Multivector Review and Training Center

Power System

Transmission Line. A mechanical structure designed to transmit a certain

maximum amount of energy economically from one place to another, with a
specified limit to the permissible voltage variation at the receiving end and with
the least possible risk of interruption to continuous service.

Equivalent Circuit of a Line. Consists of uniform distribution of resistance,

inductance, conductance and susceptance along the length of the line.
r jx r jx r jx

ig g jb ic ig g jb ic

For overhead line conductors, conductance (g) is neglected because ic >>> ig.

Resistance. The most important cause of power loss in a line.

PLOSS
R AC 
3I 2
where: RAC – effective resistance per wire
PLOSS – total line loss
I2 – RMS magnitude of line current
Note: Effective resistance is not equal to DC resistance due to skin effect.

Skin Effect. The internal inductance of the conductor gives rise to a voltage of
self-induction so that the voltage drop in the conductor is the sum of the voltage
of self-induction and the ohmic resistance drop.
l
R  (for solid conductors)
A
For stranded wires:
l
R  (1.01)  (three strands)
A

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l
R  (1.02 )  (above three strands)
A
where: R – resistance in 
 – resistivity, -cmil/ft
l – length, ft
A – area, cmil

R1 R2
ALSO, 
(T  t 1 ) (T  t 2 )

where: T – inferred absolute zero resistance temperature, C

= 234.5C (annealed copper)
= 241C (hard drawn copper)
= 228C (aluminum)
t1 – initial temperature
t2 – final temperature
R1 – resistance at temperature t1
R2 – resistance at temperature t2
t

t2

t1

R
R1 R2

Conductivity:
annealed copper – international standard of conductivity
hard drawn copper – 97.3% conductivity
hard drawn aluminum – 61% conductivity

Conductors
Advantages of Aluminum over Copper Conductor
 lower cost
 lighter weight for the same resistance
 has larger diameter than copper for the same resistance

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Types of Aluminum Conductors

 AAC – All Aluminum Conductor
 AAAC – All Aluminum Alloy Conductor
 ACSR – Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced
 ACAR – Aluminum Conductor Alloy Reinforced

Inductance. Flux linkages per unit current.

 N
L  weber-turns/ampere or Henry
I I
For single phase systems using solid conductors,
L = Lint + Lext
D D
L  2 x 10  7 ln 1
L  2 x 10 7 ln
 re'
re 4
where: D = separation distance between conductors
r = radius of the conductor
r’ = re-1/4
= the equivalent radius of a fictitious wire that replaces the actual
wire in order to compute for the inductance L of the wire due to
internal and external flux linkages.
Lin = internal inductance
= 1/2 x 10-7 H/m (r = 1)
Lex = external inductance
= ( 2 x 10-7 ) ln ( D/ r ) henry/meter

For the complete single phase circuit consisting of two wires,

D
L T  4 x 10  7 ln H/m
r'
Stranded Conductors. For stranded conductors, r ’ is replaced by Ds.

Ds – geometric mean radius (GMR) or self GMD or the geometric mean of all
possible distances of every element in a group to all other elements in the
same group including itself.

D S  9 D 11 D 12 D 13 D 21 D 22 D 23 D 31 D 32 D 33 (three-strand conductor)

2
D S  n D 11 D 12 .....D 1n D 21 .....D nn (n-strand conductor)

where: D11, D22 …. Dnn = r’

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D12, D13 …. Dn(n-1) = center to center distance between strands

Dm – geometric mean distance (GMD) or self GMD or the geometric mean of all
possible distances of every element in a group to all other elements in the
other group.

Illustration:
a d

b e

m n

D m  mn D ad D ae D bd D be D cd D ce

Inductance of stranded conductors

Dm
L  2 x 10 7 ln
DS
Three Phase Lines

Three phase lines with equilateral spacing

D
L  2 x 10  7 ln H/m per phase
DS

Transposition. Exchanging the position of the conductors at regular intervals

along the line so that each conductor occupies the original position of every
other conductor over an equal distance.

C B
A
A C
B
B A
C

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Three phase lines with unsymmetrical spacing

D eq
L  2 x 10 7 ln H/m per phase
DS
where: D eq  3 D ab D bc D ca

Bundled Conductors. Two or more conductors per phase in close proximity

compared with the spacing between phases.

D Sb  4 D S2 D 2  D S D (two-bundle conductor)

D Sb  9 D S3 D 6  3
D S D 2 (three-bundle conductor)

D Sb  16 D S4 D12  1.09 4 D S D 3 (four-bundle conductor)

where: Dsb = GMR of bundled conductors

Parallel Circuits

a c’

b b’

c a’

first circuit second circuit

p
D eq
L  2 x 10  7 ln
D Sp

where: D Sp  6 D S3 D aa' D bb' D cc '

p
D eq  6 D ab D ab' D bc D bc' D ca D ca '

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Capacitance of Transmission Lines

Potential Difference (or voltage) between two points due to a charge.

q D
V12  ln 2 [from pt. 1 to pt. 2]
2k D 1
where: q – charge (coulombs/meter)
k – absolute permittivity = ko kr
ko – absolute permittivity of free space
= 8.85 x 10-12 F/m
= ( 1 / 36 ) x 10-9 F/m
kr – relative permittivity (dielectric constant)

Capacitance of Two Infinitely Long Parallel Straight Conductors

8.85  x 10 12
C F/m [line to line]
D
ln
r

17.7  x 10 12
Cn  F/m [line to neutral]
D
ln
r
For stranded wires, r is replaced by do/2 where do is the outside diameter of the
conductor.

Charging Current, Ic. The leakage current in the insulating medium.

Ic = jCabVab (single phase)
Ic = jCanVan (three phase)

Capacitance of Three Phase Lines (Neglecting the Effect of the Earth)

With equilateral spacing

17.7  x 10 12
Cn  F/m per phase [line to neutral]
D
ln
r
With unsymmetrical spacing

17.7  x 10 12
Cn  F/m per phase[line to neutral]
Deq
ln
r

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where: D eq  3 D ab D bc D ca

Bundled Conductors

17.7  x 10 12
Cn  F/m per phase [line to neutral]
D
ln b
DS

where: D Sb  r d (2-bundle)

D Sb  3 r d 2 (3-bundle)

D Sb  1.09 4 r d 3 (4-bundle)

Note: D may be Deq depending on the arrangement of conductors.

Parallel Circuits

17.7  x 10 12
Cn  p
F/m
D eq
ln
D Sp

where: D Sp  6 D S3 D aa' D bb' D cc '

p
D eq  6 D ab D ab' D bc D bc' D ca D ca '

Representation and Performance of Transmission Lines

Levels of Transmission
 Short Transmission Line ( L < 80 km)
 Medium Length Transmission Line (80 km < L < 240 km)
 Long Transmission Lines (L > 240 km)

Short Transmission Line. For short lines, only the resistance and inductance
are being considered.

VSN  VRN 0  IZ

Z = R + Jx
PR
IR    cos 1 pf R
3 VR pf R

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Medium Length Transmission Line. Analysis involves the use of lumped

parameters.

 Nominal  Equivalent Circuit

Z

I
L
Y O
VSN I2 I1 Y IR VRN
A
2 2 D

 ZY 
VSN  1  VRN  I R Z
 2 
 ZY   ZY 
I S  Y 1   VRN  1  2  I R
 4   
pf R  cos  R and pf S  cos  S
PLOSS  3I 2 R
VRNL  VRFL
%VR  x 100%
VRNL

 Nominal T Equivalent Circuit

Z/2 Z/2

IS IR

VSN V1 I1 VRN
Y

 ZY   ZY 
VSN  1   VRN  Z 1  IR
 2   4 

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 ZY 
I S  YVRN  1  IR
 2 


PLOSS  3 I S2  I 2R
R
2

For both nominal PI and nominal T equivalent circuit,

 2 
VRNL  VSN  
 2  ZY 
P PR
Efficiency  R x 100%  x 100%
PS PR  PLOSS

Using the Generalized Transmission Constant

VSN  AVRN  BI R VRN  DVSN  BI S
I S  CVRN  DI R I R   CVSN  AI S

For Nominal Pi Circuit For Nominal T Circuit

ZY ZY
A D1 A D1
2 2
 ZY 
BZ B  Z 1 
 4 
 ZY 
C  Y 1  CY
 4 
VSFL
 VRFL
V  VRFL A
VR  RNL 
VRFL VRFL

Long Transmission Lines

r jx r jx r jx

jb jb

z = r + jl – series impedance per unit length

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y = jb = jc – shunt admittance per unit length (g is neglected)

Voltage and Current Relationship

 V  ZCI R   X  VRN  Z C I R   X
VSN   RN e   e
 2   2 
 VRN   V 
IR  Z  IR  RN 
Z C   X
IS   C  X
e   e
 2   2 
   
   
z
where: ZC   characteristic impedance
y
  zy    j  propagatio n cons tan t
  attenuation cons tan t (neper per unit length)
  phase cons tan t (radians per unit length)

In hyperbolic form,
VSN  VRN Cosh  x  Z C I R Sinh x
VRN
I S  I R Cosh x  Sinh x
ZC
Velocity of Propagation
2f
v unit length per second


Incident and Reflected Wave

 VRN  ZCI R  X
 e - incident wave (voltage)
 2 
 VRN  Z C I R   X
 e - reflected wave (voltage)
 2 

Note: At infinite line, reflected wave is zero. If the line is terminated by its
characteristic impedance, ZC, the reflected wave is zero (both voltage
or current).
Sometimes, ZC is called the surge impedance. However, surge impedance is
associated with “load less” line ( R and g are zero ).

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L
Therefore, ZC  = surge impedance (resistive impedance)
C
The power transmitted by a line that is terminated by its surge impedance is
called surge impedance loading (SIL).

2
VLL
SIL  ; pf = 1.0 (resistive)
L
C
Sag-Stress Analysis (Mechanical Design Of Transmission Lines)

A uniform conductor suspended in still air from two supports takes the form of a
catenary (sag is more than 10% of span).

T  wx
s   O  Sinh
 
w TO
T   wx 
y   O  Cosh  1 
 
w  O
T 
2
 wx 
T  ws   TO 1   Sinh 
2
TO2
 TO 
wx
T  TO Cosh
TO

where: s = half-span length of the conductor , m

w = “dead weight” of the conductor, kg/m
y = sag
T = maximum tension
To = Minimum tension (tension at the lowest point)
x = half-span length

Approximate Equations:
Applicable only for parabolic conductors. The sag is less than 10% of the span.
The weight is assumed to be uniformly distributed along the horizontal.

sx
wx 2
y  d (sag)
2T
T  TO

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Unstretched length of a conductor

wl 3
LU  L 
EAd

where: L = stretched length

w 2l 3
 2s  2l 
3TO2
d = sag
E = modulus of elasticity
A = cross-sectional area of the conductor

Supports at Unequal Elevation

d h2

h1 C

X1 X2

hT hT
x1  l  x2  l 
2wl 2wl

Note: If l < hTO / 2wl , then x1 is negative. A negative value of x1 means that
lowest point of the conductor falls outside the span as in the case of a
very steep mountain side.

Effect of Wind Load

WW

P C

WC WT
wT  w C2  w 2W

where: wC = “dead weight” of the conductor per unit length

P = wind pressure of projected area

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wW = wind load
= P x d per unit axial length of the conductor
wT = effective weight of the conductor considering wind load
d = diameter of the conductor
Note: If wind load is considered, all derived equations are still valid provided
that w is replaced by wT.

Variation of Sag with Load and Temperature

Weill’s Equation

w 22l 2   w12l 2 
 f 2
2   t 2  t 1   f 2  f1    
 6f 2 A 2 
6A 2   1 

Underground Transmission. Underground transmission system has higher cost

than the overhead transmission system, however, it replaces overhead
transmission for comparatively short distances where the latter system is not
suitable. Commonly used in populous districts or highly urbanized cities where
overhead construction is not advisable/permissible.

Advantages of underground system over overhead system

 Not subject to damage by wind, thunderstorms and the like.
 The danger to life is reduced.

Submarine cables – used to transmit electric energy across water that cannot be
spanned by overhead conductors.

Parts of Submarine Cable

 Conductor
 Insulation – impregnated paper or rubber mineral compound
 Metal Sheath – protect the conductor from moisture, gases or
damaging liquids in the soil
 Bedding – protect the sheath from galvanic corrosion
 Armouring – layers of galvanic steel wire or steel tapes to protect
the cable from mechanical injury during laying or handling
 Serving – protect armouring from atmospheric conditions

Insulation Resistance:
 r
R ln 2 ohms
2L r1
where: r1 = radius of the conductor
r2 = radius of the cable

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= r1 + thickness of insulation
 = specific resistance of the insulation

Capacitance of Underground Cables

Single Core Cables

2  k ok r l
C
r
ln 2
r1

2ko l
C (If the insulation consists of different materials)
 r2 
 ln 
 r 
 k 1 
 r 
 

where: ko = absolute permittivity

kr = relative permittivity
r1 = radius of the conductor
r2 = radius of the cable (r 1 + thickness of insulation)

Three-core Metal Sheathed Cable

Cn = Cs + 3CC

where: Cn = capacitance to neutral

CS = capacitance between conductor and sheath of the cable
CC = capacitance between the conductors of the cable

Electric Stress in Cables

q volts
g
2  k ok r x m

where: g = electric stress at any radius x, volts/meter

q = charge per unit length, coulomb/meter
ko = permittivity of free space
kr = relative permittivity of the dielectric
x = radius where electric stress is considered

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Maximum Stress in the Dielectric

E volts
gm 
r m
r1 ln 2
r1

where: gm = maximum electric stress

E = voltage between the conductor and sheath
r1 = radius of the conductor
r2 = external radius of the insulation

Losses in Cables
 I2R (ohmic loss) – temperature dependent
 Dielectric loss – voltage and temperature dependent
 Shield losses – current dependent losses due to circulating and eddy
currents
 Pipe losses – current dependent losses from hysteresis and eddy current
losses due to incomplete cancellation of magnetic field from three
conductors

Insulators. The voltage distribution across an insulator string is non-uniform

due to the capacitance between the cap-pin-junction and the ground.
voltage across the insulator string
string efficiency 
n x voltage across the insulator nearest the conductor
where: n – number of insulator disks

Methods of Improving String Efficiency

 Grading – using larger insulator disks for one or two units adjacent to the
conductor
 Using insulating material instead of using steel for the cap
 Increasing the length of the cross-arm to reduce the cap-pin junction to
ground capacitance
 Providing high resistance instead of infinite resistance glaze to increase the
resistance leakage current (thermal instability)
 Use of guard ring coupled with arcing horn (the fitting of a guard ring to the
insulator string has the effect of introducing two air capacitances – others
are negligible

Corona. If an alternating potential difference between the conductors is

gradually increased, a point is reached at which the air at the surface of the
conductors become ionized. The cylinder of ionized air surrounding each
conductor is “corona”.

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The potential difference between the conductors during corona formation is

called “disruptive critical voltage”.

Visual Critical Voltage – the potential difference at which faint luminous glow
of violet color is seen to surround each conductor. The luminous glow is called
visible corona.

Disruptive Critical Voltage

dr
VO  21.2 r m O ln kV rms per phase
r

where:  – ratio between density of air at P(cm Hg) and T (C) and density of
air at 76 cm of Hg and 25C
d – distance between centers of conductors (cm)
r – radius of the conductors (cm)
mO – irregularity factor
= 1 for smooth, polished, cylindrical conductor
= 0.93 to 0.98 for weathered cylindrical conductor
= 0.87 to less than 0.93 for weathered, more than seven strands
= 0.80 to less than 0.87 for weathered having up to 7 strands

Visual Critical Voltage

 0.3  d  r kV rms
VV  21.2δ r m V  1  ln
 δr  r phase


Corona Power Loss

 242 
PO    f  25
r

V  VO 2 x 105 kW
per phase
   d km

Factors Affecting Corona

 The breakdown strength of air which varies with atmospheric conditions
 The irregularity of conductor surfaces
 The conductor radius
 The distance between the conductors

Effects of Corona
 Interference with communications
 Non-sinusoidal charging current which causes non-sinusoidal voltage drop
 Corona power loss

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 Corona helps to attenuate high voltage surges caused by lightning or

switching

DC Distribution System. In DC systems, power may be fed and distributed by

either:
 Two-wire system
 Three-wire system

Methods of Feeding
 Feeding at one end
 Feeding at both ends with equal voltages
 Feeding at both ends with unequal voltages
 Feeding at some intermediate zone

Types of Loads
 Concentrated loading
 Uniform loading
 Combination of a and b

DC Distributor Fed at One End

A C D E B

IAC ICD IDE IEB

I1 I2 I3 I4
VD = IACRAC + ICDRCD + IDERDE + IEBREB

Distributor Fed at Both Ends

A C D E B

IAC ICD IDE IEB

I1 I2 I3

With Unequal Votages

VD = VA – VB
VD = IACRAC + ICDRCD + IDERDE + IEBREB

With Equal Voltages

VD = VA – VB
0 = IACRAC + ICDRCD + IDERDE + IEBREB

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where: ICD = IAC – I1

IDE = ICD – I2
IEB = IDE – I3

Uniformly Loaded Distributor

A B

I I I I I I

VD(AB) = ½ IR

When fed at both ends with equal voltages, the point of minimum potential is
the middle point.
1
VD( MIDDLE POINT )  IR
8

Point of Minimum Potential. The point in the distributor where there is a

reversal of current.

Per Unit Calculations

Per Unit Value. A value by which voltage, current, power, impedance and
admittance are represented to simplify the calculations in power system
problems such as load flow studies, fault analysis, etc.

actual value
Per unit value 
base value
Bases:
SB – base power IB – base current
ZB – base impedance VB – base voltage
YB – base admittance

With VB and SB known,

Single Phase Three Phase
SB SB
IB  IB 
VB 3 VB

SB SB
YB  YB 
VB2 VB2

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VB2 VB2
SB  SB 
SB SB

Conversion to new base

2
 S B( NEW)   VB(OLD) 
Z PU ( NEW)  Z PU ( OLD)   
 S B(OLD)   VB( NEW) 

Short Circuit Calculations

SB
SSC  (MVA)
X PU
S SC
IF  (amperes)
3 VB
where: SSC – short circuit power
XPU – per unit value of positive sequence reactance
– thevenin’s equivalent impedance or reactance as viewed at the
point of the fault

Three Phase Fault

SB
I F  I F( PU ) x I B 
3 VB X1PU

Line to line Fault

SB
I F  I F( PU ) x I B 
VB X1PU  X2PU 

Single Line to Ground Fault

3 SB
I F  I F( PU ) x I B 
VB X1PU  X2PU  X3PU 
where: SB – rated apparent power
VB – rated apparent power
X1PU – per unit value of the positive sequence reactance
X2PU – per unit value of the negative sequence reactance
X0PU – per unit value of the zero sequence reactance
NOTE: If the base values are not given, the rated values may be used (rated
values are normally selected as base values).

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