Introduction to

the Philosophy of
the Human Person
Methods of Philosophizing

Activity Sheet 2

Quarter 3

Week 3 and 4
This activity sheets contains two lessons, namely:
 Lesson 1 – Truth and Opinion
 Lesson 2 – Methods of Philosophizing
After going through this module, you are expected to:
1. distinguish opinion from truth;
2. analyze situation which show the difference between opinion and truth;
3. realize that the methods of philosophy will lead to wisdom and truth; and
4. perform the given task in every lesson to enforce a clearer understanding of
the subject matter.

Lesso
n Truth and Opinion
1
In today’s society, we acquire a lot of information from our friend, family and
member in the community. Some information that you receive from maybe utterly
true but some information may be utterly false. These kinds of information often
have a positive or negative impact on our lives. Thus, as an individual, we have to
examine every situation or issue if it is true or if it is opinion.

In the first lesson, the meaning and process of doing philosophy,

emphasizing the importance of holism, as well as learning how to construct
philosophical essays was introduced. This chapter shall demonstrate the various
ways of doing philosophy. In search for wisdom, the learner must evaluate
arguments and ways of expressing one’s beliefs, emotions and opinions.

A. Phenomenology on Consciousness
Phenomenology as a philosophy provides a theoretical guideline to
researchers to understand phenomena at the level of subjective reality. Probably,
this philosophical framework or the theory of subjective reality plays a key role in
understanding the actor or the subject regarding a particular event or a
phenomena relating to his/her life. The researcher can adopt interviews,
observations and discussions as data collection strategies within a
phenomenological method of inquiry; therefore, phenomenology has both
philosophical and methodological stances. To this end, one needs to understand it
from a historical and philosophical stand point.

The roots of phenomenology are found in the epoch of Plato, Socrates and
Aristotle (Fochtman, 2008) as a philosophy of human being. Subsequently, during
the first decade of twentieth century, Edmund Husserl, a German philosopher
became successful in his attempt to establish phenomenology as an approach to
study lived experiences of human beings at the conscious level of understanding
(Fochtman, 2008; Wojnar & Swanson, 2007). Moreover, Heidegger, one of the
students of Husserl, came with his creation of interpretive- hermeneutic
phenomenology. In addition to its descriptive nature to give a wider meaning to the
lived experiences under study as the core of phenomenological research is to know
about the phenomena under study through consciousness (Creswell, 2007).

Edmund Husserl founded phenomenology, which is essentially a

philosophical method. This focuses on careful inspection and description of
phenomena or appearances. It is defined as any object of conscious experience,
that is, that which are conscious of (Johnston 2006)

The word “phenomenon” comes from the Greek word phainómenon, meaning
“appearance”. Immanuel Kant, German Philosopher had used the same word to
refer to the world of our own experience. He intends a similar meaning except for
the crucial fact that for him, it does not imply a contrast between the appearance
and some underlying reality, between the phenomenon and a “noumenon” or
“thing-in-itself.” When one supposes that what one experiences is not or might not
be the truth (Solomon and Higgins 2010).

Phenomenology is the scientific study of the essential structures of

consciousness. By describing this structure, Husserl believes that we can find
certainty, which philosophy has always sought. This process entails a method or a
series of continuously revised methods-for taking up a peculiarly phenomenological
standpoint, “bracketing out” everything that is not essential, thereby understanding
the basic rules or constitutive process through which consciousness does it work of
knowing the world.

Nature of Phenomenology
What is phenomenology? It is very difficult to stand along with one fixed,
final and acceptable for all answer to this question. Spiegelberg (1969) argues that
there is no one style of phenomenology. Probably, the reason behind this argument
is that every phenomenologist appears to come up with diverse styles of
phenomenology. Therefore, it is difficult to claim one single definition of
phenomenology. Giorgi and Giorgi (2003) observed that “a consensual, univocal
interpretation of phenomenology is hard to find” (pp. 23–24).

For instance, the Husserlian perspective of phenomenology is central to the

concept of description of the invariant aspects of phenomena as they appear to
consciousness. Similarly, following Giorgi and Giorgi (2003), one can say that “the
scientific method is descriptive because its point of departure consists of concrete
descriptions of experienced events from the perspective of everyday life by
participants.” As a result of such a description, the researcher engages with
describing the “structure of the phenomenon” (p. 251).
 Thus the classical’ phenomenological research method with Husserlian
framework of descriptive research focuses on ‘seeking realities not pursuing truth’
in the form of manifestation of phenomena as it is in the form of life world made of
interconnected, lived experiences subjectively (Crotty, 1998). This method of
inquiry is based on the philosophical framework embedded in Husserl’s (1913/
1962) transcendental method with core emphasis on phenomenological description
of the ‘invariant aspects of phenomena as they appear at consciousness’ (Mortari &
Tarozzi, n.d.).

Phenomenology is a “way of thinking about knowledge – a philosophical and

theoretical viewpoint – how do we know what we know” (Bozzi, 1990; Mortari &
Tarozzi, n.d., p.5). It is a methodological space within the social science research to
study human phenomena at a deeper level of conscious to understand lived
experiences. Within this space the research data collection tools like interviews,
discussions, participant observations and action research are commonly used.
However, it is the researcher whose expertise matters to a great extent in gaining a
deeper level of insight about the personal knowledge of the research participant.
Phenomenological studies thus focus more on Husserlian framework of descriptive
research to understand the lived experience of persons related to phenomena under
study. For the phenomenological question ‘how to capture the phenomenon in its
original existence’, Husserl suggests applying a heuristic principle of being faithful
to the phenomena as it appears to be, at the experiential level, describing whatever
it manifests itself to consciousness.

B. Existentialism: On Freedom
One’s search for truth might be based on one’s attitude or outlook.
Existentialism is not primarily a philosophical method unlike phenomenology. It is
neither a set of doctrines but more of an outlook or attitude supported be diverse
doctrines centered on certain common themes. These themes include:
 the human condition or the relation of individual to the world;
 the human response to that condition;
 being especially the difference between the being of a person and the being of
other kinds of things;
 human freedom;
 the significance (and unavoidability) of choice and decision in the absence of
certainty and;
 the concreteness and subjectivity of the life as lived; against abstractions
and false objectifications.

Existentialism’s relationship to phenomenology is a matter of some

controversy. However, some philosophers, such as Jean-Paul Sartre, have
employed phenomenological methods to arrive at or support their specific
variations on existential themes.
 Our search for truth by means of critical thinking is a rational choice.
Existentialism, with Sartre, a French philosopher, emphasizes the importance of
free individual choice, regardless of the power of other people to influence and
coerce our desires, beliefs, and decisions. Sartre argued that consciousness (being-
for-itself) is such that it is always free to choose (though not free not to choose) and
free to “negate” (or reject) the given features of the world. One is never free of one’s
“situation”, Sartre tells us, but one is always free to “negate” that situation and to
(try to) change it. To be human, to be conscious, is to be free to imagine, free to
choose, and responsible for one’s life (Solomon & Higgins 2010).

Domains of Truth
1. Objective Domain
- Scientific truths;
- This pertains to the natural world that maintains a relative
independence from the perspective and attitude of human beings that
perceive them
2. Social Domain
- Truths that are analogous with of a general agreement or consensus on
what is right as opposed to what is wrong.
3. Personal Domain
- Truths analogous to sincerity; for this reason, the truths that we claim
in this domain need corresponding actions that will establish trust.

Truth can also be understood as what has passed procedures of

justification. Justification means the process of proving the truth or validity of a
statement.

Domains of Truth Justification

Objective Domain Truths are tested against empirical evidence
Social Domain Truths are tested against their acceptability to
a particular group in a particular time in
history.
Personal Domain Truths are tested against the consistency and
authenticity of the person who claims it.

Truth and Opinion

Identifying truth however can sometimes be tricky. The reason is that there
are times when we strongly held an idea that we feel “deep down” to be true. For
example religious people strongly believed that there is life after death. Some people
who embraced democracy may passionately embraced the idea that the majority is
always right. Or on a more personal level you may feel strongly that your sister is
“selfish”.
 However we must not confused strongly held beliefs with truth. Truth is
knowledge validated and when we say validated we mean they are based on the
facts of reality. You must understand dear student that the facts of reality are
independent of your thoughts, feelings or preferences (Ayn Rand calls this the
primacy of existence [Rand 1982]). That is the characteristic of truth. For example
the statement “Jose Rizal died in 1896” is true. You may not like that statement or
deny it strongly. That does not change the fact that the statement is true because it
is based on what really happened in the past. There are many sources that can
validate the truth of that statement if one cared to look. However when you say that
“Jose Rizal is the greatest man who ever lived” you are stating your preference and
not facts. This is an opinion. Now it is true that there are many facts about Rizal
but that statement is asserting something that is beyond what the facts state. That
statement represents not facts but your interpretation of facts which may reveal
your biases. To summarize an opinion has the following characteristics:
1. Based on emotions
2. Open to interpretation
3. Cannot be confirmed
4. Inherently biased

While truth is:

1. Based on the facts of reality
2. Can be confirmed with other sources
3. Independent of one’s interpretation, preferences and biases

Likewise, when we critique sources, we must first understand the difference

between fact and opinion.

Distinguishing Truth from Opinion

It is very essential to distinguish truth from opinion because apart from the
fact the latter has no objectives grounds, opinions could also mislead us. They have
the potential to influence public view just to conform to a specific agenda. Their
main goal is to achieve a desired outcome rather than to promote what is the truth.

Whether a statement is a fact or an opinion depends on its validity. The

following are some differences between truth and opinion:
1. Truth is a statement that can be verified or proved with the help of evidence
or empirical data while opinion is an expression of judgment or belief on any
particular subject.
2. Truth heavily relies on facts, while opinion depends on assumption and
perception.
3. Generally, truth is an objective reality and has universality in its nature,
while opinion is a purely subjective reality. It involves the expression of
personal feelings or views.
 4. Truths are useful to make information or make an argument, while opinions
are used for persuasion.

C. Postmodernism: On Cultures
Postmodernism has become into vague as the name for a rather diffuse
family of ideas and trends that in significant respect rejects challenges, or aims to
supersede modernity, the convictions, aspirations and pretensions of modern
Wester thought and culture since the enlightenment.

Postmodernism is not a philosophy. It is at best a holding pattern, perhaps a

cry of despair. It highly talks about world philosophy, the philosophy of many
cultures, but such talk is not a philosophy either. (Shields 2012).

Postmodernists believe that humanity should come at truth beyond the

rational to the non –rational elements of human nature, including the spiritual.
Post Modernists consider that to arrive at the truth, humanity should realize the
limits of reason and objectivism.

D. Analytic Tradition
“Can language objectively describe truth.” Language cannot objectively
describe truth. According to Ludwig Wittgenstein, an analytic philosopher,
language is socially conditioned. We understand the world solely in terms of our
language games- that is our linguistic, social constructs. Truth, as we perceive it, is
socially constructed.

Activity 1: Experiential Learning

Directions: Share your experiences on the times you did not use reason in your life
but rather, you relied more on emotions or opinions of other people. What did you
learn from the experience? Include drawings or illustrations if needed. Do this in a
one whole sheet of paper.
Rubrics
Criteria Rating
The paper relates entirely to the assigned topic 5 4 3 2 1
or issue.
The paper conveys a genuine personal view of
the topic or issue
Mechanics Spelling, punctuation &
capitalization
The work is original
Total
 Lesso
n Methods of Philosophizing
2
It is important for us to distinguish an opinion from truth as opinions are
not supported with evidences. Opinions must be known as it will lead to
misunderstanding and being biased of a person. Also, because there will be
mistakes in giving opinion. Truth is the statements that are supported by
evidences.

Activity 2. Directions. Analyze the picture presented below.

What do you think is the message conveyed? Write your answer in a whole sheet of
paper.

Source: Freepik.com.Legislation Vectors

Activity 3. You complete Me.

Directions. Complete the statement below. Do this in a piece of paper.
1. In our Barangay I am helping in the______________________.
2. The Philippines remains to be in the third world country because___________.
3. Graft and Corruption exist in the Philippines the reasons are_______________.
4. Liars and pretending people are considered to be____________________.
5. Not all churchgoers are holy and some are_______________.
Logic and Critical Thinking
Logic is centered on the analysis and construction of arguments. In the first
chapter, logic is discussed as one of its main branches. Logic and critical thinking
serve as paths to freedom from half-truths and deceptions. Critical thinking is
distinguishing facts and opinions or personal feelings. In making rational choices,
first, we suspend beliefs and judgements until all facts have been gathered and
considered.

We have two types of reasoning: deductive and inductive. Inductive

reasoning is based from observations in order to make generalizations. This
reasoning is often applied in prediction, in forecasting, or behavior. Deductive
reasoning draws conclusion from usually one broad judgement and definition and
one more specific assertion, often an interference.

Example:
All philosophers are wise. (Major premise)
Confucius is a philosopher (Minor Premise)
Therefore, Confucius is wise. (Conclusion)

Fallacies
A fallacy is a defect in an argument other than its having false premises. To
detect fallacies, it is required to examine the argument’s content. Here are some of
the committed errors in reasoning and thus, coming up with false conclusion and
worse, distorting the truth.

1. Appeal to Pity (Argumentation and misericordiam)

- A specific kind of appeal to emotion in someone tries to win support
from an argument or idea by exploiting his or her opponent’s feeling of
pity or guilty.
Example:
 “Please, let me in. I was just late because I have to attend to my son who
is sick.”
2. Appeal to ignorance (Argumentation and Ignorantiam)
- Whatever has not been proved false must be true, and vice versa.
Examples:

Since the students have no questions concerning the topics discussed in
class, the students are ready for a test.
 “She didn't say that I couldn't borrow her car, so I figured it was fine if I
borrowed it for the weekend.”
3. Equivocation
 - Logical chain of reasoning of a term or a word several times, but
giving the particular word a different meaning each time.
Examples:
 Human beings have hands; the clock has hands.
 He is drinking from pitcher of water; he is a baseball pitcher.
4. Composition
- Something is true with the whole from the fact that it is true of some
part of the whole. The reverse of this fallacy is division.
Examples:
 The atoms that make up the human body are invisible. Therefore, the
human body is invisible.
 Each singer in the choir sings well. It follows that the choir sings well.
5. Division
- One reasons logically that something true of a thing must also be true
of all or some of its parts.
Examples:
 The machine is heavy. Therefore, all the parts of this machine are
heavy.
 The team is great, so each player on the team is great.

6. Against the Person (argumentum ad hominem)

- Attempts to link the validity of a premise to a characteristic or belief of
the person advocating the premise. Questions about personal
conduct, character, motives, etc. are legitimate if relevant to the issue
Examples:
 A victim-blaming when it comes to rape and sexual harassment.
 “Don't listen to Eddie’s arguments on education. He didn't even finish
high school.”
7. Appeal to force (Arguentum ad baculum)
- An argument where force, coercion, or threat of force, is given as a
justification for a conclusion.
Examples:
 Chairman of the Board: "All those opposed to my arguments for the
opening of a new department, signify by saying, ‘I resign.’“
 “If this peace agreement will not be signed by the government, then we
will have no recourse but go to war.”
8. Appeal to the People (Argumentum ad populum)
- An argumentum that appeals or exploits people’s vanities, desire for
self-esteem, and anchoring on popularity
Examples:
 “I will pray on line”
  “Why not go to church”
 “Who will tag my prayer there”
9. False Cause
- Since that event followed this one, that event must have been caused
by this one. This fallacy is also referred to as coincidental correlation,
or correlation not causation.
Example:
 “Tumaas na naman ang presyo ng bilihin”.
 “Siguro kaya konti alng ang nakakain.”
 “Dahil sa presyo.”
 “Hindi, dahil mataas ang cholesterol.”
10. Hasty Generalization
- One commits errors if one reaches an inductive generalization based
on insufficient evidence. It is based on a broad conclusion upon the
statistics of a survey of a small group that fails to sufficiently
represent the whole population.
Examples:
 My roommate said her philosophy class was hard, and the one I'm in is
hard, too. All philosophy classes must be hard!“
 Hitler was a vegetarian. Therefore, I don't trust any vegetarians.

11. Begging the question

- It is also known as Circular Argument – it means you try to back up
your point, but what you say to back it up also needs some kind of
explanation or justification
Examples:
 God is real because the Bible says so, and the Bible is from God.
 Smoking cigarettes can kill you because cigarettes are deadly.

Bias – It refers to tendencies or influences which affect the views of the people.
When looking at an opinion you must be aware of bias so that you can objectively
and critically examined points of view.

Bias Characteristics Example

Correspondence bias or You judge a person’s “These rebels who fought
attribute effect personality based on the against the government
actions, and never mind are all inconsiderate
the extrinsic (panlabas murderers!”
na dahilan) factor.
Confirmation bias Tendency to look for a “How can I accept his
readily accept view that there is no
information which fits God? I am a Christian!”
one’s own beliefs or views
 that go against it
Framing Do not only settled in one “In motorcycle accident
issue of the problem and yesterday, it is altogether
then you do not mind the a fault of the driver for
other aspects. Judging an reckless driving.”
incidence without looking
at the other side
Hindsight The phenomena which “Let us take an example
occur has a pattern and on the Magellan’s assault
can be predicted, such is on Mactan, his defeat
usually based in was just due to his
historical evidence. looking Filipinos as
people of no knowledge.”

Realize the Methods of Philosophy that Leads to

Wisdom and Truth
According to Double (1999), although philosophy is an organize body of
knowledge, the subject matter of philosophy is questions; which have three major
characteristics:
1. Philosophical questions have answers, but the answers remain in the
dispute.
2. Philosophical questions cannot be settled by Science, common sense of faith.
3. Philosophical questions are of perennial intellectual interest to human
beings.

Critical thinking is the careful, reflective, rational, and systematic approach

to questions of very general interest. Critical thinking means understanding of
philosophy and refraining from merely giving claims but through careful thought,
one reasons through argumentations. One tries to become a philosopher because
one possesses and cherishes above the rest of humanity the love of wisdom which
is a part of human nature and because one more reflectively and critically brings to
light and examines the largest and wildest implications of the life of all human
beings.

For Maboloc and Pascua (2008), critical thinking is a lifelong process of self-
assessment that further consists of:
• defining, analyzing, and devising solutions;
• arriving at reasonable and informed conclusion;
• applying, understanding and knowledge to new and different problems;
• willingness to change point of view;
• continually examining and re-examining ideas; and
• willingness to say “I don’t know”.
The attributes of a critical thinker include:
• Look for evidence to support assumption and beliefs
• Looks for proof
• Examines problem
• Rejects irrelevant and incorrect information.

Activity 4. Oops, Something’s Fishy!

Directions: Explain why the following statements are fallacious and biased by
completing the sentence.
Fallacies
1. “Of course, he believes that the political system is flawed; he is a terrorist!
This is a fallacy because ___________________________________________________
2. “We will have no other option but to go to war If the agreed-upon
concessions are not met.”
This is a fallacy because ___________________________________________________
3. “Every man your age has already settled down, you should marry now!”
This is a fallacy because __________________________________________________

Biases
1. “All these activists are linked to progressive groups.”
This is biased because ____________________________________________________
2. “How can I accept atheistic views? I am a devout Catholic!”
This is biased because ____________________________________________________
3. “I do not believe in home for the aged as a safe living environment for
seniors. We Filipinos value close family ties.”
This is biased because ___________________________________________________

 The truth that we are looking for could be determined because it is situated
at the heart of inquiry.
 Fact is a statement which is observable to be real or truthful, while claim is
the statement that is not evidently or immediately known to be true, it needs
further investigation or examination to see it that this statement is true or
false.
 All Philosophers only accept things as facts if it observable fact or it is an
empirical facts or reality. In Philosophy, opinion, conclusion, beliefs,
explanations, arguments are of utmost importance in understanding
philosophical argument.
 Not all argument are genuine, some are fake or fallacious and some are bias.
This means that they are products of faulty reasoning. We must be aware of
the various kinds of fallacies as these affect the validity of arguments. We
must also be aware of bias so that we can objectively and critically examined
points of view.
 The different issues in our lives could be examined through Philosophy. An
objective evaluation of opinions and an awareness of our own personal
 biases can help us make wise choices regarding the most acceptable views to
adopt the right actions to undertake.

Activity 5.
Directions: Draw your own caricature symbolizing Graft and Corruption in our
country that makes the life of ‘Juan Dela Cruz’ life miserable with explanation.
Write your answer in a coupon bond.
Example of a caricature:

Source:Freepik.com.Crocodile Clip Art Vectors

Activity 6.
Directions. Fill in the blanks. Choose your answer from the box and write your
answer on a piece of paper.
Hasty Generalization Phenomenology Critical Thinking
Equivocation False Cause Existentialism

1. is also referred to as coincidental correlation, or

correlation not causation.
2. Logical chain of reasoning of a term or a word several times, but giving the
particular word a different meaning each time is called
3. means understanding of philosophy and
refraining from merely giving claims but through careful thought, one
reasons through argumentations.
4. One commits errors if one reaches an inductive generalization based on
insufficient evidence is what we call .
5. is the scientific study of the essential structures
of consciousness.
6. focuses on careful inspection and description of
phenomena or appearances.
7. is not primarily a philosophical method unlike
phenomenology. It is neither a set of doctrines but more of an outlook or
attitude supported be diverse doctrines centered on certain common themes.
Activity 7.
Interview Using a Video Blog
Directions: Conduct an interview and highlight the question: How do you
define freedom? Choose to interview other students, professionals or family
members. Take pictures and video of the entire proceeding. Cite philosophical
insights regarding the interview.

N.B.: Submit the video in a flashdrive. 1 flashdrive per section.