1. TEMPERATE FOREST
TROPICAL FOREST
• The temperate forest biome is one of the
world's major habitats. Temperate forests are
characterized as regions with high levels of
precipitation, humidity, and a variety of
deciduous trees.
• Characterized by a moderate climate and
broad-leaved deciduous trees which shed their
leaves in fall, are bare over winter and grow
foliage in the spring.
CLIMATE:
Temperatures range from hot in the summer, with highs
of 86 degrees F, to extremely cold in the winter, with
lows of -22 degrees F. Temperate forests receive
abundant amounts of precipitation, usually between 20
and 60 inches of precipitation annually. This
precipitation is in the form of rain and snow.
LOCATION:
• Eastern Asia
• Russia
• Eastern United States
• Central & Western Europe
VEGETATION:
Forest Canopy Tier- Maple trees. Walnut trees, Birch
trees.
Small tier tree- Dogwoods, Redbuds, Shadbush
Shrub tier- Azaleas, Mountain laurel, Huckleberries
Herb tier- Blue bead lily, Indian cucumber, Wild
sarsaparilla
WILDLIFE:
Temperate forests are home to a diverse wildlife
biosystem including various insects and spiders, wolves,
foxes, bears, coyotes, bobcats, mountain lions, eagles,
rabbits, deer, skunks, raccoons, squirrels, moose,
snakes, and hummingbirds.
MORE LAND BIOMES
CHAPARRALS- Characterized by dense shrubs and
grasses, this biome experiences dry summers and damp
winters.
TUNDRA- As the coldest biome in the world, tundras
are characterized by extremely cold temperatures,
permafrost, treeless landscapes, and slight
precipitation.
SAVANNAS- This large grassland biome is home to some
of the fastest animals on the planet.
TAIGAS- Also called boreal forests or coniferous forests,
this biome is populated by dense evergreen trees.
TEMPERATE GRASSLANDS- These open grasslands are in
colder climate regions than savannas. They are found
on every continent except for Antarctica.
TROPICAL RAINFOREST- Located near the equator, this
biome experiences hot temperatures year-round.
USES OF TEMPERATE FOREST
Temperate forests have historically been well mapped
and inventoried for the purpose of gauging the
sustainability of the forests as sources of lumber, paper
products, and energy while continuing to provide
wildlife habitats, watershed protection, and open space
for public recreation and enjoyment.
2.
• is a biome characterized by warm temperatures
and high annual rainfall. These forests are
located near the equator, between the Tropic of
Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn.
Two Main types of Tropical Forest:
1. Tropical Rainforest:
Climate: Consistently warm temperatures and
high humidity throughout the year.
Rainfall: Heavy and consistent rainfall, often
exceeding 80 inches (200 cm) annually.
Flora: Rich biodiversity with a dense canopy of
broad-leaved evergreen trees, numerous plant
species, and a variety of epiphytes.
Fauna: Home to a vast array of animal species,
including insects, mammals, reptiles, and a
diverse range of bird species.
Location: Found in Central and South America,
Africa, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific Islands.
2. Tropical Dry Forest:
Climate: Distinct wet and dry seasons, with
temperatures remaining warm throughout the
year.
Rainfall: Experiences a dry season with reduced
precipitation.
Flora: Vegetation includes both deciduous and
evergreen trees, with a less dense canopy
compared to rainforests.
Fauna: Supports a variety of wildlife, although
typically not as diverse as in tropical rainforests.
Location: Found in regions with a more
pronounced dry season, such as parts of Africa,
South Asia, Central America, and northern
Australia.
THE DIFFERENT USES AND HOW TO PROPERLY
MANAGE OUR FOREST:
TIMBER PRODUCTION:
Use: Forests are a valuable source of timber for
construction, furniture, and paper production.
Management: Sustainable logging practices, such as
selective cutting and reforestation, help maintain
healthy forest ecosystems.
WILDLIFE HABITAT
Use: Forests provide habitats for a wide variety of
wildlife.
Management: Habitat preservation, connectivity
planning, and addressing human-wildlife conflicts
contribute to maintaining healthy ecosystems.
MEDICINAL PLANTS & RESOURCES:
Use: Forests are a source of medicinal plants and other
resources used in traditional and modern medicine.
Management: Sustainable harvesting practices and
conservation of medicinal plant species ensure their
availability for future generations.
IMPACTS OF PEOPLE’S ACTIVITIES ON FORESTS
DEFORESTATION:
Impact: Clearing large areas of forests for agriculture,
logging, and urban development leads to the
permanent loss of forest cover.
Consequences: Loss of biodiversity, disruption of
ecosystems, and increased greenhouse gas emissions
due to the release of carbon stored in trees.
FOREST FRAGMENTATION:
Impact: Breaking up large, forested areas into smaller,
isolated fragments due to infrastructure development
and agriculture.
Consequences: Reduced habitat connectivity, increased
edge effects, and difficulty for species to migrate,
leading to population declines.
ILLEGAL ACTIVITIES:
Impact: Illegal logging, poaching, and wildlife trafficking
contribute to the degradation of forests.
Consequences: Loss of valuable species, disruption of
ecosystems, and economic losses for local communities
dependent on sustainable forest resources.
3. GRASSLANDS AND SHRUBS
GRASSLAND:
• Comprises large grasslands maintained by
grazing and fires.
• Types include savannas and temperate
grasslands.
• Found on all continents except Antarctica.
• Grass grains include wheat, rice, oats and can
withstand extreme temperatures.
GRASSLAND ORGANISMS
• Most common plants are grasses specifically
underground roots.
• This protects the grasses from fire and drought.
• A single rye plant can grow tall as 2 meters and
have roots spread out as far as 600km.
GRASSLANDS FACTS
• Rainfall is the most important abiotic limiting
factor where its amount determines the kinds
of grasses and how they will grow.
• Ex: Less rain = short/fine leaf grasses (Tundra)
• More rain = tall/broad leaf grasses (Thailand)
2 SEASONS INVOLVED IN GRASSLANDS BIOME:
Rainy seasons - short cycles of heavy rains
Drought seasons - little or no longer period of rains.
TYPES OF GRASSLANDS BIOMES
STEPPES- are usually covered with grass and shrubs,
depending on the season and latitude.
• Gets less than 50cm rain per year (most rains
here evaporate quickly)
• Found in western and southwestern edges of
desserts. Have high winds.
• Broad temperature ranging from -5’C to 30’C
• Species: Bunchgrasses (short, fine-bladed
grasses grow in clump), Horses (ex: Mongolian
horse), Lemming, Bactrian camel, Steppe
wildcat.
PRAIRIE- Characterized by rolling hills. plains, and sod
formation. Rainfall is 50 - 75cm per year. Soil holds
water where grass roots form mats with the soil called
sod. When the sod grasses die, they form high nutrient
organic material called humus.
Species: Bison, Prairie Chicken, Prairie dog, Prairie fox,
Black-footed ferret.
SAVANNAH- Tropical grasslands ranging from scrubland
to wet, open woodland. Mainly found in Central Africa,
small areas in India, Southeastern Asia, Northern
Australia, Illanos in Venezuela and Campos in Brazil.
Short rainy seasons from long periods of drought
Species:
Plants: Acacia Tree, Shrubs (aloe candelabra tree)
Grasses: (Rhoades, red oak, elephant star and lemon). -
Animals: Lions, cheetah, springbok, elephant, rhino,
weaver bird, secretary bird.
IMPACT OF HUMANS ON GRASSLAND BIOMES
Human population growth negatively impacts global
biomes, particularly grassland biomes, posing risks to
animal grazing and predators, as it expands civilization
into these areas like:
Urban Development: Human activities, such as farming
and urbanization, significantly impact grasslands by
creating open areas, displacing animals, and altering
environmental conditions.
Agriculture and farming: Grasslands converted to
cropland or farms decrease wild animal food sources,
making them pests for farmers and potentially leading
to migration or wildlife starvation.
Hunting to extinction: Hunting severely impacts
grassland biomes, causing the American bison
population to nearly extinction, and poaching
rhinoceroses and elephants for ivory in Africa's
savannas without proper protection.
Global Warming: Human-induced climate change
exposes grasslands to vulnerability due to ecological
succession, causing imbalances in temperature,
weather patterns, and water availability, ultimately
altering the ecosystem forever.
Drier Climates and Fires: Grasslands in drier climates
are vulnerable to fires, which are natural ecosystem
processes that replenish land, but are more common
near human populations during drier months.
HOW DO WE CONSERVE GRASSLANDS AND SHRUBS
Preservation- We will work to preserve our precious
few ancient “old growth” grassland remnants through
acquisition and easements.
Restoration- We have the potential to restore
grasslands on a large scale by thinning forests in areas
that were historically open.
Recreation- We want to recreate lost ecosystems at a
large and meaningful scale by using seed from existing
remnants to put nearly extinct grasslands back on the
landscape. How do we conserve grasslands and shrubs
Rescue -Grassland-dependent biodiversity is
imminently threatened at hundreds of sites; we need
the capability to mobilize quickly to salvage and rescue
species and communities.
Research- It’s a race against time. Whole grassland
systems are disappearing before we’ve had a chance to
understand them. Remnants urgently need basic
biodiversity research.
Seed banking- we must plan for the future by ensuring
we have the “right seed in the right place at the right
time.” Precious remnants are the genetic storehouses
of locally adapted seed and source populations of other
organisms that will serve as building blocks for
restoration.
Noise pollution: (particularly boat noise) can disrupt
feeding behavior, swimming patterns, parental care,
sensory confusion, or communication among reef
organisms.
Accelerating deoxygenation: under climate change nad
eutrophication can drive coral bleaching and
subsequent mortality and could drastically impact the
ability of corals to respond to heat.
The impacts from unsustainable fishing on coral reefs:
can lead to the depletion of key reef species in many
locations. Such losses often have a ripple effect, not just
in the coral reef but also those species that depend on
them.

4. PEOPLE AND WATER, OCEANS AND COASTS: 5. KELP BEDS

CORAL REEFS
• Kelp beds play a vital role in marine
ecosystems, serving as unique and productive
• Coral reef ecosystems are intricate and diverse
habitats that support a diverse array of marine
collection of species that interact with each
life. This report aims to provide an overview of
other and the physical environment. Coral is a
kelp beds, their ecological significance,
class of colonial animal which is related to
distribution, threats, and potential conservation
hydroids, jellyfish, and sea anemones.
measures.
• Coral reefs provide habitat for a large variety of
• Kelps are seaweed that form dense underwater
marine life, including various sponges, oysters,
forests, which are among the most productive
clams, crabs, sea stars, sea urchins, and many
and dynamic ecosystems on Earth.
species of fish.
• Kelps have no roots. Instead, they attach to
rocks with tough, branched holdfasts. In place
IMPACTS OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES TO BODIES OF
of true stems, kelps have stiff stripes, which
WATER, OCEANS AND COASTS
hold them up towards the sunlight. Their palm-
like fronds may be long and strap-shaped or
Habitat Destruction: Ocean habitats have been affected
split into several strap-like lobes, depending on
via drilling or mining, dredging for concrete and other
the species.
building materials, and removal of corals.
Carbon Emissions: Humans have increased CO2 in the
atmosphere that have caused Ocean acidification and
WHAT IS KELP USED FOR?
Ocean warming.
Kelp is used to make many products: toothpastes,
Pollution: Disastrous chemical spills and plastic
shampoos, salad dressings, puddings, cakes, dairy
pollution in the sea, affecting aquatic animals via
products, frozen foods, and even pharmaceuticals. Kelp
ingestion
farms allow growers to make use of existing
Noise Pollution: Underwater noise from construction,
aquaculture resources in their areas.
shipping and naval vessels significantly impacts the
natural behavior of marine species.
Overfishing: Factory fishing has destroyed local fish
ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE
stocks, leaving too few adults to breed for the future.
Kelp beds, dominated by large brown algae of the order
Deoxygenation: The increase in the use of fertilizers for
Laminariales, contribute significantly to the biodiversity
agriculture and warming ocean waters has contributed
and productivity of coastal ecosystems. These
to eutrophication. This means that there is less
underwater forests create complex habitats, offering
available dissolved oxygen for native sea life.
shelter, food, and breeding grounds for various marine
species, including fish, invertebrates, and marine
mammals. Additionally, kelp provides a source of
DETRIMENTAL EFFECTS TO CORAL REEFS
organic matter, supporting the food web in nearshore
environments.
Ocean acidification: slows the rate at which coral reefs
generate calcium carbonate which results to slowing
the growth of coral skeletons.
DISTRIBUTION:
Impacts of land-based pollution (chemical and plastic
Kelp beds are found in cold to temperate coastal waters
pollution): can impede coral growth and reproduction,
around the world. Key regions include the coasts of
disrupt overall ecological function, and cause disease
California, South Africa, Australia, and parts of Europe.
and mortality in sensitive species. Plastics can not only
The specific species of kelp present can vary based on
suffocate and kill corals, sponges but also increase the
environmental conditions such as water temperature,
likelihood of a coral to get a disease by 20 times.
nutrient availability, and substrate type.
THREATS
Despite their ecological importance, kelp beds face
various threats, primarily driven by human activities
and environmental changes. Overharvesting, climate
change, pollution, and coastal development can
negatively impact the health and resilience of kelp
ecosystems. Changes in sea temperature and increased
storm intensity may also affect the distribution and
abundance of kelp species.
UNFORTUNATELY, KELP BEDS ARE FACING NUMEROUS
THREATS, INCLUDING
Overfishing of herbivores like sea urchins, which can
lead to kelp forest decline. Pollution from agricultural
runoff and coastal development. Warming ocean
temperatures due to climate change. The loss of kelp
forests would have devastating consequences for the
marine environment, impacting not only the countless
species that rely on them but also the vital ecosystem
services they provide.
CONSERVATION MEASURES:
Efforts to protect and conserve kelp beds involve a
combination of regulatory measures, sustainable
harvesting practices, and habitat restoration initiatives.
Implementing marine protected areas, where kelp
ecosystems are safeguarded from excessive
exploitation, can contribute to the preservation of
these vital habitats. Public awareness campaigns and
community involvement are essential in fostering
responsible stewardship of coastal environments.
CONSERVATION EFFORTS ARE UNDERWAY TO PROTECT
KELP BEDS/FORESTS AND RESTORE DEGRADED ONES.
THESE EFFORTS INCLUDE: MARINE PROTECTED AREAS
Establishing no-take zones where fishing and other
activities are prohibited can help kelp populations
recover. Sustainable fishing practices: Implementing
quotas and fishing gear restrictions can help prevent
overfishing of herbivores. Pollution control: Reducing
pollution from land-based sources is essential for
protecting kelp forests from harmful contaminants. By
understanding the importance of kelp beds and the
threats they face, we can take steps to protect these
vital underwater forests for future generations.
THREE TYPES OF KELP BEDS
1. MACROCYSTIS: is a monospecific genus of kelp (large
brown algae) with all species now synonymous with
Macrocystis pyrifera. It is commonly known as giant
kelp or bladder kelp. Macrocystis has pneumatocysts at
the base of its blades. Sporophytes are perennial and
the individual may live for up to three years;
stripes/fronds within a whole individual undergo
senescence, where each frond may persist for
approximately 100 days.
2. NEREOCYSTIS LUETKEANA (BULL KELP)
Nereocystis (Greek, 'mermaid's bladder') is a monotypic
genus of subtidal kelp containing the species
Nereocystis luetkeana. Some English names include
edible kelp, bull kelp, bullwhip kelp, ribbon kelp,
bladder wrack, and variations of these names. Due to
the English name, bull kelp can be confused with
southern bull kelps, which are found in the Southern
Hemisphere. Nereocystis luetkeana forms thick beds on
subtidal rocks and is an important part of kelp forest.
3. EUALARIA FISTULOSA
Thallus of this canopy-forming kelp is brown with a
large branching holdfast (haptera), a stipe 25 cm (10 in)
long, and a blade with midrib up to 25 m (82 ft) long
and 1 m (3.2 ft) wide. The midrib is 2-3 cm (0.8-1.2 in)
wide with gas-filled chambers (fistulae) that hold the
blade in the water column. Reproductive sporophylls
develop on the upper portion of the stipe. Habitat: This
fast-growing annual occurs on rock from the low
intertidal to subtidal and forms offshore kelp beds in
cold, semi-protected exposed habitats.
6. NATURAL CLIMATE CYCLES
Climate cycles refer to recurrent and predictable
patterns of variation in the Earth' s climate over time.
These cycles can operate on various timescales, ranging
from years to millions of years, and are driven by
natural processes and factors. Understanding climate
cycles is essential for comprehending the Earth' s
climatic history, predicting future climate trends, and
distinguishing between natural variability and human-
induced changes.
EARTH’ S CLIMATE CYCLES
Atmosphere: It is composed mainly of nitrogen (about
78%) and oxygen (about 21%), with trace amounts of
other gases.
Oceans: The oceans cover about 71% of the Earth' s
surface and play a significant role in regulating climate.
Land: Land surfaces absorb and reflect sunlight,
influencing local and regional climate patterns.
Ice: The cryosphere reflects a significant amount of
sunlight back into space, influencing the planet' s
energy balance
FACTORS THAT AFFECT CLIMATE CYCLE
Natural factors play a significant role in influencing
climate cycles over long periods of time. These factors
contribute to variations in Earth' s climate and can be
instrumental in shaping the planet' s temperature,
precipitation patterns, and overall climate conditions.
3 KEY NATURAL FACTOS:
Solar Radiation Variation: Changes in the amount of
solar radiation reaching the Earth can influence climate.
Variations in the Sun ' s output, including solar flares
and sunspot cycles, can impact the amount of energy
received by the Earth. These variations can lead to
fluctuations in temperature and climate patterns over
time scales ranging from years to centuries.
Orbital Variations: The Earth' s orbit undergoes cyclical
variations known as Milankovitch cycles. These include
changes in the Earth' s axial tilt, eccentricity (shape of
the orbit), and precession (wobbling of the Earth' s
axis). These orbital variations can affect the distribution
of solar radiation on Earth' s surface, influencing the
timing and intensity of seasons and contributing to the
initiation of ice ages.
Volcanic Activity: Volcanic eruptions can release large
amounts of ash, gases, and aerosols into the
atmosphere. The released particles can reflect sunlight
back into space, leading to a temporary cooling effect
on the Earth' s surface. This phenomenon is known as
volcanic forcing. While the cooling is usually short-lived,
major volcanic events can have notable impacts on
climate patterns over several years.
7. PEOPLE`S IMPACT ON CLIMATE
Human activities have a significant impact on the
Earth's climate, primarily through the release of
greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Greenhouse
gases, such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4),
and nitrous oxide (N2O), trap heat from the sun and
contribute to the greenhouse effect, leading to an
overall warming of the planet.
THE PRIMARY SOURCES OF HUMAN-INDUCED
GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS INCLUDE:
1. Burning Fossil Fuels: The combustion of fossil fuels
for energy, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, releases
large amounts of CO2 into the atmosphere. This is a
major contributor to the enhanced greenhouse effect.
2. Deforestation: The clearing of forests for agriculture,
logging, and urban development reduces the number of
trees that can absorb CO2 from the atmosphere
through photosynthesis. Deforestation contributes to
higher levels of CO2 and reduces the Earth's ability to
naturally mitigate climate change.
3. Industrial Activities: Various industrial processes
release greenhouse gases, including CO2, methane, and
other pollutants. Examples include cement production,
chemical manufacturing, and certain agricultural
practices.
4. Agricultural Practices: Agricultural activities
contribute to climate change through the release of
methane from livestock digestion and manure
management, as well as nitrous oxide from the use of
fertilizers.
5. Waste Management: Decomposition of organic
waste in landfills produces methane, a potent
greenhouse gas. Improper waste management practices
contribute to increased methane emissions.
THE CONSEQUENCES OF THESE HUMAN-INDUCED
CHANGES TO THE CLIMATE INCLUDE:
Rising Temperatures: Global average temperatures
have been increasing, leading to phenomena such as
heatwaves and changes in weather patterns.
Melting Ice and Rising Sea Levels: The warming climate
contributes to the melting of glaciers and polar ice caps,
leading to rising sea levels.
Extreme Weather Events: Changes in climate patterns
can result in more frequent and intense extreme
weather events, such as hurricanes, droughts, floods,
and wildfires.
Ocean Acidification: The absorption of excess CO2 by
the oceans leads to ocean acidification, which can harm
marine ecosystems, particularly coral reefs, and shell-
forming organisms.
8. BIODIVERSITY & ECOSYSTEM
• The term Biodiversity was first coined by
WALTER G. ROSEN in 1986.
• The word Biodiversity originated from Greek
word BIOS = LIFE and Latin word DIVERSITAS =
VARIETY or DIFFERENCE
• The whole word BIODIVERSITY generally
therefore means: VARIETY OF LIFE
• BIODIVERSITY is the degree of variation of life.
It is a measure of the variety of organisms
present in different ecosystems.
TYPES OF BIODIVERSITY
Species Biodiversity: is the effective number of
different species that are represented in a collection of
individuals.
Genetic Biodiversity: the level of biodiversity refers to
the total number of genetic characteristics in the
genetic makeup of a species.
Ecosystem Biodiversity: refers to the diversity of a
place at the level of ecosystems. The term differs from
biodiversity, which refers to variation in species rather
than ecosystem.
THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
Natural Causes:
• Narrow geographical area
• Low population
• Low breeding rate
• Natural disasters
Anthropogenic Causes
• Pollution
• Hunting
• Global warming & climate change
• Agriculture
ECOSYSTEM
A group of organisms interacting among themselves
and with the environment is known as ECOSYSTEM.
Thus, an ecosystem is a community of different species
interacting with one another and with their non-living
environment, and one another, and with their non-
living environment exchanging energy & matter.
TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS
Terrestrial Ecosystem: this ecosystem is related to land
Aquatic Ecosystem: this ecosystem is related to water.
Man-made or Artificial Ecosystem: artificial ecosystem
is operated by man himself.
FUNCTIONS OF THE ECOSYSTEM
• It regulates the essential ecological process,
supports life systems, and renders stability.

TYPES OF FUNCTION

Primary Function: this function of all ecosystems is

manufacture of starch (photosynthesis).
Secondary Function: this function of all ecosystems is
distribution energy in the form of food to all
consumers.
Tertiary Function: all living systems diet at a particular
stage.

THE 5 BENEFITS OF ECOSYSTEM

• Food & Drink
• Natural Medicines
• Water Supply
• Materials
• Renewable & non-renewable energy

What would happen without the ecosystem?

The result is global warming, water shortage, extinction
of species.