number of coll1slons 1n tune Lit =•v>Llmd1,m

Rote of collLS1on =<v>Lltnd 1 xn/Llt=•v>nd 1n

Suppose llmt ~tween coll1Ston J = 1/<v•nd·n

Ave.rage. d istance be.twee.n call.LS1on = J <v, = l/nnd2

• Mean fru patt,(I) = 1//2 • d'n

Conclusion: - Mean fr"e path depends inversely on:

I. Number density (number of molacules per u111t volumo)

2. S ize of thit molecule