MEV-015

ENVIRONMENTAL
Indira Gandhi National Open University
School of Interdisciplinary and POLLUTION, CONTROL
Trans-disciplinary Studies
AND MANAGEMENT
 MEV – 015
Environmental
Indira Gandhi
National Open University
Pollution, Control and
SOITS
Management

Unit Name Page No

BLOCK 1 INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL 5
POLLUTION
UNIT 1 Basic Concepts in Environmental Pollution 7
UNIT 2 Air quality and Its Impact 22
UNIT 3 Water quality and Its Impact 43
UNIT 4 Soil Quality and Its Pollution 73
BLOCK 2 EMERGING CONCERNS IN 115
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
UNIT 5 Radioactive Pollution and Its Impact 117
UNIT 6 Thermal Pollution and Its Impact 126
UNIT 7 Oil Pollution and Its Impact 132
UNIT 8 Noise Pollution and Its Impact 142
BLOCK 3 CONTROL OF ENVIRONMENTAL 153
POLLUTION
UNIT 9 Air Pollution and Its Control 155
UNIT 10 Water Pollution and Its Control 166
UNIT 11 Noise Pollution and Its Control 180
UNIT 12 Control of Radioactive and Nuclear Pollution 207
BLOCK 4 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT 217
UNIT 13 Waste Generation and Disposal 219
UNIT 14 Industrial and Bio Medical Waste Management 229
UNIT 15 Municipal and Agricultural Waste Management 248
UNIT 16 Hazardous and E-Waste Management 261
PROGRAMME DESIGN COMMITTEE

Dr. Himanshu Pathak Prof. P.A. Azeez Prof I.S. Thakur

Director, ICAR-National Rice
Research Institute Cuttack,
Odisha
Prof Uma Melkania
Dean, College of Basic Sciences
and Humanities, GBPUAT,
Pantnagar
Prof. P.K. Biswas
STRIDE, IGNOU
Prof. Shachi Shah
Director SOITS, IGNOU
Dr. Vijay Kumar Baraik
SOS, IGNOU
Dr. Surendra Singh Suthar
School of Environment &
Natural Resources
Doon University,
Dehradun
Dr.Shubhangi Vaidya
SOITS, IGNOU
Dr. V. Venkat Ramanan
SOITS, IGNOU
Director, SACON School of Environmental
Coimbatore Sciences, JNU, New Delhi
Prof. NidhiRai Prof. Jitendra Pandey
University College of Science, Centre of Advanced Study in
M.L. Sukhadia University, Botany, BHU
Udaipur
Prof. Jaswant Sokhi Prof Neera Kapoor
SOS, IGNOU SOS, IGNOU
Prof. S.K.Yadav Prof. Nandini Sinha Kapoor
SOA, IGNOU SOITS, IGNOU
Prof. B. Rupini Dr. Pulak Das
SOITS, IGNOU School of Human Ecology,
Ambedkar University, Delhi
Dr.Tanushree Bhattacharya Prof. R. Baskar
Department of Civil and Department of Environmental
Environmental Engineering, Science & Engineering, Guru
Birla Institute of Technology, Jambheshwar University of
Mesra, Ranchi Science & Technology
Hisar, Haryana
Dr. SadanandaSahoo Dr. SushmithaBaskar
SOITS, IGNOU SOITS, IGNOU
Dr. Deeksha Dave Dr. Y.S.C. Khuman
SOITS, IGNOU SOITS, IGNOU

PROGRAMME COORDINATORS
Prof. Shachi Shah Dr. V.Venkat Ramanan Dr. Deeksha Dave
SOITS, IGNOU SOITS, IGNOU SOITS, IGNOU

BLOCK PREPARATION TEAM

Course Contributors Content Editors
Dr. Deeksha Dave Prof. B.R.Bahmaniya
SOITS, IGNOU Department of Environmental Sciences
MLSU, Udaipur.
Course Coordinator Language and Format Editors
Dr. Deeksha Dave, SOITS, IGNOU Dr. Deeksha Dave, SOITS, IGNOU

UNIT WRITERS
Unit Writers
BLOCK 1
Units 1 to 4 Dr. Tanushree Bhattacharya, Assistant Professor, Civil and Environmental
Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, Jharkhand.
BLOCK 2
Units 5 to 8 Dr. Pulak Das, School of Human Ecology, Ambedkar University, Delhi
BLOCK 3
Unit 9 and 10 Dr. RachnaAgarwal, Assistant Professor, School of Vocational Education and
Training, IGNOU, New Delhi
Unit 11 Dr. Rita Rani Assistant Regional Director (Sr.) IGNOU Regional Centre, Delhi-2,
New Delhi
Unit 12 Dr. ChirashreeGhosh, Department of Environmental Studies, Delhi University.
BLOCK 4
Unit 13 Dr. Pulak Das, School of Human Ecology, Ambedkar University, Delhi
Unit 14 &16 Dr. Akanksha Mishra, Kamla Nehru College, Delhi University.
Unit 15 Dr.Ambika Nag, AzimPremjee Foundation, Jaipur.
PRODUCTION
Mr. Y.N. Sharma Mr. Sudhir Kumar
Assistant Registrar (Publication) Section Officer (Publication
MPDD, IGNOU, New Delhi MPDD, IGNOU, New Delhi
March, 2021
©Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2021
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 BLOCK 1
INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL
POLLUTION
BLOCK INTRODUCTION
Block 1 Introduction to Environmental Pollution describes the basic concepts
related to Environmental Pollution. Environmental pollution knows no
boundaries and its impacts are far- reaching. There are four units in this
block. The different types of environmental pollutants, their sources
including the urban and rural are explained in Unit 1. The major kinds of
pollution are viz. air pollution, water pollution and soil pollution. Unit 2
throws light on natural and anthropogenic source of air pollution including
stationary and mobile sources. The sources and effects of indoor air pollution
are also highlighted. Similarly in Unit 3, terms like water quality standards,
BOD, COD, etc. are explained. The unit also explains the types and sources
of water pollution. Unit 4 deals with soil quality and its pollution. The unit
covers soil characteristics, different kinds of soil, and causes of soil pollution,
major soil pollutants and effects of soil pollution.
UNIT 1 BASIC CONCEPTS IN Basic Concepts in
Environmental

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION Pollution

Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Definition and types of environmental pollution
1.3.1 Definition of pollution
1.3.2 Definition of pollutants
1.3.3 Types of pollution
1.4 Types of pollutants
1.4.1 Classification of pollutants
1.4.2 Concept of primary and secondary pollutants
1.4.3 Types of air, water and soil pollutants
1.5 Source classification
1.5.1 Classification of sources of air pollution
1.5.2 Classification of sources of water pollution
1.5.3 Classification of sources of soil pollution
1.6 Concept of standards, guidelines.
1.7 Role of Source-Transport- Receptor (STR) system in pollution studies.
1.8 Let us Sum Up
1.9 Answers to check your progress

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Due to over extraction of natural resources and disposal of wastes and
pollutants in several spheres of environment the pollution level is increasing
at an alarming rate. Even with most efficient pollution control equipment and
advance technology there is continuous increase in the concentration of
pollutants in the environment. Air, water, soil is getting polluted due to
presence of harmful chemical, biological and physical agents. The list of
pollutants and hazardous pollutants is increasing day by day. The release of
pollutants from the source, their fate in the environment and their residence
time determines the harmful effects on human health. Classification of the
pollutants in the different environmental sectors along with their source
characterization and inventory is therefore very essential. This will help
towards the proper management the polluted sites. Goal of environmental
management is to control the concentration of the pollutants below the
permissible limits according to standards and guidelines. So, idea of
standards and guideline is necessary to chalk out a proper environmental
management plan. Moreover, after emission of pollutants from the source
they are transported within the media like air, water or soil and ultimately
they will reach the receptors like, humans, animals, plants etc. So, for control
7
Introduction to and management of environmental pollutants a comprehensive knowledge of
Environmental
Pollution the source, transport and receptor is needed. This will help to manage the
pollutants and its ill effects holistically.

1.2 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit the student will be able to:
• Understand the concept of environmental pollution and pollutants.
• Categorize the types of pollutants in air, water and soil.
• Identify the sources of various pollutants, so that student will be able to
do source inventory.
• Justify the importance of standards and guidelines.
• Explain the concept of source-transport receptor approach for pollution
management.

1.3 DEFINITION OF ENVIRONMENTAL

POLLUTION
Environmental pollution is defined as the presence of any substance in the
environment in such a concentration that it may tend or it may tend to
injurious to humans, plants, property, animals and to the environment itself.
The word such a concentration is important, because if some substances are
present in a very low level then it may not be harmful or injurious. Usually,
the values of this concentration above which it is harmful is given in
guidelines and standards. These substances whose presence causes pollution
is called environmental pollutant.
According to Indian Environmental Protection Act (EPA), 1986
environmental pollution is defined as, ‘presence in the environment of any
environmental pollutant’.
Environmental pollutant can be defined as solid, liquid or gaseous
substance present in such concentration as may be, or tend to be, injurious to
environment.
There are several definitions of environmental pollution is available in the
literatures like
Massachusetts Institute of Technology defined pollution in 1970 as
“Residuals, or wastes are generated in all stages of production and
consumption of goods or services. Residuals become pollutants or and
environmental problem of some kind and in some degree when they have
harmful effects in the atmosphere, the oceans or the terrestrial environment.
Harmful effects are effects that are harmful to man, or to animals, plants or
inanimate objects or conditions that are important to man. Their importance
to man may be biological, economic, religious, moral, aesthetic or
intellectual.”

8
As per famous ecologist, Odum (1971), “Pollution is an undesirable change Basic Concepts in
Environmental
in physical, chemical and biological characteristics of air, water and soil that Pollution
may harmfully affect the life or create a potential health hazard for living
organisms”.
As per environmentalist, Edward (1972) “Pollution is the release of harmful
substances or energy into the environment by man in quantities that damage
health and resources”.
As per ecologist, Tiasmann (1975) “Pollution is the accumulation of
substances in the environment or at rates of flow which exceed the capacity
of the eco-system to either neutralize or disperse them to harmful levels”.
Environmental pollution can be of several types. Based on medium of
pollution it can be of four types.
1) Air pollution
2) Water pollution
3) Soil pollution
4) Noise pollution
Air pollution
Previously air pollution was defined as limited to “situation in which the
outdoor ambient atmosphere contains materials in concentration, which are
harmful to man and his surrounding environment”, by World Health
Organization (WHO).
With the advent of increase in indoor air pollutants the definition has been
changed to “Air pollution is contamination of the indoor or outdoor
environment by any chemical, physical or biological agent that modifies the
natural characteristics of the atmosphere”.
According to The Air (Pollution and Prevention) Act, 1986 air pollution is
defined as “the presence in the atmosphere of any air pollutants”. Air
pollutants are defined as, "air pollutant" means any solid, liquid or gaseous
substance (including noise) present in the atmosphere in such concentration
as may be or tend to be injurious to human beings or other living creatures or
plants or property or environment.
Air quality depends on the pollution level of the air and is especially
important in terms of health perspective of all the living creatures. Pollutants
in ambient air disperses quickly and is impossible to confine. Therefore,
management of air pollution is a challenging task. The details of air pollution
management will be discussed in the next unit (unit 2). Air pollution can be
of ambient or outdoor air and for indoor air too.
Water Pollution
Water plays a dynamic role in maintenance of all the life forms. It helps the
movement and circulation of nutrients in the soil and sediments, needed for
agriculture as irrigation water, industrial use, recreational use and for
domestic use. So, water quality plays a major role to balance various natural
9
Introduction to and anthropogenic processes, which may be adversely effected by pollution.
Environmental
Pollution According to , The Water (Pollution and Prevention Act), 1974water
pollution is defined as, “such contamination of water or such alteration of the
physical, chemical or biological properties of water or such discharge of any
sewage or trade effluent or of any other liquid, gaseous or solid substance
into water (whether directly or indirectly) as may, or is likely to, create a
nuisance or render such water harmful or injurious to public health or safety,
or to domestic, commercial, industrial, agricultural or other legitimate uses,
or to the life and health of animals or plants or of aquatic organisms”.
Water pollutants are physical, chemical or biological agents which lead to
water pollution.
As per WHO, 1966 definition, water pollution is “foreign materials either
from natural or other sources are contaminated with water supplies and may
be harmful to life, because of their toxicity, reduction of normal oxygen level
of water, aesthetically unsuitable or dangerous as regards food, human and
animal health, industry, agriculture, fishing or leisure pursuits.”
Water pollution can be of several types: surface water pollution (pollution of
surface fresh water bodies like lakes, ponds, rivers, estuaries etc);
groundwater pollution (pollution of underground fresh water resources like
aquifers), marine pollution (pollution of ocean and sea), thermal pollution
(pollution due to discharge of warm water from thermal power plants).
Soil Pollution
Soil is a physical receptor of matter and energy flow reaching the earth
surface and provides the storehouse of nutrients for plants. The formation of
soil is a complex process which takes centuries to develop a fertile layer of
soil. Soil is solid unlike air and water which are fluid systems. So, once
pollutants enter the soil system the chances of accumulation in a location
causing permeant damage to the soil quality is much more. Once the soil
quality is degraded the natural and anthropogenic restoration is a huge
challenge and time taking. Decrease in the soil quality due to natural or
anthropogenic contamination is defined as soil pollution. Soil pollutants are
the physical, biological, chemical, air borne agents which degrades the
quality of the soil.
Noise pollution
Noise pollution may be defined as the state of discomfort and restlessness
caused to humans by unwanted high intensity sound known as noise. Noise is
the only pollutant which causes noise pollution. Noise is an unwanted sound
and is considered as a pollutant when it exceeds certain limits. Noise
pollution instantaneously effects human beings or other organisms. Unlike
other pollutants, it is not transported far away and spreading from its source
area.
Apart from the above types, based on area and source of pollution, pollution
can be classified as:
i) Urban pollution
10
ii) Rural pollution Basic Concepts in
Environmental
iii) Industrial pollution Pollution

iv) Radiation pollution

These types of pollution can affect all the segments of environment viz. air,
water and soil. Urban pollution is mainly due to urbanization. Urbanization
can lead to air pollution, water pollution, noise pollution, soil pollution due to
dumping of solid wastes.
In rural areas, ambient air pollution is less but indoor air quality gets polluted
chiefly due to burning of biomass based fuel. But rural areas can also become
polluted due to solid waste dumping, indiscriminate use of pesticides and
fertilizers. The run off and leaching of these chemicals will lead to water
pollution in surface and ground water bodies. Presence of industries in rural
areas can also lead to pollution. Moreover, soil erosion improper application
of fertilizers and irrigation water can lead to degradation of soil quality
leading to soil pollution.
Industrial pollution can be defined as the contamination of the environment
by businesses, particularly factories, that dump waste products into the air
and water. Industrial waste is one of the largest contributors to the
global pollution problem endangering people and the environment.
Radiation pollution is pollution from any form of ionizing or nonionizing
radiation that results from human activities. Radiations can be natural or due
to human activities. Human activities like nuclear power plant, dumping of
radioactive waste, nuclear explosion etc.

1.4 TYPES OF POLLUTANTS

Based on the source or genesis pollutants can be of the following types:
i) Natural pollutants: pollutants which have their sources from nature. For
example, emission of sulfur di oxide due to volcanism, methane emission
from wetlands, release of arsenic from rocks in groundwater etc. natural
pollutants originating from geological sources are also termed as
geogenic pollutants.
ii) Manmade pollutants or anthropogenic pollutants: pollutants emitting due
to human activities are termed as anthropogenic pollutants. For example,
smoke gases coming out of industries and vehicles, release of toxic
chemicals from industry into waterbodies etc.
Pollutants may be classified based on their state as follows:
i) solid pollutants (asbestos, sludge, metal wastes etc)
ii) liquid pollutants (oil slicks, fluorides, dissolved solids etc)
iii) gaseous pollutants (carbon di oxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxides
etc.)
Pollutants may also be divided based on areas polluted:
11
Introduction to i) Air pollutants (particulate matter, gases, smokes etc)
Environmental
Pollution ii) Water pollutants (pesticides, metals, suspended solids etc)
iii) Soil pollutants (chemical fertilizers, garbage, radioactive wastes etc.)
Based on location, the pollutants can be classified as:
i) Point source pollutants and ii] Non-point source pollutants
5) Point source pollutants: when the pollutants come out from a specific
location or source which are visible. For example, stack of factories,
sewer discharge drains etc (Figure 1.). As they are always visible hence
are easily identifiable and manageable.
6) Non- point source pollutants: pollutants coming out from various sources
without any specific source are termed as non -point source pollutants.
For example, pesticides and fertilizers run off from agricultural field. The
run off can be lateral known as surface run off or can be vertical or
downward through percolation of pollutants in the groundwater. Non-
point source pollutants are difficult to identify and quantify. They can be
further subdivided as rural non- point pollutants and urban non- point
pollutants. Rural non-point source pollutants are mainly due to
agricultural activities, for example, pesticides, fertilizers, insecticides etc
(Figure 2). Whereas, urban non-point source pollutants can come out
from residential complexes, small-scale industries and large scale
industries. Several point and non-point source pollutants are depicted in
Figure 3.
Concept of primary and secondary pollutants
Primary pollutants are directly emitted into the environment in potentially
harmful forms. For example, nitrogen oxide, arsenic, cadmium, lead, radon
gas etc.
Secondary pollutants are products of one or two primary pollutants. They are
not directly emitted from the pollution sources. Classic example is formation
of tropospheric ozone and photo chemical smog.
In troposphere CO, NOx are precursor of ozone formation. The reactions are
as follows:
CO + OH → CO2 + H
H + O2 → HO2
HO2 + NO → OH + NO2
NO2 + hv (sunlight) → NO + O
O + O2 → O3
So, tropospheric ozone is formed due to reaction of primary pollutants like
CO and NO2and is not present naturally in the troposphere. Ground level or
tropospheric ozone is harmful for plants and animals. Whereas, stratospheric
ozone is extremely helpful as they absorb harmful UV rays.

12
 Basic Concepts in
Environmental
Pollution

Figure 1. Point source pollution

Figure 2. Non-point source pollution

Figure 3. Various sources of point and non-point source pollutants.

Types of air pollutants

Broadly air pollutants can be classified as primary and secondary air
pollutants. Primary pollutants are those which are directly emitted in the air.
Ash, smoke, dust, fumes mist, Sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, nitic oxide,
ammonia etc are examples of primary air pollutants.
Secondary air pollutants are those which are formed due to reaction of
primary air pollutants. For example, Sulphur trioxide, nitrogen dioxide, PAN,
Ozone etc.
13
Introduction to Based on the nature of pollutants it can be of two types: Gaseous air
Environmental
Pollution pollutants and particulate air pollutants.
Gaseous pollutants are in gaseous state for example nitrogen oxides (NO2),
Sulphur oxides (SO2), carbon monoxides (CO), ozone (O3). Particulate
matters are dust particles suspended in the air. Particulate size of 10µm and
2.5µm are particularly harmful for human health.
Types of water pollutants
The several types of water pollutants, they can be classified in to following
classes: 1) Organic pollutants, 2) Inorganic pollutants, 3) Suspended solids
and sediments, 4) Pathogens5) Thermal Pollution 6) Radioactive pollutants.
1) Organic Pollutants mainly consists of organic wastes which diminishes
the dissolved oxygen content of the water body. Waste water from the
food processing industries, municipal and domestic sewage etc. usually
organic wastes from these sources are biodegradable. But synthetic non-
biodegradable organic wastes like synthetic fibers, plastics, solvents and
volatile organic compounds are also important organic pollutants. These
pollutants persist in water bodies and are extremely harmful for aquatic
organisms. Oil is another organic pollutant which can severely affect the
water quality.
2) Other than organic pollutants inorganic substances like metals, several
salts, minerals, nutrients suspended solids dissolved solids consists of
inorganic pollutants. These can severely affect the water chemistry and
quality.
3) Suspended solids and sediments are generated from the erosion of soil
mainly. They consist of clay, silt and sand particles. They increase the
turbidity of water and hence affects the light penetration.
4) The pathogenic (can be bacteria or viruses) microorganisms come in in to
water body through sewage discharge as a major source or from
slaughterhouses. Pathogens can cause water borne diseases, such as
cholera, typhoid, dysentery, polio and infectious hepatitis in human.
5) Thermal pollutants are hot water discharge from thermal power plant,
nuclear power plants or industries where water is used as coolant.
Thermal pollution changes the water body temperature and hence affects
the DO content.
6) Radioactive pollutants are radioactive substances discharged from the
medical, agricultural, nuclear industry and are mostly carcinogenic.
Types of soil pollutants
Soil can be polluted due to release of pollutants deliberately or by
accidentally. Accidental release from transport and storage of toxic
chemicals. Mining and foundry activities release pollutants which
contaminate soil. Apart from this agricultural activities, solid waste and
hazardous waste dumping, leachate from landfill sites are potential soil
pollutants. Airborne deposition can also be potential soil pollutants.
14
Check your Exercise Progress 1 Basic Concepts in
Environmental
Note a) Write your answer in about 50 words Pollution

b) Check your answer with possible answers given at the end of the
unit.
1) Define air, water and soil pollution.
……………………………………………………………………………
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2) Discuss point, non-point pollutants.
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3) Explain different types of water pollutants.
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1.5 SOURCE CLASSIFICATION

Classification of sources of air pollution
1) Natural sources of air pollution: Includes natural sources like wind-blown
dust, pollen, sea salt, volcanic gas and ashes, smoke and trace gases from
volcanism or forest fire, terpenes from natural vegetation etc.
2) Anthropogenic or man-made sources: man-made source scan be of wide
spectrum. The types are mentioned below:
Combustion-gaseous pollutants, fly ash, trace metal oxides, smoke,
hydrocarbons, particulates
Roasting and heating processes- dust, smoke, metal fumes, oxides, fumes,
smoke, organic vapour, fluorides, minerals and organic particulates.
Chemicals, petroleum, pulp and paper- aldehydes, ammonia, oxides,
odors, HF, H2S, particulate matter, mercaptan
Food and agriculture- vapors, odors, chlorinated hydrocarbons, arsenic,
lead, smoke, fly ash and soot.
Figure 4 shows detailed classification of primary air pollutants emitting
from natural and anthropogenic sources.
15
Introduction to Air pollution sources can also be classified based on inventory (Figure 5).
Environmental
Pollution Stationary sources are not movable and mobile sources are movable
sources.
Other than these sources there are fugitive sources of air pollution which
are due to leakage or bad maintenance of pipes, conduits or accidental
release.

Figure 4. Sources of primary pollutants. Source NPTEL

Figure 5: Source inventory of air pollution Source: NPTEL

16
Classification of sources of water pollution Basic Concepts in
Environmental
Point sources: Pollution

Point sources of water pollution are discharge from industries, houses,

factories etc.
Non-point sources: urban and agricultural run-off.
Major sources of water pollutants are:
Agriculture: suspended solids, fertilizers, bacteria from livestock, food
processing, salt from soil irrigation; Industrial: factories and power plants;
Mining: surface mining toxics, acids, sediment.
Details of the sources will be further discussed in unit 3.
Classification of sources of soil pollution
Non-point sources of soil pollution:
Excess fertilizers, herbicides, and insecticides from agricultural lands and
residential areas;
Oil, grease, and toxic chemicals from urban runoff and energy production;
Sediment from improperly managed construction sites, crop and forest lands,
and eroding stream banks; Salt from irrigation practices and acid drainage
from abandoned mines;
Bacteria and nutrients from livestock, pet wastes, and faulty septic systems;
Atmospheric depositions are also sources of nonpoint source pollution.
Point sources of soil pollution
In contrast, pollution from point sources comes in large amounts from a
single source, such as an industrial operation or a wastewater treatment plant.

1.6 CONCEPT OF STANDARDS, GUIDELINES.

In pollution definition ‘such concentration’ word was important as above
such concentration of substances they become pollutants. These values are
determined by observing dose response relationship and then finding the
threshold value, above which the concentration of the pollutant become
harmful. These values are given in standards and guidelines. Standards are
country specific and legally bound. For example, according to, national
ambient air quality standards by Ministry of Environment, Forest and
Climate Change (MOEF&CC) India, the standard for annual nitrogen di
oxide in ambient air is 40 µg/m3 for residential, industrial and rural areas of
India. Any industry releasing nitrogen oxide above this concentration can be
legally penalized. In India Bureau of Indian standards and MOEF &CC and
Central Pollution Control board are the main nodal agency for developing
standards for pollutants. Whereas, guidelines are guiding documents based on
which national standards can be made. They are not country specific and
legalistic. For example, World Health Organization (WHO) provides
guideline for water pollutants or air pollutants.
17
Introduction to
Environmental 1.7 ROLE OF SOURCE-TRANSPORT-
Pollution
RECEPTOR (STR) SYSTEM IN POLLUTION
STUDIES.
Any pollution system has three basic components source, transport and
receptor (STR). Source identification and inventory is extremely important
for pollution monitoring, control and management. Source identification can
give an idea about the release rate of the pollutants. Point sources can easily
be identified but non-point source inventory is difficult but can be done with
proper inventory planning. Once the pollutant is released in air, water or soil
they are transported through the medium. In air the dispersion of pollutant
depends on the meteorological parameters such as, wind speed, wind
velocity, temperature etc. and topographical parameters like presence of sea,
mountains, valleys etc. Whereas, in water transport depends on velocity,
temperature etc. In soil also lateral and downward both ways the pollutants
can be transported. Once the pollutants are in the media monitoring of several
parameters affecting the transport of pollutants along with the concentration
of pollutants should be monitored. Finally, the main aim of any pollution
management practice is to protect the receptors, which can be ecosystem,
human, plants, property and economy. For this purpose, control techniques to
reduce the concentration pollutants are designed after understanding the
nature of pollutants. Environmental modelling can relate the three
components (STR) and can predict the situations, how the emitted pollutant
from a source can affect the receptor.
Check Your Exercise Progress 2
Note a) Write your answer in about 50 words
b) Check your answer with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
1) Illustrate source inventory classification of air pollution.
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2) Explain the role of STR in pollution management.
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18
1.7 LET US SUM UP Basic Concepts in
Environmental
Pollution
For pollution control and management basic knowledge of pollution,
pollutants are necessary. There are three main types of pollution air, water,
soil and noise pollution. Environmental pollutant can be defined as solid,
liquid or gaseous substance present in such concentration as may be, or tend
to be, injurious to environment. With the advent of increase in indoor air
pollutants the definition has been changed to “Air pollution is contamination
of the indoor or outdoor environment by any chemical, physical or biological
agent that modifies the natural characteristics of the atmosphere”.
Water pollution is defined as, “such contamination of water or such alteration
of the physical, chemical or biological properties of water or such discharge
of any sewage or trade effluent or of any other liquid, gaseous or solid
substance into water (whether directly or indirectly) as may, or is likely to,
create a nuisance or render such water harmful or injurious to public health or
safety, or to domestic, commercial, industrial, agricultural or other legitimate
uses, or to the life and health of animals or plants or of aquatic organisms”.
Decrease in the soil quality due to natural or anthropogenic contamination is
defined as soil pollution. Noise pollution may be defined as the state of
discomfort and restlessness caused to humans by unwanted high intensity
sound known as noise. There is several types of pollutant classification.
Among them point source pollutants are the pollutants coming out from a
specific location or source which are visible. Non- point source pollutants:
pollutants coming out from various sources without any specific source are
termed as non -point source pollutants. Primary pollutants are directly
emitted into the environment in potentially harmful forms. For example,
nitrogen oxide, arsenic, cadmium, lead, radon gas etc. Secondary pollutants
are products of one or two primary pollutants. They are not directly emitted
from the pollution sources. For control of pollution standards and guidelines
are important. Standards are country specific and legally bound. Whereas,
guidelines are guiding documents based on which national standards can be
made. They are not country specific and legalistic. Any pollution system has
three basic components source, transport and receptor (STR). These three
components are interconnected and their relation should de understood
properly for pollution management.

1.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) Air pollution is contamination of the indoor or outdoor environment by
any chemical, physical or biological agent that modifies the natural
characteristics of the atmosphere”.
Water pollution is defined as, “such contamination of water or such
alteration of the physical, chemical or biological properties of water or
such discharge of any sewage or trade effluent or of any other liquid,
gaseous or solid substance into water (whether directly or indirectly) as
may, or is likely to, create a nuisance or render such water harmful or 19
Introduction to injurious to public health or safety, or to domestic, commercial,
Environmental
Pollution industrial, agricultural or other legitimate uses, or to the life and health of
animals or plants or of aquatic organisms”.
Decrease in the soil quality due to natural or anthropogenic contamination
is defined as soil pollution.
2) Point source pollutants are the pollutants coming out from a specific
location or source which are visible. Non- point source pollutants:
pollutants coming out from various sources without any specific sources
are termed as non -point source pollutants.
3) The several types of water pollutants, they can be classified in to
following classes: 1) Organic pollutants, 2) Inorganic pollutants, 3)
Suspended solids and sediments, 4) Pathogens5) Thermal Pollution 6)
Radioactive pollutants.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) Stationary, mobile, area line, and point sources of air pollution.
2) Any pollution system has three basic components source, transport and
receptor (STR). Source identification and inventory is extremely
important for pollution monitoring, control and management. Once the
pollutants are in the media monitoring of several parameters affecting the
transport of pollutants along with the concentration of pollutants should
be monitored. Finally, the main aim of any pollution management
practice is to protect the receptors, which can be ecosystem, human,
plants, property and economy.

1.10 KEYWORDS
Environmental pollution: the presence of any substance in the environment
in such a concentration that it may tend, or it may tend to injurious to
humans, plants, property, animals and to the environment itself.
Environmental pollutant: solid, liquid or gaseous substance present in such
concentration as may be, or tend to be, injurious to environment.
Water pollutant: they are physical, chemical or biological agents which lead
to water pollution
Air pollutant: any solid, liquid or gaseous substance (including noise)
present in the atmosphere in such concentration as may be or tend to be
injurious to human beings or other living creatures or plants or property or
environment.
Soil pollutants: the physical, biological, chemical, air borne agents which
degrades the quality of the soil.
Noise pollution: the state of discomfort and restlessness caused to humans
by unwanted high intensity sound known as noise.

20
REFERENCES Basic Concepts in
Environmental
Pollution
1) Peavy, H., Rowe D. & Tchobanoglous, G. (1985). Environmental
Engineering. New York: McGraw-Hill.
2) Milnes, R. (2014). Environmental engineering: principles and practice.
Hoboken: Wiley.
3) Manahan, S. E. (2009). Fundamentals of environmental chemistry (3rd
ed.). Boca Raton: CRC Press/Taylor and Francis.
4) Keith, L. H. (Ed.) (1996). Principles of environmental sampling (2nd ed.).
Washington, DC: American Chemical Society.

21
Introduction to
Environmental UNIT 2 AIR QUALITY AND ITS IMPACT
Pollution

Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Sources of air pollutants
Natural and anthropogenic sources
Stationary, mobile, area, line sources
Fugitive emissions
Air pollutants and their effects
Gaseous pollutants
Particulate matter
Criteria pollutants
2.3 Meteorology of air pollution
2.4 Monitoring of Air Quality
2.5 Air quality standards
NAAQS
Indian auto emissions standards (BHARAT STAGE 1, 2, 3, 4)
2.6 Air Quality Index
2.7 Indoor air pollution
Concept and Sources
Effects on human health
2.8 Keywords
2.9 Let US Sum Up
2.10 References
2.11 Answers to Check Your Progress

2.0 INTRODUCTION
Air is essential for life. Without respiration air living beings, cannot survive.
So, controlling air pollution is a challenge to environmental scientist and
engineers. Moreover, pure air does not come in a package or bottle as an
alternative source like drinking water. Hence polluted air one breathed has
direct consequences on health and due its very dispersive nature very difficult
to control. After industrialization, the composition of the natural atmosphere
has been changed chiefly due to anthropogenic activities. Day by day
pollution load is increasing and so are the challenges. Air and air pollutants
are purely transboundary in nature. They can travel to great distance.
However, dispersion of air pollutants is dependent upon the meteorological
condition like, wind speed, wind direction, humidity, rainfall and on stack
height and exit gas temperature. Elevated concentration of air pollutants has
direct effects not only on human health but also on plants, animals,
22 ecosystems as well as on building materials. Apart from engineering controls
several legal control measures as well as standards has been implemented to Air Quality
and its Impact
combat air pollution. There have been several measures taken to combat the
ambient air pollution, but still indoor air pollution control is a major
challenge.

2.1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
• Explain the concept of air pollutant source inventory.
• Explain the effects of air pollutants on plant and animal health, and
materials.
• Describe the influence of weather parameters on air pollutant dispersion.
• Identify different air pollutants monitoring procedures.
• Enlist the types of indoor pollution sources.
• Recognize the concept of air quality index.

2.2 SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTANTS

Based on the origin of the sources of air pollutants can be divided as natural
and anthropogenic sources. Natural sources have very significant effect on
global air quality. Normally natural sources like volcanoes, forest fires, dust
storms, biogenic sources can influence global air quality. These sources are
beyond any anthropogenic control. Once the disaster occurs then to some
extent disaster control is possible in case of volcanism and forest fire.
Volcanic eruptions release large amounts of gases and other aerosols into the
atmosphere, these gases form huge clouds which gather in the atmosphere;
this process is referred to as outgassing or off gassing. Other than gases
magma particulates, known as ash, volcanic eruptions add Carbon
monoxide(CO), Water vapor(H₂O), Sulphur dioxide (SO₂), Hydrogen
sulfide (H₂S), Carbon dioxide (CO₂), Hydrogen fluoride (HF) and
Hydrogen chloride (HCl) into the atmosphere. Even forest fires produce huge
amounts of carbon di oxide, sulfur di oxides and particulate matter. Huge
amount of methane gas and carbon di oxide is emitted by the natural
wetlands. Fungal spores and pollens are also biogenic natural sources of air
pollution and can cause severe allergies in humans. Natural springs and
geysers emits huge amount of sulfur oxides. In case of anthropogenic sources
combustion processes are major sources. Combustion of fossil fuels or
agricultural waste are one of the major contributors to air pollution. Indoor
air pollutants are also generated by combustion of wood for cooking and
from several other anthropogenic activities. In winter months open burning of
crop residues in the neighboring states of Delhi has become a serious threat
to the air quality and the health of the inhabitants of the national capital.
Black carbon is another form of particulate air pollutant generated from
burning, cooking with solid fuels like coal, cow dung cakes etc., open
burning of agricultural residue, forest fires and the exhaust emitted from
diesel engines. Significant amount of world’s air-borne black carbon
originates from China and India. Countries such as many European nations
23
Introduction to that depend heavily on diesel powered vehicles for transportation also add a
Environmental
Pollution substantial quantity of black carbon in atmosphere. Moreover, industrial
emissions of volatile organics, gaseous air pollutants, particulate matter are
matter of concern. Day by day the number of vehicles are also increasing on
earth’s surface and the collective emissions by all the road, air and water
vehicles are most significant contributor for air pollution. Inventory wise air
pollution source classification is mentioned in Unit 1, section 1.4. Some of
the possible natural and anthropogenic sources are listed Figure 2.1.
Anthropogenic sources are further listed in detail in Table 2.1.

Figure 1. Air pollution sources based on origin

Table 2.1: Anthropogenic sources of air pollution:

Sources Activity type Pollutants emitted

Boilers, Power plants,
incineration of municipal
waste, incineration for
industrial processing, diesel
generators, agricultural waste
burning, fossil fuel run
vehicles.
Material handling, sintering,
coking, furnace, crushing,
cement glass refractories,
smelting, refining, ceramics
manufacturing, coal cleaning.
Boilers, heaters, catalyst
regenerators, flares, rectors,
storage tanks, compressor
engines.
Sulfuric acid plants, fertilizer
manufacture, nitric acid and
ammonia plants, phosphoric
24
Combustion Oxides of sulfur and
nitrogen, carbon
monoxide, fly ash, trace
metal oxides, particulate
matter, volatile and
nonvolatile organic
hydrocarbons, black
carbon.
Roasting and Dust, smoke, metal
heating fumes, odours, Oxides of
sulfur and nitrogen,
carbon monoxide,
hydrogen sulfide,
particulate matter.
Petroleum Aldehydes, ammonia,
refining odours, Oxides of sulfur
and nitrogen, carbon
monoxide, volatile
organics.
Inorganic Oxides of sulfur and
chemical nitrogen hydrogen
processing sulfide ammonia
 acid processing.
Plastic processing, paint and
varnish manufacturing,
synthetic rubber, rayon,
insecticide, soap and
detergent manufacture,
methanol, phenol etc.
Oxidation towers,
evaporators, digestors,
furnace.
Preservation, drying,
packaging.
Spraying and dusting of
insecticides and pesticides,
burning of refuses.
Note: Table modified and recreated from Environmental Pollution Control
Engineering, C.S. Rao, 2nd edition, 2006, page no.45.
industries. hydrogen sulfide, Air Quality
Hydrogen fluoride, and its Impact
phosphoric acid fumes.
Organic Particulate matter,
chemicals odours, sulfur di oxide,
carbon monoxide,
organic intermediates
and vapours, solvent
vapours.
Pulp and paper Methyl mercaptan,
processing dimethyl sulfide,
particulate matter,
odours, sulfur di oxide,
dioxine and furan.
Food Odours, dust, vapours.
processing
Agricultural Chlorinated organic
activities compound, arsenic, lead,
smoke, fly ash, black
carbon etc.

After proper source inventory measures can be taken to mitigate the sources
or to control them. But sources of fugitive emissions are very difficult to
identify or control. Environmental Protection Agency, USA defines “fugitive
emissions as unintended emissions from facilities or activities (e.g.,
construction) that "could not reasonably pass through a stack, chimney, vent,
or other functionally equivalent opening." Examples of fugitive releases
include losses from pipe work or wind-blown dust from stockpiles.
Occasionally these emissions can be of significant at a local level. Street dust
from paved and unpaved roads, building construction and demolition
activities, dust generated from loading unloading of goods, spraying and
ploughing in agriculture, leaf burning, cigarette smoking, material handling
and storage, leakages are all possible sources of fugitive emissions. These
emissions are all non-point in nature. The main concern with the fugitive
emissions are it is very difficult to quantify, and regulations are poor. If these
emissions are in the nose level of humans and emitting from large number of
small sources, then it becomes a large source and becomes matter of high
concern. These emissions can be avoided by good housekeeping, proper
maintenance of leakages of valves and ducts, by enclosing the areas of
construction, by spraying water and providing wind breaks and shelter belts
with trees.
Air pollutants are broadly classified as particulate matter and gaseous
pollutants. Air borne small solid or liquid droplets are commonly known as
particulates. They usually remain suspended in the air for significant period
depending on their size, so they are often called suspended particulate matter.
Particulate matter of size 10-micron (PM10) and 2.5-micron (PM2.5) are of
significance as they can enter the human body and cause significant health
effects. The particulate matter can be inhalable fraction that is the mass
fraction of total airborne particles which is inhaled through the nose and 25
Introduction to mouth, extra-thoracic fraction is the mass fraction of inhaled particles failing
Environmental
Pollution to penetrate beyond the larynx; thoracic fraction is the mass fraction of
inhaled particles penetrating beyond the larynx and respirable fraction is the
mass fraction of inhaled particles penetrating to the unciliated airways.
A suspension of fine (size range 1 to 100 micron) liquid or solid particles are
also termed as aerosols. The size of the particles referred is the aerodynamic
diameter of the particles. These aerosols can be classified depending on the
size of the particles. The classification is as follows:
Dust: generated due to combustion, abrasion, evaporation, grinding or
crushing operations. Size of dust particulates ranges from 1-200micron.
Smoke: smoke is generated for combustion or other chemical processes.
They may have different colours depending upon the nature of the material
burnt. The size of smoke particulates ranges from 0.01-1 micron.
Fume: these are solid particulates suspended in the air with size range of 0.1-
1 micron. They are generated due to chemical and metallurgical processes.
Mist: these are liquid droplets suspended in the atmosphere with less than 10-
micron size. Mists appear due to condensation of liquids released from the
industrial operations. Presence of mist obscure vision and reduce visibility.
Fog: it is mist where the droplets are of water. It is sufficiently dense to
obscure vision. Mostly they are in 1-5-micron size range.

Figure 2. Size distribution and sources of suspended particulate matters.

Source: Air Quality, Edited by Ashok Kumar, Publisher: Sciyo, 2010

Usually particulate matter of size 0.001-1.0 micron is termed as fine particles,

1-10-micron as medium and 10-100 as large particles. Particles and aerosols
above 1-micron size have measurable settling velocity, whereas particles
26
sized 0.1-1 micron have very small settling velocity and remain suspended in Air Quality
and its Impact
the air for longer time. Particles having less than 0.1-micron size are always
in random Brownian motion and are not settle able. The sources and size
distribution of different particulate matters are shown in figure 2.
Gaseous pollutants: most common gaseous air pollutants are Sulphur dioxide,
nitrogen oxides, hydrogen sulphide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanides
ammonia etc. The sources and their effects are given in details in Table 2.2.
Apart from the above types according to USA Environmental Protection
Agency six of the most common air pollutants namely, carbon monoxide,
lead, ground-level ozone, particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur
dioxide are known as “criteria” air pollutants. These pollutants have
numerous sources of emissions and usually are present in high amounts in the
ambient air. Periodically the possible health impacts on public health of these
pollutants are evaluated. For these pollutants, the national ambient air quality
standards are essential.
Hazardous or toxic air pollutants or air toxics are those pollutants that are
known or assumed to cause cancer or other grave health effects, such as
effects on reproductive system or birth defects, or adverse environmental
effects. According to EPA toxic air pollutants list there are 187 pollutants
identified to be toxic. Examples of toxic air pollutants include benzene
(mostly present in gasoline), perchloroethylene (emitted from dry cleaners),
methylene chloride (used as a solvent in chemical industries and as paint
strippers), dioxin and furans (industries using chlorine or chlorinated
compounds in process), asbestos, toluene (used as solvents in industries), and
metals such as chromium, cadmium, mercury, and lead compounds.

Table 2.2: EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION

Sl POLLUTAN SOURCES EFFECTS
no T Human Plant Properties
1 Sulphur • Coal and • Affects • Bleaching • Acid rain
dioxide oil(fuel) mucous • Necrosis • Surface
combustion membrane damage
• Skeleton-sized
• Chemical • Bronchospasm leaves • Leaching
and s
metallurgical • Lungs
industries
2 Nitrogen • Vehicles • Eye and nasal • Suppressed
dioxide • Combustion irritation growth
at industries • Pulmonary • Leaf collapse -
• Chemical problems
industries
3 Hydrogen • Petroleum • Nausea • Odour
sulphide refineries • Eye and throat nuisances
• Chemical irritation • Darkening
-
industries of surfaces
• Bituminous • Dis-
fuels colouration
4 Carbon • Combustion • Affects
monoxide (coal, CNS - -
gasoline, • Heart
27
Introduction to TPP, attack
Environmental automobiles, • Reduces
Pollution refuse O₂
burning) carrying
• Chemical, capacity of
Metallurgical blood
and Mineral
processing
industries
5 Hydrogen • Blast furnace • Affect • Injures
sulphide • Fumigation nerve cells vegetation
and vision -
• Chemical
Production • Dry throat
• Metal plating • Headache
6 Ammonia • Chemical • Respiratory • Toxic
processes diseases
(paper mills,
cement, -
fertilizers
etc.)
• Explosives
7 Phosgene or • Chemical • Cough • Toxic at higher
Carbonyl processes • Fatal conc.
chloride -
• Dye making pulmonary
edema
8 Aldehydes, • Oil • Respiratory • Growth
fats, glycerols combustion and eye retardation
• Incomplete problems • Curling -
oxidation of • Chlorosis
fuels and
lubricators
9 Arsines • Processes • Damages RBC
involving • Affects kidney
metals/acids - -
• Jaundice
containing
arsenic
10 Suspended • All • Asthma • Affects leaf • Corrosion
Particles (ash, combustion • Heart Diseases characteristics • Leaching
smog, soot, • Major
• Lung problems • Invisible
smoke etc) industries injuries
• Cancer
(steel, paper,
chemical, • Irritation
cement, all
manufacturin
g process)
11 Lead • Automobiles Affects- • Toxic • White lead
• Smelters • Gastro- affects
intestine, liver surface
and kidney
• Fertility and
pregnancy,
Brain
12 Ozone • Combustion • Respiratory • Premature • Fading
products + irritant aging • Cracking
sunlight = • Aggravates • Suppressed • Weakening
Ozone(smog asthma and growth
) other heart and • Leaf collapse
28 lungs problems
Photochemical smog Air Quality
and its Impact
Smog is a combination of two words i.e. smog and fog. It basically, is a form
of air pollution in which atmospheric visibility is partially obscured by a haze
consisting of solid particulates/liquid aerosols. It can be of two types,
photochemical smog and coal induced smog. Photochemical smog is formed
in highly motorized areas of metropolitan cities, ex- Los Angeles, Delhi,
Beijing. It generally occurs under adverse conditions when air movement is
restricted due to inversion of air layers. Principal reasons behind its formation
are emissions due to petroleum industries, automobiles and various
industries, followed by a sequence of photochemical reactions occurring
under specific conditions. It is formed due to interaction of hydrocarbons
with oxidants under the influence of sunlight giving rise to dangerous PAN
(peroxy acetyl nitrate). Its main constituents are NOx, PAN, hydrocarbons,
CO, O3. In India national capital Delhi is one of the most air polluted cities of
the world and experience sever smog in winter months.
Important reactions
• NO₂ + H₂O = NO + 2.OH
• CH₃CHO + .OH = CH₃CO* + H₂O
• CH₃CO* + O₂ = CH₃C(O)OO*(Acetyl peroxy)
• CH₃C(O)OO* + NO₂ = CH₃C(O)OO* NO₂(PAN)
Acid rain
Rain is a form of precipitation. When water condenses to form clouds,
various chemical species are incorporated into the cloud droplets and
sometimes further transformation takes place there only. During
precipitation, these accumulated chemical species taken up by water droplets
from air below the clouds are washed out onto earth’s surface. Among these
chemicals, dissolved CO₂ (aq.) is weak acid and hence, its presence is
considered as unpolluted atmosphere with pH 5.7. When precipitation is
made acidic, due to presence of acids stronger than CO₂ (aq.), acid rain
occurs. Acid deposition refers to the deposition of aqueous acids (HNO₃,
H₂SO₄), acidic gases (SO₂) and acidic salts (NH₄SO₄) on the earth’s
surface. The principal components contributing towards acid rain are HNO₃
and H₂SO₄.
Important reactions
1) Nitric acid formation
Day time: .NO₂ + .OH + M = HNO₃ + M, [M is a third body]
Night time: N₂O₅ + H₂O = 2HNO₃
2) Sulphuric acid formation
SO₃ + H₂O = H₂SO₄

29
Introduction to
Environmental 2.3 METEOROLOGICAL FACTORS
Pollution
INFLUENCING AIR QUALITY
The science of meteorology has great bearing on air pollution. An air
pollution problem involves three parts: the source, the movement of the
pollutant and the recipient. All meteorological phenomena are a result of
interaction of the elemental properties of the atmosphere, heat, pressure, wind
and moisture. Thus, meteorological conditions directly influence the transport
and dispersion of pollutants.
Wind
Wind is simply air in motion. The movement of air at the mesoscale and
microscale levels is of concern in control of air pollution. A study of air
movement over relatively small geographical regions can help in
understanding the movement of pollutants. In the upper layers, 200 m to 500
m above ground, the wind speed reaches the maximum value. It is obviously
important in predicting pollutant dispersion to know the direction and speed
of wind. The speed and direction of surface wind determines diffusion and
drift of the air pollutants release near the ground level. Higher the wind speed
at or close the point of the release of the pollutants, more the pollutants are
swiftly carried away from the emission source. Then, the pollutants will
disperse and not accumulate at the emission point or concentration and will
rapidly be diluted with the larger volume of air.
Lapse rate
A parcel of air rises in the earth's atmosphere and if it does not absorb heat
from its surroundings and it does not contain any moisture, it cools at a rate
of 1ºC/100 m rise. This is known as dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR). If the
parcel moves down it warms up at the same rate. A super-adiabatic lapse rate
also called a strong lapse rate occurs when the atmosphere temperature drops
more than 1ºC/100m. A sub-adiabatic rate also called weak lapse rate, is
characterized by drop of less than 1ºC/100 m. A special case of weak lapse
rate is the inversion, a condition which has warmer layer above colder air.
During super-adiabatic lapse rate, the atmospheric conditions are unstable.
Stable atmosphere tends to accumulate the air pollutants and unstable
atmosphere tends to disperse the air pollutant at a fast rate. Inversion
conditions are particularly stable conditions and keeps the pollutants
accumulated till the inversion persists. But in real situations the air parcel
rising may contain moisture in it. So, the moist adiabatic lapse rate is usually
less than the DALR because of condensation of vapour into water (or
sublimation) for a saturated parcel, consequently, latent heat is released into
the parcel, reducing the adiabatic cooling. The environmental lapse rate
(ELR) is stated as the rate at which the air temperature surrounding the air
parcels would change if we go upward in the atmosphere. The environmental
(or ambient) lapse rate is the vertical change in temperature through still air.
The environmental lapse rate is not fixed and changes diurnally, daily and
spatially. From the Earth's surface to an altitude of 11 kilometres, the

30
environmental lapse rate value of the U.S. Standard Atmosphere is – 6.5 Air Quality
and its Impact
K / km (3.57 °F / 1000 feet).
Temperature and inversion
Atmospheric inversions occur when the layer of air, adjacent to the ground
level cools down rapidly after sunset in winter months or as the ground cools
rapidly. But the layer above it does not cools and remains warm, resulting an
inversion. Temperature inversion leads to a stable atmosphere and therefore
very little turbulence or vertical mixing takes place. The lapse rate becomes
negative till a certain height. The accumulation of the air contaminants
prevents the sun rays to heat the ground and the air adjacent to the ground.
Fog is usually associated with the inversion since the temperature of the air at
ground level remains below the dew point of the water vapor in the air. An
inversion is an extreme sub-adiabatic condition, and thus the vertical air
movement within the inversion is almost nil. The two most common kind of
inversion are subsidence inversion and radiation inversion.
Maximum mixing depth and mixing height
The dispersion of pollutants in the lower atmosphere is greatly aided by the
convective and turbulent mixing that takes place. The vertical extent to which
this mixing takes place depends on the environmental lapse rate which varies
diurnally, from season to season and is also affected by topographical
features. The depth of the convective mixing layer in which vertical
movement of pollutants is possible, is called the maximum mixing depth
(MMD). Urban air pollution episodes are known to occur when MMD is
1500 m or less. Mixing height can be defined as the height above the ground
to which related pollutants will spread through the action of the atmospheric
turbulence.
Rainfall
Rainfall helps in wet deposition of pollutants present in the air. Rainfall helps
to reduce the pollutant concentration into the atmosphere. It triggers the
deposition of the particulate matter and henceforth its exclusion from the
atmosphere to the ground. It also helps to reduce the concentration of the
gaseous pollutants which are soluble in the water.
Relative humidity
Relative humidity (RH) is the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapor or
moisture to the equilibrium vapor pressure of water at a given temperature.
The moisture content of the atmosphere effects the corrosive action of the air
pollutant and shows the potentiality for the development of the fog.
Solar radiation
Solar radiation can influence the type and the rate of the chemical reaction in
the atmosphere. For example, formation of tropospheric ozone and
photochemical smog depend on the availability of solar radiation.

31
Introduction to Turbulence
Environmental
Pollution
Surface wind generally experiences rapid and irregular variation in both
speed and the direction which specifies that the air flows have arbitrary
motion with many eddies close the earth surface are called as turbulence.
Thus, turbulences are irregular motion of air in short distances. Turbulent
flow has many eddies taking place in the region near the ground surface. The
degree of turbulence depends on many factors such as the environmental
lapse rate, roughness of the surface, and the speed of winds. There are two
types of the turbulence.; thermal turbulence and mechanical turbulence.
When temperature of earth surface rises due absorption of the solar radiation,
the ELR increases and airs become unstable and convection current develops
resulting turbulence structure of wind known as the thermal turbulence.
When convective clouds and thunderstorm is developed, latent heat is
released at cloud height and this energy give rise to upward and downward
movements like large eddy type motion. These give rise to the many smaller
turbulence of various dimensions. Mechanical turbulence occurs near the
earth surface when the fast-moving air passes over the rough ground surface.
Due to the friction, small eddies develop and move up and down within the
horizontally moving air. This turbulence easily develops when wind speed
and ELR is high. Mechanical turbulence tends to lower over the open sea
surface or smooth ground surface and during light wind or calm condition
and stable atmosphere.
Gaussian Plume equation
Dispersion is responsible for thorough mixing and dilution of pollutants in
the atmosphere. Dispersion in turn depends upon turbulent diffusion and bulk
air flow. Many ideas have been put forth towards turbulent diffusion problem
and mathematical models have also been developed for quantitative
prediction of the average concentrations of pollutants downwind from the
source of emission. This quantitative information is vital for controlling air
pollution and prescribing release limits for various pollutants such that the
ambient air quality can be maintained. The present tendency is to interpret
dispersion data in terms of Gaussian model, whose equation is given as-

C(x,y,z)=

Where,
• C= Concentrations of pollutants at any point (x,y,z)
• Σy and Σz = spreading coefficients (spreading the plume in y and z
directions respectively), also known as standard deviations
• U= wind speed at stack altitude
• Y and z = variables

32
2.4 MONITORING OF AIR QUALITY Air Quality
and its Impact

There are two ways to monitor air quality of an area:

i) Station based monitoring
ii) Satellite based monitoring
i) Station Based Monitoring:
Various monitoring programs have been undertaken to know the quality
of air by generating vast amount of data on concentration of each air
pollutant (e.g., SPM, RSPM, NOx, SO2, etc.) in different parts of the
world. The urban areas may be viewed as dense sources of enormous
anthropogenic emissions of pollutants, which can alter the atmospheric
composition, chemistry and life cycles. In India, air pollution has
increased rapidly because of intensive population growth, increase in the
numbers of vehicles, use of fuels with poor environmental performance,
badly maintained transportation systems, poor land use pattern,
industrialization, and above all, ineffective environmental regulations.
The air quality monitoring program in India was started in 1967 by the
National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI). The
monitoring was expanded to include regular monitoring at three stations
in 1978. The CPCB initiated the National Ambient Air Quality
Monitoring (NAAQM) program in the year 1984 with seven stations at
Agra and Anpara. Subsequently, the program was renamed as National
Air Monitoring Programme. Under NAMP, four air pollutants, viz.,
Sulphur dioxide (SO2), oxides of nitrogen as NO2 and suspended
particulate matter (SPM) and respirable suspended particulate matter
(RSPM/PM10), have been identified for regular monitoring at all the
locations. The detailed guideline for air pollutants monitoring are given in
Central Pollution Control board of India in National Ambient Air Quality
Monitoring Series: NAAQMS, 2003.
ii) Satellite based monitoring
Beyond the traditional sampling method, there are some modern
techniques or tools which are also widely used and accepted today. The
traditional sampling method for environmental monitoring of air
pollutants is time consuming and expensive. Furthermore, field
measurements cannot provide the fine spatial resolution needed to show
detailed distribution patterns over a large area, or allow for continuous
monitoring. Remote-sensing techniques can overcome these problems.
Radiant energy reflected and emitted by the Earth carries with it a
signature of the Earth's atmospheric and surface characteristics. By
measuring the wavelength and the angular and polarization properties of
this energy, satellite sensors can quantify several atmospheric and surface
features. Satellite data have traditionally been used to detect air pollution
and can be used for qualitative measurements over a large coverage area.
Mapping air quality by using remote-sensing data provides better results
at a relatively cheaper cost. Mapping atmospheric pollution using remote
33
Introduction to sensing). The pollutants that can be measured with the help of remote
Environmental
Pollution sensing are nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), ammonia
(NH3), carbon monoxide (CO), some volatile organic compounds
(VOCs), and aerosol optical depth (AOD) from which surface particulate
matters (PM2.5 and PM10) may be inferred.
Satellites can measure the most important air pollutants, aerosols,
greenhouse gases and particles such as those from dust, smoke, and
pollen. They provide timely, spatially explicit, large-scale information on
distribution in a cost-effective manner. When these data are coupled with
ground-based measurements from monitoring stations and atmospheric
chemistry models, accurate information on air quality can be provided in
near-real time to support air pollution mitigation and public health
protection. Regional and municipal governments are increasingly
interested in providing services to monitor and forecast local- and city-
level air quality using models based on satellite data. The invention of
climate research through the use of satellite remote telemetry began in the
1960s through development of space probes to study other planets.
During the U.S. economic decline in 1977, with much of NASA's money
going toward the Shuttle program, the Reagan Administration proposed
to reduce spending on planetary exploration. During this time, new
scientific evidence emerged from ice and sediment cores that Earth's
climate had experienced rapid changes in temperature, running contrary
to the previously held belief that the climate changed on a geological time
scale. These changes increased political interest in gathering remote-
sensing data on the Earth itself and stimulated the science of climatology.
Based on the type of air to be monitored there are two types of air quality
monitoring:
I) Ambient air monitoring: This is done for the ambient air through
mostly high-volume samplers. As the pollutants in the air are in
diluted and dispersed condition, for detection of air pollutants high
volume of air is necessary to be sampled. The detailed method of
sampling and measurement is given in CPCB manual for guideline for
air quality monitoring.
II) Stack monitoring: This is source emission monitoring. Air pollutants
are sampled and monitored directly from the stack or chimney. The
detailed method of stack monitoring is given in CPCB manual
(http://cpcb.nic.in/upload/Publications/Publication_522_LAT80_Sour
ceEmissionMonitoring.pdf).

2.5 AIR QUALITY STANDARDS

After monitoring of air quality, the concentration of air pollutants can be
compared with standards to know the pollution status. Air quality standards
were first developed by US Environmental Protection Agency for ambient
air, then through Clean Air Act it was legalized. World Health Organization
also provides guidelines for ambient air quality which are as follows.
Guideline values prescribed by WHO are PM2.5 10 μg/m3 annual mean, 25
34
μg/m3 24-hour mean, PM10 20 μg/m3 annual mean, 50 μg/m3 24-hour mean, Air Quality
and its Impact
O3 100 μg/m3 8-hour mean, NO2 40 μg/m3 annual mean, 200 μg/m3 1-hour
mean, SO2 20 μg/m3 24-hour mean, 500 μg/m3 10-minute mean. In India,
Ambient air Quality standards are under The Air (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act 1981. The ambient air quality standard of India is given in
Table 2.3. Method of measurement are mentioned along with the permissible
concentrations. If the pollutants are not measured by the mentioned methods
then the data cannot be compared with the standards.
Table 2.3: National ambient air quality standards.
Pollutants Time Concentration in Ambient Air Methods of Measurement
Weighted Industrial, Ecologically
Average Residential, Sensitive Area
Rural and (Notified by
other Areas Central
Government
Sulphur Annual * 50 20 -Improved West and Gaeke
Dioxide 24 Hours 80 80 Method
(SO2), ** -Ultraviolet Fluorescence
μg/m3
Nitrogen Annual * 40 30 -Jacob & Hochheiser modified
Dioxide 24 Hours 80 80 (NaOH-NaAsO2) Method
(NO2), ** -Gas Phase Chemiluminescence
μg/m3
Particulate Annual * 60 60 -Gravimetric
Matter 24 Hours 100 100 -TEOM
(Size less ** -Beta attenuation
than 10μm)
or PM10,
μg/m3
Particulate Annual * 40 40 -Gravimetric
Matter 24 Hours 60 60 -TEOM
(Size less ** -Beta attenuation
than 2.5μm)
or PM2.5,
μg/m3
* Annual Arithmetic mean of minimum 104 measurements in a year at a site taken twice a week 24 hourly at
uniform intervals.
** 24 hourly or 8 hourly or 1 hourly monitored values, as applicable, shall be complied with 98% of the time
in a year. 2% of the time, they may exceed the limits but not on two consecutive days of monitoring.
NOTE: Whenever and wherever monitoring results on two consecutive days of monitoring exceed the limits
specified above for the respective category, it shall be considered adequate reason to institute regular or
continuous monitoring and further investigations.
Source: Gazette of India Notification number. No. 29016/20/90/PCI-I dated 18th November 2009.

Apart from ambient air quality standards vehicular standards also exists.
Following European regulations vehicular standards (EURO standards) were
first introduced in 2000. Gradually strict norms have been introduced since
then. After the implementation of the norms all new vehicles manufactured
must comply with the regulations. In India, Bharat stage emission standards
(BSES) are commenced by the Government of India. The BSES standards are
to regulate the emission of air pollutants from internal combustion engines
and Spark-ignition engines equipment, including motor vehicles. In October
2010, Bharat Stage (BS) III standards have been imposed across the country.
Bharat Stage IV emission standards have been enforced in 13 major cities
35
Introduction to since April 2010 and it has been imposed for entire country since April 2017.
Environmental
Pollution In 2016, the Government of India announced that the country would skip the
BS-V norms altogether and adopt BS-VI norms by 2020. The standards are
given in Table 2.4 to 2.6.
Table 2.4. Emission norms for passenger cars (Petrol)*
Norms CO( g/km) HC+ NOx(g/km)
1991Norms 14.3-27.1 2.0(Only HC)
1996 Norms 8.68-12.40 3.00-4.36
1998Norms 4.34-6.20 1.50-2.18
India stage
2000 norms 2.72 0.97
Bharat stage-II 2.2 0.5
Bharat Stage-III 2.3 0.35(combined)
Bharat Stage-IV 1.0 0.18(combined)

Table 2.5: Emission norms for Heavy Diesel vehicles *

Norms CO( g/kmhr) HC (g/kmhr) NOx (g/kmhr) PM(g/kwhr)
1991Norms 14 3.5 18 -
1996 Norms 11.2 2.4 14.4 -
India stage
2000 norms 4.5 1.1 8.0 0.36
Bharat stage-II 4.0 1.1 7.0 0.15
Bharat Stage-III 2.1 1.6 5.0 0.10
Bharat Stage-IV 1.5 0.96 3.5 0.02

Table 2.6: Emission Norms for 2/3-wheeler*

Norms CO( g/km) HC+ NOx)(g/km)

1991Norms 12-30 8-12 (only HC)
1996 Norms 4.5 3.6
India stage 2000
norms 2.0 2.0
Bharat stage-II 1.6 1.5
Bharat Stage-III 1.0 1.0
*source: http://www.cpcb.nic.in/Vehicular_Exhaust.php

2.6 AIR QUALITY INDEX (AQI)

An air quality index is one of the important tools available for analyzing and
representing air quality status uniformly. The Air Quality Index (AQI) can be
used as a measure to assess the relative change in the concentrations of
groups of pollutants in two situations. The two situations may represent either
two-time periods or two regions.
There are several methods to calculate air quality index (AQI). An AQI is a
communication tool, but the effective communication of air quality
36 information still needs improvement and monitoring networks may be ill
equipped to provide the appropriate information. However, AQIs may not Air Quality
accurately reflect our current understanding of the adverse health effects of and its Impact
ambient air pollution. It typically fails to recognize low level exposure and
additive contribution of multiple pollutants. Although AQIs can be used at a
research level, the original quality-assured data is often more appropriate
that’s why main rational for AQIs remains as a tool to provide air quality
information to the public. When available on the internet, they can display
current information and background material on air quality.
The National Air Quality Index (AQI) was started in New Delhi on 17th
September 2014 under the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan. An Expert Group
including air quality experts, medical professionals, academia, advocacy
groups, and State Pollution Control Boards was created, and a technical study
was conducted by IIT Kanpur. Expert Group and IIT Kanpur recommended
an AQI scheme in 2014. While the former measuring index was restricted to
three indicators, the new index comprised of eight parameters. The nonstop
monitoring systems that dispalys data on near real-time basis are mounted in
New Ahmedabad, Delhi, Mumbai, and Pune.

#The above values are concentration range. CO in mg/m3 and other pollutants in µg/m3, 2h-
hourly average values for PM10, PM2.5, NO2, SO2, NH3, and Pb, and 8-hourly values for CO
and O3.

Good, Satisfactory, Moderately polluted, Poor, Very Poor, and Severe are the
six AQI categories. The recently planned AQI will consider eight pollutants
(PM10, PM2.5, NO2, SO2, CO, O3, NH3, and Pb) for which short-term (up to
24-hourly averaging period) National Ambient Air Quality Standards are
declared in 2009. The details of AQI are shown in Table 2.7.
Table 2.7 Air quality index, health breakpoints and associated health
impacts;Source: Press Information Bureau, Government of India, Ministry of
Environment and Forests, 17-October-2014

37
Introduction to
Environmental
Pollution

2.7 INDOOR AIR POLLUTION

Indoor air quality refers to the physical, chemical and biological
characteristics of air inside our home, a building, or institution or commercial
facilities.
Indoor air pollution refers to the increase in concentration toxic contaminants
(that we encounter in our daily lives) to levels higher than that acceptable in
homes, institutions, workplaces etc. It is a matter of concern in developed and
developing countries where energy efficiency improvements sometimes
make houses relatively tight, reducing ventilation and raising pollutant levels.
CAUSES
Different conditions are responsible for indoor air pollution in rural and
urban areas:-
Rural areas (Developing countries):
• Burning of traditional fuels like wood, charcoal, cow-dung for cooking
and heating purposes.
Urban areas:
• Construction of tightly sealed houses with least ventilation
• Use of synthetic materials for building and furnishing
• Use of chemical products
• Pesticides
• Household care products

38
SOURCES Air Quality
and its Impact
• Tobacco smoking
• Carbon monoxide/ nitrogen dioxide from unvented or faulty gas
appliances
• Soot from wood burning stoves
• Fireplaces
• Aerosol sprays
• Biological agents, ex- pet dander, dust, mold etc
• Asbestos (roofs)
• Radon (cracks, floors)
• Lead (paints)
EFFECTS
• Lung cancer, “Radon” exposure is the second leading cause of cancer
• Respiratory diseases such as bronchitis, pneumonia and emphysema
• Heart diseases
• Headaches
• Loss of eyesight
• Impaired mental function
• Eye, nose and throat irritation
• Allergic reactions
• Damage of liver, kidney, and brain
PREVENTION
• Avoiding smoking indoor
• Using products and appliances safely
• Products containing VOCs should be used outside whenever possible
and indoors only in properly ventilated areas
• Choosing alternatives to aerosol sprays whenever possible
• Choosing housing materials, furniture, paints and carpets carefully
• Cleaning of house at regularly to keep it free from dust and mold
EXAMPLES
• Carbon monoxide: Produced by appliances or heaters that burn natural
gas, oil, wood, propane, or kerosene, also a major component of car
exhaust
• Tobacco smoke: Composed of different chemical compounds
• Radon: Comes from natural breakdown of uranium in rocks and soil. It
can seep into homes through cracks in the floors, walls.
• Molds: Require moisture to grow and tend to be found in damp
basements, refrigerators, air, conditioners, humidifiers, mattresses,
carpenting, under ceiling panels, or behind walls
39
Introduction to • Solvents: Household cleaners, degreasers, art and craft supplies, glues,
Environmental
Pollution flooring, furniture etc.
• VOCs: Hair sprays, deodorants, fresheners

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

Note a) Write your answer in about 50 words
b) Check your answer with possible answers given at the end of the
unit.
1) What are the effects of meteorological parameters on air pollutant
dispersal?
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
2) List the sources of indoor air pollutants.
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
3) Which standard is followed to control vehicular pollution?
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..

2.8 KEYWORDS
Aerodynamic diameter: Airborne particles have irregular shapes, and their
aerodynamic behavior is expressed in terms of the diameter of an idealized
spherical particle known as aerodynamic diameter.
Particles are sampled and described based on their aerodynamic diameter,
which is usually simply referred to as particle size. Particles having the same
aerodynamic diameter may have different dimensions and shapes. Source:
based on the Green Facts Digest on Air Pollution.
Health breakpoint: The concentration of pollutants above which adverse
health impacts starts.

2.9 LET US SUM UP

Air pollution is a burning issue and management is the utmost important
issue. Air pollution related diseases and deaths are increasing worldwide and
40
in India at an alarming rate. Hence this unit has focused on the source Air Quality
and its Impact
inventory as well as some management aspects. Once released from the
source the pollutant is governed by the vertical and horizontal movement and
hence the dispersal of pollutants is influenced by the meteorological
parameters. Lapse rates and atmospheric stability influences the rise or
dispersal of the air parcel greatly. Several air pollution models are used to
predict the air pollutant concentration at the ground level. Most commonly
used model is gaussian plume model which predicts the concentration of
pollutant at a given point at a particular time after releasing from the stack.
Monitoring of ambient air gives an idea about the pollution status of that
area. To judge the pollution status standards are essential. WHO provides
guidelines based on which National Ambient Air Quality standards are
developed? In India also, standards are developed for ambient air quality and
for vehicular emissions. For citizens of the country air quality status can be
depicted in terms of air quality index, which gives a comprehensive value
which represents the air quality and possible health impacts.

2.11 REFERENCES
1) Noel de Nevers, Air Pollution Control Engineering, Mc Graw Hill, New
York.
2) Arthur C. Stern, Air Pollution (Vol. I – Vol. VIII), Academic Press
3) Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science, Gilbert M
Masters
4) CPCB manual for Guidelines for ambient air quality monitoring.
Published By: Dr. B. Sengupta, Member Secretary, Central Pollution
Control Board
5) Environmental Engineering- Peavy & Rowe. Prentice Hall Pub.
6) Air Pollution Control – Rao and Rao
7) Environmental Pollution and Control – C.S. Rao.

2.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) The science of meteorology has great bearing on air pollution. An air
pollution problem involves three parts: the source, the movement of the
pollutant and the recipient. All meteorological phenomena are a result of
interaction of the elemental properties of the atmosphere, heat, pressure,
wind and moisture. Thus, meteorological conditions directly influence
the transport and dispersion of pollutants. Discuss effects of all the
meteorological parameters like wind speed, direction, solar radiation,
lapse rates, humidity etc.
2) The sources of indoor air pollutants are as follows:
• Burning of traditional fuels like wood, charcoal, cow-dung for
cooking and heating purposes.
• Construction of tightly sealed houses with least ventilation
41
Introduction to • Use of synthetic materials for building and furnishing
Environmental
Pollution • Use of chemical products
• Pesticides
• Household care products
• Tobacco smoking
• Carbon monoxide/ nitrogen dioxide from unvented or faulty gas
appliances
• Soot from wood burning stoves
• Fireplaces
• Aerosol sprays
• Biological agents, ex- pet dander, dust, mold etc
• Asbestos (roofs)
• Radon (cracks, floors)
• Lead (paints)
3) Discuss EURO and Bharat stage emission standards (BSES)

42
UNIT 3 WATER QUALITY AND ITS Water Quality
and Its Impact
IMPACT

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives
3.3 Concept of water quality
3.3.1 Different processes affecting water quality
3.3.2 Effect of Hydro geochemistry on water quality
3.3.3 Weathering processes and water quality
3.4 Water quality parameters
3.4.1 Physico-chemical Parameters
3.4.2 Biological parameters of water quality
3.5 Water quality standards and guidelines
3.6 Effects of water pollution
3.7 Water quality index
3.7.1 Categorization of Water Quality Indices
3.7.2 Basic procedure of Water Quality Index (WQI) development
3.8 Let Us Sum Up
3.9 Keywords
3.10 References
3.11 Answers to Check Your Progress

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Water is prime natural resources for our survival. Water quantity and quality
both are important for existence. Water quality plays an important role in all
the sectors of water consumption like agriculture, industrial, domestic etc.
Suitability of water in terms of water for irrigation, is of prime importance
otherwise, unsuitable water can deteriorate the soil quality and can adversely
affect the plant growth. Whereas, if quality of water for industrial
consumption is not suitable then it can lead to scaling in boilers, rusting in
pipes, and moreover adverse effects in the manufacturing processes. In
domestic water supply if the water quality is not of drinking water quality
standards then there is a major threat to public health. So, water quality is of
utmost importance. Safe drinking water is absolute necessity for sustainable
development as it is required for livelihood, public health, industrial growth,
economic development and food security. Access to good quality water is a
worldwide environmental issue. However, natural and anthropogenic
processes can alter it by contaminating or modifying the hydrological cycle.
The fastest growing cities are in low-income countries and are characterized
by poor water infrastructures and wastewater treatment facilities.
Unavailability of reliable water quality data is also one of the major
drawbacks. Water resource management has been a major focus worldwide
43
Introduction to in policy framing. The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and
Environmental
Pollution Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) greatly emphasized the need for
sustainable access to safe drinking water and sanitation for sustainable
development

3.2 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit the student will be able to:
• Realize the importance of water quality in daily life.
• Assess the influence of various natural processes to determine the water
quality.
• Explain the effects of the contaminated water on environment.
• Develop an idea of water quality indices.

3.3 CONCEPT OF WATER QUALITY

According to UNEP / WHO 1996 “Water quality” is a term used here to
express the suitability of water to sustain various uses or processes. Any use
will have certain requirements for the physical, chemical or biological
characteristics of water, for example, if the water is for drinking purpose then
contaminants should not be present, as well as the water should be
acceptable, that is devoid of any colour or objectionable odour and taste.
Water quality plays a pivotal role in public health, habitat protection,
agriculture, and industry. Water requirements have emerged over time for
drinking, hygiene, fisheries, irrigation, livestock, and industries, cooling in
fossil fuel power plants, nuclear power plants, hydropower generation, and
recreational activities. Drinking water supplies and specialized industrial
manufacturers exert the most sophisticated demands on water qualitatively
but largest demands for water quantity, such as for agricultural irrigation and
industrial cooling, require the least in terms of water quality. In parallel since
ancient times, it is the most suitable medium to clean, disperse, transport and
dispose of wastes. It’s a challenge to maintain water quality against point
source (PS) and non-point source (NPS) pollution. As compared to NPS, PS
can be distinguished easily as they are discrete sources rather than diffused.
The amplified transference of nutrients to water bodies is a result of day to
day improper land use and increasing impervious surfaces. The intricacy of
NPS identification is enhanced as the interaction between precipitation and
landscape characteristics increases i.e. impervious surface runoff increases.
In developing countries, such as Nepal, India, Bangladesh, and China, the
pollution of rivers is severe due to the urban activities (Yadav and Kumar
2011). Human activities strongly influence and alter almost every major
aquatic ecosystem, altering the fluidities of growth-limiting nutrients, from
land to aquatic ecosystems (Smith 2003). Accessibility for disposal of
wastewaters in surface waters makes it more exposed to pollution.
Anthropogenic activities, as well as natural processes, such rainfall and urban
or rural runoff, deteriorate surface waters for consumption, recreational and
44 other purposes and these activities have a direct impact on water quality.
These natural and anthropogenic processes, in addition, act as metal pool and Water Quality
adversely effects aquatic ecosystem by metal release. and Its Impact

3.3.1 Different Processes Affecting Water Quality

Although deterioration of water quality is almost always the result of
anthropological activities, specific natural phenomena can result in water
quality deteriorating below the required permissible limit for various
purposes. Natural measures such as heavy rainfall and hurricanes can lead to
severe erosion and landslides, which in turn can increase the concentration of
suspended material in affected rivers and lakes.
Periodic overturn of the water in some lakes can transport water with little or
no dissolved oxygen to the surface. Such natural events may be recurrent or
infrequent. Lasting natural conditions in some parts may make water unfit for
drinking or for explicit uses, such as irrigation. Common instances of this are
the salinization of surface waters through evaporation in arid and semi-arid
regions and the high salt concentration of some groundwater in certain
geological environments. Many groundwaters are naturally have high
concentration of carbonates (hardness), thus needs treatment before use for
industrial applications. The usual problems with water quality in industrial
applications are tabulated in Table 1.
Table 1: Water quality parameters that imparts several problems in industrial
water use.

Source: South African Water Quality Guidelines Volume 3: Industrial Water

Use Second Edition, 1996
Note: shaded box indicates positive contribution of the parameter to the
problem 45
Introduction to Groundwaters in some areas contain some ions (such as fluoride) and toxic
Environmental
Pollution elements (such as arsenic and selenium) in amounts that can be damaging to
health, while others can contain elements or compounds that can be origin of
other types of problems (such as the tinting and staining of sanitary fittings
by iron and manganese). The type and amount of chemical elements and
compounds in a freshwater system are subject to change by various types of
natural process, i.e. physical, chemical, hydrological and biological. The
most important processes and the water bodies they affect are listed in
Table 2.

The foremost environmental factors affecting water quality are:

• Distance from the ocean: amount of sea spray rich in Na+, Mg2+, Cl-, and
SO42- and other ions.
• Climate and vegetation: it determines the amount of erosion and mineral
weathering and amount of dissolved material through evaporation and
evapo- transpiration. In humid climate mineral weathering is more and
thus dissolved solids will be more. Whereas, in arid climate evaporation
will be more hence the water quality will be evaporation dominated, i.e.,
the natural waters will be rich in evaporites and high concentration of
dissolved salts. Vegetation cover will prevent erosion of soil and thus
surface runoff will be less, consequently, the surface water bodies nearby
will have lesser suspended solid loads.
• Rock composition (lithology): the vulnerability of rocks to weathering
depends on the rock type, for example granite is resistant to weathering
whereas, limestone; has much greater susceptibility for weathering. More
highly soluble rocks are more vulnerable to natural weathering process
and thus will impart more amount of dissolved salts, cations and anions
in the natural waters.

• Terrestrial vegetation: the decomposition of terrestrial plant tissues in

soil affect the quantity of organic carbon and nitrogenous substances
found in water.

• Aquatic vegetation: The growth, death and decomposition of algae and

aquatic plants will influence the concentration of nutrients alike nitrogen
and phosphorous. The decomposition of aquatic plants may also alter
the pH, carbonates, dissolved oxygen and different chemicals, which are
sensitive to oxidation/reduction conditions. Aquatic vegetation has more
effect on the chemistry of standing water bodies like lake water and a
less pronounced, but significant effect, on flowing water or river water.

46
 Table 2: Effect of different natural processes on water bodies Water Quality
and Its Impact

Note: 1. Ionic exchange is the replacement of cations, for example in clay;

the replacement of calcium by sodium is most common. 2. Bioaccumulation
results from uptake of contaminants by aquatic plants and animals. 3.
Biomagnification is the rise in concentration of a substance within a food
chain. As the trophic levels in food chain progresses the concentration of that
substance magnifies many folds.
Some of the prominent factors and hydro chemical reactions affecting water
quality are discussed below.

3.3. 2 Effect of Hydro Geochemistry on Water Quality

Rock type: The mineral composition of an aquifer is majorly responsible for
the geochemistry. Depending on the geology and chemical characteristics of
the aquifer, the hydro-chemical processes and hydro-geochemistry of the
groundwater vary spatially and temporarily. The hydro-geochemical
processes may include processes like the, dissolution, precipitation, ion
exchange processes, general geology, degree of chemical weathering of the
various rock types, quality of recharge water and inputs from sources other
than water-rock interaction and the residence time along the flow path control
the chemical composition of groundwater. Other than water-rock interaction,
there are various factors and their interaction which result in groundwater
47
Introduction to chemistry and hence give complex groundwater quality. Factors such as
Environmental
Pollution general geology and inputs from sources other than water- rock interaction.
Thus, to understand the geochemical processes, hydrodynamics and origin of
groundwater and its interaction with aquifer materials, it is very important to
identify the hydro-geochemical characteristics.
Aquifers: As discussed, the groundwater chemistry is greatly controlled by
its interaction with the minerals present in the aquifer through which it flows.
The other factor is the hydro-geochemical processes. They bring spatio-
temporal variations in the groundwater chemistry as they alter the chemical
composition of groundwater with respect to space and time. Therefore, these
hydro-geochemical processes present in the groundwater system, help in
deriving the contributors of rock-soil-water interaction and anthropogenic
influences on groundwater Groundwater is vulnerable to contamination
processes due to presence of shallow aquifers. Urbanization, industrial
development, agricultural activities and mining are also increasing the threat
of polluting aquifers around the world.
Geochemical Processes: Groundwater reacts to different levels with the
surrounding minerals or other components thus giving groundwater its
characteristic chemistry. For instance, silicate minerals present in most rocks,
do not react readily with most groundwater but the carbonate minerals easily
react with groundwater and plays a significant role in the evolution of many
groundwater.
Carbonate reactions: Among various minerals carbonates are most commonly
found minerals in various types of rocks. Sedimentary rocks are rich in
carbonates, even some igneous and metamorphic rocks also contain
carbonates. Hence, carbonate chemistry and weathering are of great relevance
to determine the ground water quality.
The calcite dissolution is as follows (Eq.1):
CaCO3 + CO2(g) + H2O ↔ Ca2++ 2HCO3- (1)
First step of this reaction is formation of carbonic acid (Eq.2):
CO2(g) + H2O ↔ H++ HCO3- (2)
Due to the first reaction carbonic acid is produced which promote the
dissolution of calcite i.e formation of calcium bicarbonates, which is water
soluble (Eq.3):
CaCO3 + H+↔ Ca2++ HCO3- (3)

From the first reaction it is evident that calcite solubility depends on the
amount of carbon dioxide available. Calcite solubility is also dependent on
pH, acidic pH will lead to more dissolution of calcite. Oxidation of sulphide
minerals or reactions of gaseous sulphur pollutants like hydrogen sulfide also
produce hydrogen ions that will lead to dissolution of calcite.
Oxidation-reduction reactions: Oxygen is the most common oxidant.
Sulphide minerals and reduced forms of iron are commonly found reductants.
When water infiltrates into the ground it becomes isolated from atmospheric
48
oxygen and becomes more reduced as it reacts with reducing agents such as Water Quality
organic matter and sulphide minerals. and Its Impact

Example of a redox reaction (Eq. 4):

Fe3++ e-→ Fe2+ (4)
Many elements can occur in more than one oxidation state having different
solubility. For example, ferrous iron (Fe2+) is soluble in water, while ferric
iron (Fe3+) is insoluble. The chemistry of arsenic is also governed by
oxidation and reduction.
According to Smedley and Kinniburgh, 2002, abundance of arsenic in rocks
and sediments are in igneous rocks: basic (basalt) 1.5-2.3 (mg kg-); acidic
(granite) 1.3-4.3 (mg kg-); Metamorphic rocks (schist/gneiss) 1.1 (mg kg-)
and Sedimentary rocks: shale 48-361 (mg kg-); limestone 2.6 (mg kg-);
sandstone 4.1 (mg kg-). Depending upon the redox reactions and pH
conditions in the groundwater, arsenic is found in many forms. It occurs
mainly as oxy anions as against the cation form found for most toxic
elements. Oxy anions tend to desorb with increasing pH, hence at lower
pH, As (V), and to a lesser extent As (III) can adsorb to a range of aquifer
minerals, like Al-(hydr)oxides, Fe/Mn-hydroxides and clay minerals. The
most important sorbents are iron-(hydr) oxides, (Fe-oxyhydroxide and
goethite), which have strong sorption sites and are abundant as grain coatings
in many aquifers. Freshly precipitated metal hydroxide promotes adsorption
whereas ageing mineral surfaces, presence of competing anions such as
phosphate, bicarbonate and silicate in groundwater decreases the adsorption
of Arsenic. The mobility of arsenic is depended on precipitation/dissolution
reactions.
Aquifers related to large amount of fresh organic matter or ore mineralization
in hydrothermal systems with temperatures greater than 100ºC, create strong
reducing conditions, leading to arsenic forming arsenopyrite (FeAsS)
(sulphate reduction). Under oxidising conditions and low pH, arsenate is
likely to be incorporated in iron hydroxides. It has been found that
competitive dissolved organic matter helps in desorption from Fe-
hydroxides. Studies have shown that the oxidation state of the water in an
aquifer is directly responsible for presence of high level of arsenic (McArthur
et al. 2001).
Ion exchange processes: The ions present in water, being electrically charged
have the tendency to be electrostatically adsorbed onto solid surfaces. Solid
surfaces can be ordinary mineral grains (eg. feldspar or quartz) or minerals
containing iron oxides and clay minerals of which the latter is more efficient.
Clay surfaces are negatively charged hence they are more effective in
adsorbing cations. But the adsorption or desorption of the major cations
found in natural waters have different propensity. Following is the order in
which their adsorption decreases: (strongly adsorbed) Calcium > Magnesium
> Potassium > Sodium (weakly adsorbed). This leads to ion exchange water
softener. The procedure known as base-exchange softening is applicable as
there is pool of sodium ions adsorbed onto clay minerals, but when natural
water with calcium and/or magnesium ions comes in contact then
49
Introduction to preferentially they attach at exchange sites and sodium is released/exchanged
Environmental
Pollution and is mobilised in water. This in turn changes the pH as the equilibrium of
the reaction (Eq. 5) moves towards right hence increasing the bicarbonate
level and the pH.
CaCO3 + CO2(g) + H2O = Ca2+ + 2HCO3- (5)

For the trace elements which behave as cations, the ion exchange is very
critical process because the clay rich surfaces will readily adsorb heavy metal
cations from metal contaminated water. This concept is also utilised in
landfill sites where engineered clay barriers are used.

3.2.3 Weathering Processes and Water Quality

Weathering processes are wear and tear of rocks due to physical, chemical
and biological agents. Several weathering processes can influence water
quality, specially ground water quality.
Physical aspects of weathering: Distinct differences in physical conditions,
alternate freezing and thawing and wet periods alternating with severe drying
tend to rapidly weather rocks. Also, hydration and dehydration of rocks cause
swelling and shrinking of minerals in it hence mechanically weathering the
rocks. Another factor is the growth of roots through cracks in the rocks
causing its weathering.
Chemical Weathering: Chemical mechanisms, namely dissolution/
precipitation, acid-base reactions, complexation, hydrolysis and oxidation-
reduction (Eq. 6 to 15) are majorly responsible for chemical weathering.
Another crucial factor is temperature because the rate of chemical weathering
increases with increasing temperature. Weathering can also be considered as
a result of constant interaction between rock-water-mineral system to attain
equilibrium (Manahan 2000).
• Hydration/dehydration
CaSO4(s) +2H2O → CaSO4∙2H2O(s) (6)
2Fe (OH)3∙xH2O(s) → Fe2O3(s) + (3+2x) H2O (7)
• Dissolution
CaSO4∙2H2O(s) (water) → Ca2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + 2H2O (8)
• Oxidation
4FeS2(s) + 15O2(g) + (8+2x) H2O → 2Fe2O3∙xH2O + 8SO42-(aq)
+16H+(aq) (9)
Fe2SiO4(s) + 4CO2 (aq) + 4H2O → 2Fe2+ + 4HCO3- + H4SiO4 (10)
4Fe2+ + 8HCO3- + O2(g) → 2Fe2O3(s) + 8CO2 + 4H2O (11)
• Dissolution with hydrolysis
CaCO3(s) + H2O → Ca2+(aq) + HCO3-(aq) + OH+(aq) (12)
Mg2SiO4(s) + 4CO2 + 4H2O → 2Mg2+ + 4HCO3- + H4SiO4 (13)
50
• Acid hydrolysis Water Quality
and Its Impact
CaCO3(s) + H2O + CO2 (aq) → Ca2+(aq) + 2HCO3-(aq) (14)
• Complexation
K2 (Si6Al2) Al4O20(OH)4(s) + 6C2O42-(aq) + 20H+ → 6AlC2O4+(aq) + 6Si
(OH)4 + 2K+ (15)
Check your Progress Exercise 1
Note a) Write your answer in about 50 words
b) Check your answer with possible answers given at the end of
the unit.
1) Elaborate the concept of water quality.
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
2) Discuss the influence of natural processes in influencing the water
quality.
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
3) ‘Weathering processes severely affects water quality’-Justify the
statement.
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
4) Enumerate the importance of good quality water in Industrial processes.
……………………………………………………………………………..
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……………………………………………………………………………..

3.3 WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS

To determine the quality of water certain water quality parameters should be
checked before terming the source of the water as polluted or safe. There are
several physical, chemical and biological parameters influence water quality,
among which some are discussed below.
51
Introduction to
Environmental
3.3.1 Physico-chemical Parameters
Pollution
The accessibility of good quality water is an essential feature for averting
diseases and improving quality of life. It is required to know details about
several physico-chemical parameters such as pH, color, temperature, Total
dissolved solids (TDS), hardness, acidity, alkalinity, sulphate, nitrate,
chloride, dissolved oxygen (DO), biological oxygen demand (BOD),
chemical oxygen demand (COD), used for assessing of water quality.
Physico-chemical parameters are discussed below.
Temperature: - Temperature regulates the rate of all biochemical and
biological reactions and the seasonal and diurnal variation persist.
Temperature is a significant factor to consider while assessing water quality.
Temperature effects quite a few other parameters and can change the physical
and chemical properties of water. In this respect, water temperature should be
measured for determining metabolic rates and photosynthesis, toxicity,
dissolved oxygen (DO) and other dissolved gas concentrations, conductivity
and salinity, – Oxidation reduction potential (ORP), pH and water density.
Electrical conductivity: - As the dissolved salt is more conducive of
electricity and if there is high quantity of salt in a fixed volume of water, the
electrical conductivity of the water will be high in contrast to less saline
water. The capability of a solution to conduct an electrical current is
determined by the nature and various types of the ionic species in that
solution. This gives an idea about the total amount of dissolved solids in the
water. In natural waters almost all the EC is due to the presence of major
cations (sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium) and anions (nitrate,
carbonate, bicarbonate, sulphate and chloride). In acidic or basic waters, the
proton (H) or hydroxyl ion (OH) contribute extensively to the EC. Most
organic compounds dissolved in water do not dissociate into ions,
consequently they do not affect the EC.
Hydrogen Ion Activity (pH): - pH is a significant parameter in assessing the
water quality. The pH of natural waters indicates the acid-base equilibrium
reached by numerous dissolved compounds and is a consequence of the
carbon dioxide-bicarbonate-carbonate equilibrium which includes numerous
constituent equilibria, all of which are dependent on temperature.
Environments which promotes production of hydrogen ions results in
lowering of pH, mentioned to as an acidification process. Instead, conditions
which favor neutralization of hydrogen ions effect in an increase in pH,
denoted to as an alkalinisation process. However, the pH of water does not
give the idea of the capability to neutralize additions of acids or bases
without change in pH. This property, termed buffering capacity, is controlled
by the acidity and alkalinity in the water. The geochemistry of the rocks and
soils in a catchment area affects the pH and alkalinity of the water. The pH
of most natural waters lies in the range of 6.5 - 9.5. Biological actions and
anthropogenic activities such as nutrient cycling and industrial effluent
discharge, respectively, can influence pH fluctuations. Acid mine drainage
can have a noticeable effect on the pH. Further, acid-forming gases released
into the atmosphere such as sulphur di oxide and nitrogen oxides may
ultimately change the acid-base equilibria in natural waters and lead to a
52
reduced acid-neutralising capacity, and henceforth a dropping of the pH. The Water Quality
pH of natural waters is influenced by various factors and processes, including and Its Impact

temperature, discharge of effluents, acid mine drainage, acidic precipitation,

runoff, microbial activity and decay processes.
Total Dissolved Solid (TDS): The natural processes causing dissolved solids
in water are triggered through anthropogenic activities such as discharge of
industrial effluent and domestic waste water, surface runoff, deforestation
leading to soil erosion and surface runoff and irrigation. High dissolved
solids in surface waters are also due to high rate of evaporation in closed
natural water bodies like, lake and ponds or lagoon.
Alkalinity: Alkalinity is a degree of the acid-neutralising capacity of water
and hence, also an indication of the base content. Ions which normally
contribute to the alkalinity are bicarbonate (HCO32-) and carbonate (CO32- ),
and at high pH, hydroxide (OH-). Other ions which can contribute to
alkalinity are silicates, borates, phosphates and some organic substances. The
nature of the rocks and soils in a specific catchment area influences the
natural alkalinity of water. It can range from zero to several hundred mg
CaCO3 in natural waters depending on the mineral composition of the rocks.
The alkalinity of water is determined by the amount of the conjugate base
ions, of which bicarbonate is the most commonly available in nature. At pH
values less than 8.3 the bicarbonate ion concentration is the main form of
alkalinity however at pH values more than 8.3 and 9.6, the carbonate and
hydroxide ions respectively are of significance. Alkalinity can be neutralised
in water by acid influxes. Where acid influx prevails and neutralise the total
alkalinity of water, the pH will decrease to below a pH value of four and
acidity will appear. Whereas, when alkalis are added to a water, the alkalinity
and henceforth the pH will rise.
Low alkalinity water is also undesirable, since the absence of pH buffering
capacity related with low alkalinity may be favorable to corrosion. A certain
degree of alkalinity may act as a corrosion inhibitor. Very alkaline water is
chiefly harmful in the food processing and beverage productions.
Acidity: Acidity is due to the occurrence of weak or strong acids and/or
presence of water-soluble inorganic salts. Dissolved carbon dioxide is
generally the foremost acidity factor in unpolluted surface waters (as it forms
H2CO3 - carbonic acid). The acidity of water will affect palatability and
corrosiveness.
Total Hardness: Water hardness is the capacity of water to produce lather
after reacting with soap, hard water needing significantly more soap to
produce a lather. Hard water frequently produces a perceptible (of insoluble
metals, soaps or salts) in vessels. It is not produced by a single constituent but
by several dissolved polyvalent metallic ions, chiefly calcium and
magnesium ions, although other ions (e.g. aluminum, iron, barium, strontium,
manganese, and zinc) also contribute. Hardness is most frequently expressed
as milligrams of CaCO3 equivalent per liter. Water containing CaCO3 at
concentrations below 60 mg/l is generally considered as soft; 60–120 mg/l,
moderately hard; 120–180 mg/l, hard; and more than 180 mg/l, very hard.
53
Introduction to Though hardness is caused by cations, it might also be represented as in
Environmental
Pollution terms of carbonate (temporary) and non-carbonate (permanent) hardness.
The main natural sources of hardness in water are dissolved polyvalent
metallic ions from sedimentary rocks, seepage and runoff from soils. Calcium
and magnesium, the two principal ions, exist in many sedimentary rocks, the
most common being limestone and chalk. They are also common essential
mineral constituents of food. As stated above, a minor contribution to the
total hardness of water is also made by other polyvalent ions, such as
aluminium, barium, iron, manganese, strontium and zinc. The taste threshold
for the calcium ion is in the range 100–300 mg/l, depending on the associated
anion, but higher concentrations are acceptable to consumers.
Chloride Contents: - Chloride may present in groundwater naturally and may
also come from diverse sources such as infiltration of Sea water, weathering,
leaching of sedimentary rocks etc. Chloride is a common anion of water, it is
highly soluble and tends to accumulate once in solution. Characteristically,
the amount of chloride in fresh water varies from a few to several hundred
mg/R. In ocean water the concentration is very high, approximately 19800
mg/R. Chloride sources in surface water can be from irrigation run off,
sewage effluent discharges and from industrial effluents. The taste and the
corrosion threshold of chloride are dependent on the associated cations, pH
and calcium carbonate concentration. High, chloride concentrations increase
corrosion and its effect is synergistic when pH values are low. Chlorides are
particularly destructive to stainless steel. Chlorides may also form rough
lustrous and crystalline deposition in copper, cadmium, tin, and silver-plating
tanks.
Dissolved Oxygen: - The amount of dissolved oxygen in natural water may
be mostly attributed to diffusion from the air and Photosynthesis by aquatic
autotrophs. Dissolved oxygen is a significant factor that regulates the quality
of water in surface waters. It helps to degrade organic matter. Due to the
presence of dissolved oxygen the aquatic organisms can breathe.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD): - BOD is the quantity of dissolved
oxygen essential in mg/l for stabilizing the biodegradable matter by
microorganism present in the water sample under aerobic environments and
for the oxidation of certain inorganic materials. (like, iron, sulphides). There
are two phases of breakdown in the BOD test: a carbonaceous phase and a
nitrogenous phase. The carbonaceous phase, or first phase, signifies that
portion of oxygen demand which is needed for oxidation of organic carbon to
carbon dioxide. The nitrogenous phase, or second phase, signifies a
collective carbonaceous plus nitrogenous demand. In this phase organic
nitrogen, nitrite and ammonia, are transformed to nitrate. Nitrogenous phase
typically starts after around 6 days. For some sewage water, particularly
effluents from wastewater treatment plants applying biological waste water
treatment processes, nitrification can happen in less than 5 days if nitrifying
bacteria, ammonia, nitrite, are present. In this case, an inhibitor or such
chemical compound that stops nitrification should be added, if only the
carbonaceous demand is to be measured. Consequently, the results must be
54
reported as carbonaceous BOD (CBOD), or as CBOD5 when a nitrification Water Quality
inhibitor is used. and Its Impact

The standard incubation or oxidation of BOD test is 5 days at 20 degrees

Celsius (°C), which is termed as BOD5. The 5-day value, though, represents a
percentage of the total BOD. Twenty days is adequate time for a
comprehensive biochemical oxidation of organic matter, but a 20-day test is
impractical when data are required to address an instant concern.
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD): - COD is the quantity of dissolved
oxygen required in water to cause chemical oxidation of the organic material.
Both BOD and COD are important indicators of the ecological health of a
surface water body.
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is defined as the amount of the oxygen
equivalent of organic matter of a sample that is prone to oxidation by a strong
chemical oxidant. Most of the organic matter can be oxidized to 95 % - 100
% of their theoretical value by a strong chemical oxidant. The COD
consequently gives an estimation of the organic matter present in a water
sample.
In the aquatic bodies, usually organic matter is found as, autochthonous
organic matter, which exists within the aquatic body itself due to the growth,
death and decay of aquatic organisms and allochthonous organic matter,
which come from outside the water body. Agricultural practices, stock
farming and the generation of industrial and domestic wastes are important
sources of organic matter in the water bodies. The organic matter is present
either in dissolved or, as particulate matter. The dissolved organic matter
may impart undesirable tastes and odours, while the particulate organic
matter increases the suspended solid content of the water.
Organic matter absorbed or adhered to mucilaginous biofilms increases
material fouling in cooling systems and heat exchanger. It also forms
microbial slimes, which acts as a nutrient source for bacterial growth. Such
microbial slimes frequently comprise of sulphate-reducing bacteria (SRB),
which damage cooling systems and heat exchange through microbially-
influenced or/ and induced corrosion (MIC) in industries.
Organic matter present in water can also lead to fouling of ion exchange
resins, electrodialysis and pressure membrane filtration. Products of organic
matter degradation while passing through ion exchange beds can cause
corrosion and/ or erosion in steam and condensate return lines and cause
problems in steam generation systems.
Chemical oxygen demand denotes to the oxygen equivalent of the oxidizable
organic and inorganic matter in a sample by oxidation with a strong chemical
oxidant. There exists a direct empirical relationship between COD, BOD
and total organic carbon (TOC) present in the samples from a specific source.
Therefore, once a correlation is established, the COD test is suitable for
monitoring and control purposes.
Sulfate: Sulphate (SO42-) forms salts with many cations such as potassium
(K+), sodium (Na+), calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), barium (Ba2+), 55
Introduction to lead (Pb2+) and ammonium (NH4+). Sulfate salts of Potassium, sodium,
Environmental
Pollution magnesium and ammonium sulphates are highly soluble whereas calcium
sulphate is less soluble, and barium and lead sulphates are insoluble.
Sulphate commonly occurs in natural waters from the dissolution of mineral
sulphates in soil and rock, particularly calcium sulphate (gypsum) bearing
rocks and other partially soluble sulphate minerals. Typically, the
concentration of sulphate in surface water is 5 mg/l, although concentrations
of several hundred mg/l may occur where the dissolution of sulphate minerals
or discharge of effluents from acid mine drainage takes place; sea water is
just over 900 mg/l.
Sulphates: are also discharged from other industrial processes, such as
tanneries, textile mills and processes using sulphuric acid or sulphates.
Atmospheric sulphur dioxide, emitted from combustion of fossil fuels, can
give rise to sulphuric acid in rainwater (acid rain), which return to surface
waters in the environment.
Nitrate: the sources of nitrate is used mainly in inorganic fertilizers. It is used
as an oxidizing agent an also used as production of explosives, and glass
making. Sodium nitrite is used as food preservative, for cured meats. Nitrates
is a macro nutrient in plant. Nitrate can enter both surface water and
groundwater because of surface run off and leaching and from wastewater
treatment plants and from oxidation of nitrogenous waste products from
human and animal excreta, including septic tanks. Chloramine addition as
residual disinfectant and stagnation of nitrate rich oxygen deficit waters in
galvanized steel pipes can form nitrite by Nitrosomonas bacteria. In soil,
inorganic nitrogen and organic nitrogen are first decomposed to form
ammonia, which is then oxidized to nitrite and nitrate. Plants take up the
nitrate and use in the synthesis of organic nitrogenous compounds.
Remaining nitrate in soil readily moves with the groundwater. In aerobic
conditions, nitrate can percolate in large quantities into the aquifer.
Degradation or denitrification occurs only to a small extent in the soil and in
the rocks forming the aquifer. Whereas, in anaerobic conditions, nitrate may
be denitrified completely to nitrogen. In surface waters, nitrification and
denitrification may occur. the amount of the nitrification and denitrification
depends on temperature and the pH. Once the nitrate reaches these aquifers,
the aquifers remains contaminated for decades, even if there is a considerable
decrease in the nitrate concentration of the surface.
Phosphorous: In the aquatic environment, phosphorus may be in dissolved or
particulate forms. Dissolved phosphorus is available to aquatic organisms. It
may enter aquatic bodies from leaching and surface run off from fertilizer,
crop residues and human or animal wastes. A small amount of dissolved
phosphorus occurs naturally in soils. Particulate phosphorus may be present
in soil particles and minerals containing Al, Fe or Ca or with organic matter.
Particulate phosphorus transfers primarily by soil erosion or run off from the
land surface. Whereas, dissolved phosphorus is readily available to algae,
particulate phosphorus is unavailable or gradually available to aquatic
organisms. Where particulate phosphorus has accrued in streambeds and
lakebeds, slow release of dissolved phosphorus from sediments can be a
56
cause of phosphorus for many years. The sources of phosphorous are as Water Quality
follows: and Its Impact

Point sources: wastewater treatment plant, industrial effluents, sewage,

sewerage. Whereas, nonpoint sources are farm, rural, or urban runoff with
excess fertilizers, herbicides, and insecticides. Other non-point sources are
oil, grease, from urban runoff, run off from improperly managed construction
sites, crop and forest lands, and eroding stream banks, bacteria and nutrients
from pet washes, livestock, and faulty septic systems. Usually, nonpoint
sources contribute 80% of the phosphorus and point sources about 20%,
although the specific amount may vary depending on the land use and
practices in the watershed.
Eutrophication: Excess nitrogen and phosphorus is an alarm for most aquatic
ecosystems. Under natural conditions, where human activities are not present
in the landscape, phosphorus and nitrogen is generally in short supply. Its
short supply limits the growth of algae and aquatic plants. When excess
phosphorus and nitrogen becomes available, it stimulates the growth of algae
and other aquatic plants. This condition of nutrient (nitrogen and
phosphorous) enrichment and high aquatic plant productivity is referred to as
eutrophication. Under eutrophic conditions, recreational property of lakes and
streams may decrease. In the early phases of eutrophication, fishing may
increase because productivity increases the food supply. But when algae and
aquatic plants die, their decay consumes oxygen, leading to fish kills and low
dissolved oxygen. Another unwanted effect of eutrophication is the
development of blue-green algae. These algae tend to dominate the algal
community where phosphorus is in excess. They are a concern because they
release odiferous and toxic compounds. Their occurrence at high
concentration, called ‘bloom conditions’ usually results in odor and taste
problems in water bodies and allergic and even toxic effects for those who
come in contact with them.
Colour: Colour in water may be due to the occurrence of coloured organic
matter, like humic substances, metals (iron and manganese), or coloured
industrial wastes. Drinking water should be colourless. Variations in the
colour of water and the presence of new colours aid as indicators that more
investigation is needed.
Taste and odour: Odours in water are produced mostly by the occurrence of
organic substances. Some odours are revealing of increased biological
activity, others may be consequence from industrial pollution. Usually, the
taste buds in the oral cavity sense the inorganic compounds like metals such
as sodium, magnesium, copper, calcium, iron, and zinc.
Fluoride: Worldwide 65% of endemic fluorosis is caused by fluoride
contamination drinking water, which harmfully affects teeth, bones and soft
tissues in humans and animals (Viswanathan et al. 2009; Ali et al. 2015).
Fluoride concentration above 1.5 mg L-1 in drinking water is consumed by
200 million people, worldwide (He et al. 2014). Excessive fluoride
concentration in more than 20 developed and developing countries has been
reported in Mexico, central and western China, Kenya and South Africa
57
Introduction to including India (Meenakshi and Maheshawari 2006). According to the
Environmental
Pollution survey, in 20 states and union territories in India 25 million people are
affected by fluoride contamination, 65 million people along with 6 million
children below age 14 years are at risk (Arlapa et al. 2013).
Fluoride enters into water systems mainly through the industrial effluents
containing high fluoride concentration such as manufacture of
semiconductors, electroplating, production of glass and ceramic, coal-fired
power plants, beryllium extraction plants, aluminium smelters, brick and iron
works (Bhatnagar et al. 2011). Fluoride also exists in minerals such as
fluorspar (CaF2), fluorapatite (Ca5(PO4)3F), cryolite (Na3AlF6) and sellaite
(MgF2). Fluoride releases into water due to the weathering of fluoride
containing, rocks and minerals (Rafique et al. 2013).
Heavy Metals: Areas that are polluted by domestic and industrial sector have
high chemical concentrations in groundwater. These concentrations are
controlled by six mechanisms as follows: (1) interaction of interstitial water
and geologic sediments, (2) interface and mixed water along
freshwater/saltwater boundaries, (3) leakage causing permanent periodic and
episodic admixture processes, (4) admixture of deep groundwater along
tectonic structures, (5) different solubility behaviour in confined groundwater
as solution processes, (6) anthropogenic influences such as industrial,
fertilizing, sewage effects (Förstner and Wittmann 1983). The last factor has
a very strong effect in enriching trace metal contents.
Industrial and consumer waste is one of the sources through which heavy
metal enters water supply. Other source may be acid rain which breaks down
soil and releases heavy metals into water bodies like streams, lakes, rivers
and even groundwater (Sarikani et al. 2010). Also, in most developing
nations, acceptable sanitary landfilling practices are not adopted leading to
decomposition of water resources (Vasanthi et al. 2008). Thus, contamination
of water supplies results in heavy metal poisoning through drinking water
contamination. Also, the use of lead pipes to supply water is another reason
for water contamination leading to heavy metal poisoning. Other sources of
heavy metal poisoning are high ambient air concentrations near emission
sources, or intake via the food chain.
Arsenic in natural water occurs in different states of oxidation (e.g. As3+ and
As5+). The mobilization can take place both in reducing conditions (Smedley
and Kinniburgh 2002) and in oxidizing conditions under alkaline pH as in
sulphide mining areas. Sources of arsenic are mining by-product and
chemical waste which are highly toxic and carcinogenic. Manganese in
water, like other nutrient elements, both deficiencies and excesses can lead to
severe metabolic disorders. Epidemiological studies (WHO 2006) have
described low manganese level results in manganese deficiency disorders,
such as weight loss, hypo sexuality, and gray hair, while high level of
manganese causes Wilson disease and Parkinsonism syndrome. Selenium is
due to natural resources and coal which is essential at lower levels but toxic
at higher levels. A proper water quality assessment requires the investigation
of various parameters including wide range of potentially toxic elements.
58
3.4.2 Biological Parameters of Water Quality Water Quality
and Its Impact
Biological parameters are significant factor that govern quality. It is more
vital than physical and chemical parameters as it has direct effect on public
health. Some significant biological characteristics affecting quality of water
includes presence of bacteria, virus protozoa, and algae.
Humans and other animals release huge number of intestinal bacteria through
stool and urine. Intestinal bacteria which are usual flora of intestine are not
pathogenic although other bacteria cause serious disease when they are
present in water. Such pathogenic bacteria include- Salmonella, Shigella,
Vibrio cholera, Yersinea enterocolitica. These bacteria are only present in
water if water is contaminated with faeces. Drinking water necessarily be
regularly checked to detect intestinal pathogens. Though, all intestinal
pathogens are tough to cultivate and identify in routine examination. So,
occurrence of pathogenic intestinal bacteria is checked by distinguishing
intestinal normal flora. Such organism which are habitually checked for
quality of water is known as ‘indicator organism for faecal contamination’.
For example, faecal coliform (E. coli), faecal Streptococci (Enterococcus),
Clostridium perfringens etc.
Apart from bacteria it is essential that drinking and domestic water be free
from viruses. Viruses from intestinal tract of diseased person get access to
water along with faeces or sewerage. For example, Rotavirus, Poliovirus,
Hepatitis A and E, etc. Numerous species of protozoa and helminthes that
sources water borne disease contaminates water through stool of infected
patients. Examples of pathogenic parasites are- Entamoeba histolytica,
Giardia, Balantidium coli, etc. Even, growth of algae in water disturbs the
quality of water by many ways. Algae imparts characteristic colour, odour
and taste to water. Also, algae avert diffusion of sunlight to bottom of surface
aquatic bodies affecting photosynthetic organisms. Moreover, some algae
produce toxic compounds. For example, Anaebaena and Nostoc produces
neurotoxin, Microcystis produces hepatotoxin. So finally, drinking water
sources and domestic water supply must be free from any type of biological
contamination.

3.5 WATER QUALITY STANDARDS AND

GUIDELINES
The availability of good quality water is an indispensable feature for
preventing diseases and improving quality of life. Bureau of Indian Standards
(BIS) water quality standards of different water parameters have been given
from Table 3 to Table 7 for comparing the value of real water sample. The
standards are based on World Health Organization guidelines for safe
drinking water.
National drinking-water policy Laws, regulations and standards: the goal of
national drinking-water laws and standards must be to safeguard that the
consumer gets safe potable water, and not to closed down deficient water
supplies. Operative control of drinking-water quality is reinforced ideally by
adequate legislation, standards and codes and their implementation. The 59
Introduction to exact nature of the legislation in each country depends on national,
Environmental
Pollution constitutional and other considerations. It will usually outline the
accountability and authority of several agencies and designate the
relationship between them, as well as create basic policy principles. The
national regulations should be pertinent to all water supplies. This would
generally represent different approaches to circumstances where formal
accountability for drinking water quality is allotted to a defined entity and
circumstances where community management exists. Legislation must make
provision for the creation and amendment of drinking-water quality standards
and guidelines, creation of regulations for the development and safeguard of
drinking-water resources and the treatment, distributions and maintenance of
safe drinking-water.
Table 3: Standards for Physical parameters

Source: Drinking water — specification (second revision), ICS 13.060.20, IS

10500: 2012
Table 4: Standards for bacteriological parameters

Source: Drinking water — specification (second revision), ICS 13.060.20, IS 10500: 2012
60
 Table 5: Standard for general parameters Water Quality
and Its Impact

Source: Drinking water — specification (second revision), ICS 13.060.20, IS 10500: 2012
61
Introduction to Table 6: Standard for toxic substances
Environmental
Pollution

Source: Drinking water — specification (second revision), ICS 13.060.20, IS 10500: 2012

Table 7: Standard for radioactive substances

Source: Drinking water — specification (second revision), ICS 13.060.20, IS

10500: 2012
62 Further, BIS standard for surface water quality is given in Table 8.
 Table 8: Surface water quality criteria for Class A, B, C, D, and E Water Quality
and Its Impact

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words
b) Check your answer with possible answers given at the end of the
unit.
1) Discuss the importance of the following parameters in determining the
water quality:
i) Hardness
ii) Chlorides
iii) Arsenic
iv) Fluoride
v) Bacteria, virus and pathogens
vi) BOD and COD
2) Discuss the importance of water quality standards and guidelines.
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
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63
Introduction to
Environmental 3.6 EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTION
Pollution
The above-mentioned water quality parameters (section 3.3) determines the
water quality. If the concentration of the parameters exceeds the
concentration prescribed in water quality standards, then the water is termed
as polluted water. The detailed effects of water pollution on human health
and environment are listed parameter wise in Table 9.
Table 9. Effects of different water quality parameters on water quality
and pollution.

Water Health Effects Other Effects

Parameters
Temperature Regulates biochemical and
metabolic reactions.
pH Gastrointestinal irritation.
TDS Affects kidney and heart
functioning, laxative or
constipation effects,
gastrointestinal irritation.
Hardness Skin irritation; worsens
some health conditions
(cancer, diabetes, etc.).
Mg Deficiency- hypertension,
cardiac and cardiovascular
diseases, diabetes mellitus,
osteoporosis.
Ca Deficiency- osteoporosis,
hypertension.
Cl- Laxative effects.
NO3- Methemoglobinemia in
infants.
PO43- Digestive problems.
2-
SO4 Laxative effects,
gastrointestinal irritation.
Na Hypertension, heart
diseases, kidney related
problems.
Al Kidney disorders,
neurological problems.
Heavy Most of the heavy metals
64 metals affect liver and kidney
Affects photosynthesis,
dissolved oxygen.
Affects enzyme kinetics;
corrosive; affects aquatic
life.
Corrosive to water-supply
systems; causes hardness.
Poor lather with detergent;
cloth quality deterioration.
Poor lather with detergent;
cloth quality deterioration.
Poor lather with detergent;
cloth quality deterioration.
Corrosive; deleterious
effects on plants, can clog
soil pores if it is in dissolved
condition.
Algal bloom; adverse
impacts on aquatic life.
Eutrophication.
Acid rain; associated with
acid mine drainage;
corrosive.
Can impart salinity hazard
in soil if it is used for
irrigation purpose.
Prevents nutrient intake by
roots; interferes with gill
functioning.
Most of the heavy metals
affects soil microbial
 functioning; ATPase
inhibitor; degrades enzyme
transport.
Pb Anaemia, hypertension,
irritation, behavioural
changes, impaired intellect,
adversely affect nervous
system and kidneys.
Cd Itai-itai; anaemia, anosmia,
loss of consciousness;
respiratory, renal and
cardiovascular problems.
Cr Liver and kidney damage;
carcinogenic.
As Hyperkeratosis,
carcinogenic; affects
gastrointestinal tract,
cardiovascular system and
central nervous system.
Mn Developmental failure;
affects bone and cartilage
growth; pneumosclerosis.
Ni Allergy, dermatitis;
carcinogenic.
Se Finger nail loss; heart and
muscular problems.
U Carcinogenic; nephritis.
Cu Hypertension, neurological
issues, liver and kidney
dysfunction.
Hg Minamata disease; allergy,
brain damage, negative
reproductive effects, DNA
damage.
Co Anorexia, nausea, diarrhoea, Bioaccumulation.
thyroid damage, heart
problems.
Dissolved Lower DO levels indicate
oxygen polluted state of water.
Biological High BOD levels-
Oxygen hazardous.
Demand
activity; deleterious impact Water Quality
on plants; ROS production and Its Impact
(stress).
Behavioural changes in
animals, impaired
reproduction in aquatic
animals.
Decreases osmoregulation;
growth in aquatic
organisms.
Reduces fecundity and
survival in aquatic
organisms; damages gills in
fishes.
Bio-accumulation;
behavioural effects;
photosynthesis inhibition.
Brown spots formation on
plant leaves, leaf withering;
staining.
Growth reduction; damages
gills in fishes; toxic to
plants.
Reproductive failure and
birth defects in organisms;
damages gills in fishes.
Radioactive; no
bioaccumulation.
Damages gills and kidneys
in fishes; restricts growth of
aquatic plants.
Damage vital tissues and
organs of fish; Reduces
reproductive success.
Regulates quality of aquatic
life; aids in degrading
organic matter; lake/ocean
stratification.
Affects water quality and
effluent biodegradability.
65
Introduction to
Environmental
Chemical Correlated to ill effect on Hypoxic water reduces cell
Pollution Oxygen human health (algal blooms, functioning, death of aquatic
Demand sea food contamination). organisms.
Bacteria Causes dysentery Some aquatic animals
(Salmonella), cholera affected similar to human
(Vibrio), typhoid beings; indicates DO, BOD.
(Salmonella).
Protozoa Causes amoebiasis Affects plant growth; causes
(Entamoeba histolytica), illness in various animals
giardiasis (Giardia lamblia). like horse, zebra, dog etc.
Virus Causes SARS Affects various animals,
(Coronavirus), hepatitis A, plants and even bacteria.
polio (Poliovirus), common
cold.
Algae Causes Desmodesmus Algal bloom; disrupts
infection; produces toxic photosynthesis in aquatic
compounds (e.g.- plants and phytoplankton;
Anaebaena and Nostoc). affects water colour, odour
and taste.
Helminths Causes schistosomiasis Many animals are hosts to
(Schistosoma japonicum), such helminths such as pig,
cysticercosis (Cysticercus sheep etc.
cellulosae).
Pathogenic Mostly harmless; diarrhoea, Mostly harmless; Can
indicators vomiting, abdominal contaminate young plants;
(e.g.- cramps. Animals could act as its
Escherichia carrier.
coli)

3.7 WATER QUALITY INDEX

Assessment of water quality can be a complex process undertaking multiple
parameters capable of causing various stresses on overall water quality
(Bharti and Katyal 2011; Almeida et al. 2008). Assessing water quality
through traditional approaches is based on the comparison of parameter
values determined experimentally with the existing guidelines (Debels 2005).
However, water quality indices simplify the expression of water quality
status by minimizing the data volume to a great extent. Water quality index
(WQI) aims at reducing a huge data set of number of parameters and
providing the overall water quality in a single value and enables easy
interpretation of monitored data (Al-Mohammed and Mutasher 2013).
Evaluation of water quality index is done on the basis of various physical,
chemical and bacteriological parameters. Numerous water quality indices
have been formulated all over the world which helps to judge out the overall
water quality of a water resource very efficiently. For example, US National
Sanitation Foundation Water Quality Index (NSFWQI), Canadian Council of
Ministers of the Environment Water Quality Index (CCMEWQI) and British
Columbia Water Quality Index (BCWQI) (Abbasi 2002; Kannel et al. 2007).

66
3.7.1 Categorization of Water Quality Indices Water Quality
and Its Impact
Categorization of water quality was started by Horton in 1965 (Horton 1965).
In 1970 a general Water quality index was developed by Brown et al. (Brown
et al. 1970). Steinhart et al. used a novel environmental quality index to
assess the status and trends in Great Lakes ecosystem in 1982 (Steinhart et al.
1982). In the mid-1990s, Water Quality Guidelines Task Group of the
Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment introduced WQI in
Canada (Dunn 1995). Apart from this the US National Sanitation Foundation
Water Quality Index, NSFWQI; Florida Stream Water Quality Index, FWQI;
British Columbia Water Quality Index, BCWQI; Oregon Water Quality
Index, OWQI and the Canadian Water Quality Index by Canadian Council of
Ministers of the Environment (CCME) are some frequently used water
quality indices. The CCME certified and modified BCWQI into the CCME
WQI (Said 2004). To develop cost effective pollution control strategies, has
been the biggest challenge in the developing countries, as cost is the limiting
factor. Therefore, Ongley in 1998 suggested, selection of few critical
parameters for WQI evaluation (Ongley 1998, 1999).

3.7.2 Basic Procedure of Water Quality Index (WQI)

Development
It’s a challenge to extract meaningful information from large amount of data
presents with number of water quality parameters. So, the first step for water
quality index development is variable or parameter selection by expert
opinion approach. Various parameters are measured in different units and
have different ranges. Thus, transformation of all the parameters into a
common scale is necessary. Weightage is assigned to each parameter
according to their significance and potential impacts on the water quality and
sub-indices are generated. Next step is aggregation of the sub-indices to
generate a cumulative index value. And finally, assessment and classification
of water quality is done (Ongley 1999).
Water quality index: A water quality index is an algorithm that expresses a
measure of the qualitative state of the water obtained by either deductive or
inductive method (Steinhart 1982). Water quality index (WQI) calculation is
done using following equations (2.14-2.17):
Assigning weight (wi) to parameters

W i= (2.14)
In Eq. 2.14, Wi = relative weight
n = number of parameters

= (2.15)

In Eq. 2.15, quality rating

concentration of parameters in mg L-

standard for each parameter

67
Introduction to
Environmental (2.16)
Pollution
In Eq. 2.16, is the sub-index of ith parameter

WQI = (2.17)
The summation of all the sub-indices (Eq. 2.17) gives the overall water
quality index of a source. Classification of WQI is done as excellent, good,
poor, very poor and unfit for drinking for the index ranges <50, 50-100, 100-
200, 200-300 and >300 respectively (Subba 1997, Swamee and Tyagi 2007).
Acceptability Water Quality Index (AWQI): This index provides an
evaluation of the people’s opinion about the water quality, as it considers
such parameters that cause undesirable taste or odour in drinking water,
rather than specific health issues (Rickwood and Carr 2009). The parameters
which do not have any detrimental health effects are considered for the
calculation of the index viz. ammonia, chloride, iron, pH, sodium, sulphate,
zinc and faecal coliform bacteria as a microbial parameter. On the availability
of the data various countries considers the number of parameters for index
calculation. The calculation is done similarly as WQI calculations by
assigning weights to the parameters followed by sub-index calculations and
finally WQI calculation by summation of sub-indices.
Health Water Quality Index (HWQI): Health water quality index takes into
account chemical and radiological constituents as arsenic, boron, cadmium,
chromium, copper, fluoride, lead, manganese, mercury, nitrate, nitrite and
fecal coliform bacteria, which have potential adverse health effect (Rickwood
and Carr 2009). The calculation is done similarly as WQI calculations by
assigning weights to the parameters followed by sub-index calculations and
finally WQI calculation by summation of sub-indices.
Advantages of WQI:
i) Various water quality indices (WQIs) assimilate water quality variables
and provide a comprehensive assessment report on water quality,
reducing huge data set into single index value.
ii) A WQI summarizes large amounts of water quality data into simple
terms (e.g., excellent, good, bad, etc.).
Disadvantages of WQI
i) Limitations of many water quality indices are incorporating selective
water quality variables and providing deterministic outputs.
ii) Eclipsing of data in WQI calculation.

3.8 LET US SUM UP

Safe drinking water is utter need for sustainable development as it is essential
for livelihood maintenance, safe guard of public health, industrial growth,
economic development of a country and to ensure food security. Access to
safe quality of water is a worldwide environmental issue. However, natural
68
and human activities can alter it by polluting or modifying the hydrological Water Quality
cycle. So, it is important to understand the concept and effect of water and Its Impact

quality, the associated parameters and their effects, the probable sources and
the mechanisms determining the quality of water. Moreover, the knowledge
of water quality standards, is also essential to understand the legal
implications of poor water supply. Finally, the concept of water quality index
will be helpful to understand the overall quality of water which can be
represented in a simple way to the public or consumers. The information
about effect of polluted water will be helpful in creating awareness of the
effects of consuming contaminated water.

3.9 KEYWORDS
Water quality: It is a term used here to express the suitability of water to
sustain various uses or processes.
Aquifers: An aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing permeable
rock, rock fractures or unconsolidated materials (gravel, sand, or silt).
Weathering: It is processes are wear and tear of rocks due to physical,
chemical and biological agents.

3.10 REFERENCES
Abbasi, S. A., 2002. Water Quality Indices, State of the art report, Scientific
Contribution No.- INCOH/SAR-25/2002, Published by-INCOH, National
Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee, 73.
Almeida, C., Quintar, S., González, P., Mallea, M., 2008.Assessment of
irrigation water quality.A proposal of a quality profile. Environmental
Monitoring and Assessment. 142 (1-3), 149-152.
Al-Mohammed, F. M., Mutasher, A. A., 2013.Application of water quality
index for evaluation of groundwater quality for drinking purpose in Dibdiba
Aquifer, Kerbala City, Iraq, Journal of Babylon University/Engineering
Sciences, 21 (5), 1647–1660.
Arlappa, N., Qureshi, A., Srinivas, R., 2013. Fluorosis in India: an overview,
International Journal of Research and Development of Health, 1, 97-102.
AWWARF (1995) Nitrification occurrence and control in chloraminated
water systems. Denver, CO, American Water Works Association Research
Foundation.
Bharti, N., Katyal, D., 2011. Water quality indices used for surface water
vulnerability assessment, International Journal of Environmental Sciences, 2
(1), 154-173.
Brown, R. M., McClelland, N. I., Deininger, R. A., Tozer, R., 1970. A Water
Quality Index. Do we dare? Water Sewage Works, 117 (10), 339-343.
Debels, P., Figueroa, R., Urrutia, R., Barra, R., Niell, X., 2005. Evaluation of
water quality in the Chillan River (Central Chile) using physicochemical
parameters and a modified Water Quality Index, Environmental Monitoring
and Assessment, 110, 301322.
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Introduction to Dubrovsky N, Hamilton P (2010) Nutrients in the nation’s streams and
Environmental
Pollution groundwater: national findings and implications. Reston, VA, United States
Geological Survey (Fact Sheet 2010-3078;
http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3078/).
Dunn, G. W., 1995. Trends in water quality variables at the Alberta/
Saskatchewan Boundary, Prepared for The Committee on Water Quality.
Fewtrell L (2004) Drinking-water nitrate, methaemoglobinaemia, and global
burden of disease: a discussion. Environmental Health Perspectives,
112(14):1371–1374.
Forstner, U., Wittmann, G. T. W., 1983. Metal pollution in the aquatic
environment, Folia Geobotanica and Phytotaxonomica, 18 (2), 194.
He, J. S., Siah, T. S., Chen, J. P., 2014. Performance of an optimized Zr-
based nanoparticle-embedded 480 PSF blend hollow fiber membrane in
treatment of fluoride contaminated water, Water Research, 56, 88-97.
Horton, R. K., 1965. An index number system for rating water quality,
Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation, 37 (3), 300-306.
Kannel, P. R., Lee, S., Lee, Y. S., Kanel, S. R., Khan, S. P., 2007.
Application of water quality indices and dissolved oxygen as indicators for
river water classification and urban impact assessment. Environmental
Monitoring and Assessment, 132, 93110.
Meenakshi, R.C., Maheshwari, 2006. Fluoride in drinking water and its
removal, Journal of Hazardous Materials, 137, 456-463.
Mesinga TT, Speijers GJA, Meulenbelt J (2003) Health implications of
exposure to environmental nitrogenous compounds. Toxicological Reviews,
22(1):41–51.
Nickson, R. T., McArthur, J. M., Shrestha, B., Kyaw-Myint, T. O., Lowry,
D., 2005. Arsenic and other drinking water quality issues, Muzaffargarh
district, Pakistan. Applied Geochemistry, 20 (1), 55-68.
Nicolli, H. B., Suriano, J., Gomez, Peral., M. A., Ferpozzi, L. H., Baleani, O.,
1989. Groundwater contamination with arsenic and other elements in an area
of the Pampa, province of Cordoba, Argentina, Environmental Geology and
Water Science, 14, 3– 16.
Ongley, E., 1998. Modernization of water quality programs in developing
countries: issues of relevancy and cost efficiency, Water Quality
International, 3-4, 37-42.
Ongley, E. D., Booty, W. G., 1999. Pollution remediation planning in
developing countries: Conventional modeling versus knowledge-based
prediction, Water International, 24, 31-38.
Othman, Z. A., Sanagi, M. M., 2015. Green Synthesis of Iron Nano
Impregnated Adsorbent for Fast Removal of Fluoride from Water, Journal of
Molecular Liquids, 211, 457-465.
Rafique, A., Awan, M. A., Wasti, A., Qazi, I. A., Arshad, M., 2013. Removal
of fluoride from drinking water using modified immobilized activated
alumina, Journal of Chemistry, http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/386476
(Article ID 386476, 7 and references cited therein).

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Rickwood, C.; Carr, G. Global Drinking Water Quality Index Development Water Quality
and Sensitivity Analysis Report. United Nations Environment Programme & and Its Impact
Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS)/Water Programme. 2007
Sarikani, Ramin., Dehnavi, Ghassemi, Artimes., Nagaraju, D., 2010.
Environmental geochemistry of lead and its impacts on groundwater
pollution in East of Kurdistan, Iran. Asian Journal of Environmental Science,
5 (2), 120-125.
Smedley, P. L., Kinniburgh, D. G., 2002. A review of the source, behaviour
and distribution of arsenic in natural waters, Applied Geochemistry, 17, 517–
568.
Smith, V. H., 2003. Eutrophication of fresh water and coastal marine
ecosystems a global problem. Environmental Science and Pollution Research,
10 (2), 126-139.
Steinhart, C. E., Schierow, L. J., Sonzogni, W. C., 1982. Environmental
Quality Index for the Great Lakes, Water Resources Bulletin., 18 (6), 1025-
1031.
Steinhart, C. E., Schierow, L. J., Sonzogni, W. C., 1982. Environmental
Quality Index for the Great Lakes, Water Resources Bulletin., 18 (6), 1025-
1031.
Subba Rao N., 1997. Studies on water quality index in hard rock terrain of
Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh, India. National Seminar on Hydrology of
Precambrian Terrains and hard rock areas, 129-134. Swamee, P. K., Tyagi,
A., 2007. Improved method for aggregation of water quality subindices,
Jounal of Environmental Engineering., 133, 220-225.
USEPA (1987) Estimated national occurrence and exposure to nitrate and
nitrite in public drinking water supplies. Washington, DC, United States
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Drinking Water.
van Duijvenboden W, Matthijsen AJCM (1989) Integrated criteria document
nitrate. Bilthoven, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment
(RIVM Report No. 758473012).
Vasanthi, P., Kaliappan, S., Srinivasaraghavan, R., 2008. Impact of poor
solid waste management on groundwater, Environmental Monitoring and
Assessment, 143, 227238. doi:10.1007/s10661-007-9971-0.
Viswanathan, N., Sundaram, C. S., Meenakshi, S., 2009. Removal of fluoride
from aqueous solution using protonates chitosan beads, Journal of Hazardous
Materials, 161, 423-430 Ali, I.,
World Health Organization WHO., 2006. Guidelines for drinking water
quality, vol. 1 recommendations (3rd).
World Health Organization. Global fresh water quality assessment report.,
1998. WHO Int. Rept/PEP/88, Geneva.
World Health Organization. Recommended health-based limits in
occupational exposure to trace metals., 1980. Technical Reports Series, no.
647, Vienna Austria.
World Health Organization., 1993. Geneva, Guideline for Drinking Water
Quality. 1, 56, 124.

71
Introduction to World Health Organization., 1996. The world health report: fighting disease,
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Pollution fostering development [internet]. Geneva, www.who.int/whr/1996/en/
World Health Organization., 2001. Arsenic and Arsenic compounds, 2nd Ed.,
Environmental Health Criteria 224 Geneva: National Academy Press.
World Health Organization., 2001. Environmental Health Criteria 224:
arsenic and arsenic compounds (2nd ed.), Geneva.
World Health Organization., 2011. Guidelines for drinking-water quality- 4th
ed. Geneva, Switzerland (http://www.who.int).
Yadav, S. S., Kumar, R., 2011. Monitoring water quality of Kosi River in
Rampur District, Uttar Pradesh, India, Advances in Applied Science
Research, 2 (2), 197-201.

3.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress Exercise 1
3) Refer section 3.2.
4) Hint: Discuss the influence of weathering and effects of different natural
processes on water quality (refer, Table 2.).
5) Answer: Hint: discuss weathering processes with reaction and identify
which parameters are affected most by these reactions.
6) Enumerate the importance of good quality water in Industrial processes.
Answer: Hint: discuss the effects of different water quality parameters
and their effects on industrial water (refer Table 1.)
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
7) Discuss the importance of the following parameters in determining the
water quality:
i) Hardness
ii) Chlorides
iii) Arsenic
iv) Fluoride
v) Bacteria, virus and pathogens
vi) BOD and COD
Answer: Hint: Refer section 3.3.
8) Discuss the importance of water quality standards and guidelines.
Answer: hint: Refer section 3.4.

72
 Soil Quality and
UNIT 4 SOIL QUALITY AND ITS Its Pollution

POLLUTION

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives
4.3 Characteristics of Soil
Properties of soil
Influence of weathering on soil formation
Soil profiles and horizon

4.4 Different kinds of Soil

Soil classification
Saline soil
Alkaline soil
4.5 Soil pollution
Causes
Major pollutants

4.6 Soil Pollution and Agriculture

Chemical Pollution
Metal Pollution
4.7 Mining and Soil Pollution
4.8 Effects of Soil Pollution
4.9 Let Us Sum Up
4.10 Keywords
4.11 References and Suggested Readings
4.12 Answers to Check Your Progress

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Soil has majorly two roles in the environment. Firstly, it forms the part of
natural and artificial environment, and by joining the atmosphere and
hydrosphere, it is one of the ecosystem constituents along with community of
living organism. Secondly, it acts as a physical receptor of matter and energy
flows reaching the Earth’s surface, transforming and partly storing them.
The danger that pollutants will accumulate and will have a permanent
especially acute in case of soil. While, by air and water circulation, the
dilution and purification is rendered possible, but in case of soil these
processes cannot reduce the danger of damage. Fertile soil is an important
component of the habitat, which contributes to the co-existence of flora-fauna
and humanity. The decrease in soil fertility, hence, is an indicator of
environment pollution. Due to inadvisable measures taken towards
eliminating certain unfavorable characteristics, these may result in
appearance of other harmful factors. 73
Introduction to
Environmental 4.2 OBJECTIVES
Pollution
After reading this unit the student will be able to:
• Explain the importance of soil as an environmental component.
• Understand the properties of soil and its influence on the fate of
pollutants.
• Identify the different sources of soil pollutants.
• Assess the role of natural processes on soil development.

4.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF SOIL

Rocks undergo different processes of weathering and erosion, getting
churned into small particles. They get mixed up with the organic residues and
form a complex mixture, commonly called as soil. Soil is a dynamic body, as
its composition varies from place to place. It is an open system, as different
materials (or energy) can become its part or get washed away via erosion.
Such a dynamic and open nature of soil affects the various characteristics of
the soil.
Components of soil
Soil majorly contains organic and inorganic materials coupled with soil air
and water (Figure 1). These components affect the soil properties, so there is
a need to get acknowledged with these components:

Figure 1: Components of soil (Source-www.eschooltoday.com)

Inorganic materials
They include elements commonly found in Earth’s surface such as oxygen,
silicon, aluminium, iron, calcium, potassium, magnesium etc. Sources of
such elements in soil include – weathering or erosion of rocks, loose
sediment deposits and dissolved forms in water. These elements and their
compounds are essential minerals that aid in the enhancement of productivity
of the soil. They help in sustaining ecosystems prevailing on our Earth by
providing important nutrients to the growing vegetation. When nutrients are
added to suffice the proper soil conditions needed for plant growth, it is
called as soil fertilization.
74
Organic materials Soil Quality and
Its Pollution
Apart from the inorganic minerals, soil also contains organic material. The
plants and animals decay upon their death, and are acted upon by soil micro-
organisms, leading to the formation of an essential component of soil called
as humus. Humus provides nutritional value to soil and is a food source for
the micro-organisms existing in the soil. It additionally acts as a catalyst in
chemical reactions which plants make use of in extracting the nutrients from
the soil. Remarkably, humus-rich soils have exceptional water retention
capacity. Soils are full of life. Microscopic organisms like bacteria and fungi,
annelids like earthworms and mammals like rodents represent the fauna of
the soil. These faunae are responsible for the development of soil and
production of humus from remains of plants and animals. They push the
inorganic materials towards the soil surface and churn the organic materials
deep into the soil strata. Various plants represent the flora existing in soil and
the root systems of such plants greatly influence the soil development. It is
important to note that soils vary at different regions across the globe,
depending upon the variation in inorganic and organic content.
Soil Water
Water becomes a part of soil via precipitation. A portion of such precipitation
falling on land is evaporated but the remaining part either gets absorbed by
the soil or engulfed in a water body. Water present in the vadose zone of the
soil profile is called soil water (Figure 2). The vadose zone is a zone of
unsaturated water flow. Soil water is essential because of the dissolution of
inorganic and organic materials into soil water, through which it is utilised by
plants. Additionally, soil water is also an ingredient for plant sustenance and
acts as a catalyst for the chemical reactions occurring in soil. Soil water also
affects soil development.

Figure 2: Saturated, unsaturated and flooded soil (Source-www.floodsite.net)

Soil water sticks to soil particles (via adhesion) resulting in the formation of
clumps via a phenomenon called surface tension. The soil water that is
readily available to plants for their usage is called as capillary water (Figure
3). It is basically water remaining in the soil after gravitational water gets
drained out. Interestingly, capillary water can move vertically as well as 75
Introduction to horizontally, since it moves from the soil with surplus water to water deficit
Environmental
Pollution soils. Although capillary water could get evaporated, the dissolved minerals
remain in topsoil as deposits. Excess of such deposits can be detrimental to
plants. For e.g., deposits of calcium carbonate or lime, called caliche, prevent
percolation of water downward.

Figure 3: Soil water (Source-www.tes.com)

Water percolating down the soil layers directed towards the water table is
called as gravitational water. It moves through the voids available in
between the soil particles. As it migrates downwards, the dissolved minerals
are transported to the lower the soil layers. In situation of heavy rainfall,
there could be depletion of nutrients from upper the soil layers. It is called as
leaching. Gravitational water also causes mixing of the soil particles. Finer
soil particles, from topsoil, could get transported to lower layers. This could
be detrimental as the soil particles remaining in topsoil could be coarser and
thereby diminished water retention by topsoil.
Apart from capillary and gravitational water, there is another category of soil
water called hygroscopic water, which is bound to the soil particles via
electrical forces and do not move through the soil. They do not provide
moisture to plants.
Soil Air
The voids available between the soil particles and soil clumps (aggregates)
which get deprived of soil water and contain air or gases are called as soil air
(Figure 4). They have more of carbon dioxide and humidity and less of
oxygen, when compared to the atmospheric composition of air. Soil air
supplies these gases to the soil microorganisms to carry on their life
processes. The necessity of the soil air could be seen from the fact that the
soils saturated with water are deficit in soil air and as a consequence of which
many plants cannot survive.
76
 Soil Quality and
Its Pollution

Figure 4: Soil air (Source-watereuse.org)

Having discussed the various components of the soil, we need to discuss the
various characteristics of soil and how the presence of various the soil
components in different amounts is responsible for determination of various
soil characteristics. They could be classified under physical and chemical
properties. The physical properties include:
Soil colour
Soil colour helps in identifying the soil type and is a clue for the soil
characterization (Figure 5). It is generally related to the presence of organic
and inorganic matter in soil. Humus-rich soils are dark because of the fact
that decomposed organic matter is brown to black in colour. Presence of
humus makes the soil productive as a result of which dark soils are known to
be rich. Lesser decomposition of organic matter causes lighter shades of
brown or black soil. Leaching can lead to a reduction in organic content
resulting in light coloured brown or black soils. However, the soil forming
factors can also make the soil dark, and not essentially humus.
The presence of iron makes the soil reddish to yellowish in colour. Iron could
get leached out in moist climatic conditions, leaving behind oxides of
aluminium and silicon, making the soil light grey to white in colour.
However, such grey or white colour in drier climates indicates the presence
of accumulated calcium salts.

77
Introduction to
Environmental
Pollution

Figure 5: Soil colour (Source- www.soils.usda.gov)

Soil texture
The particle sizes or their distribution which constitute the soil is called as
soil texture (Table 1). Clay particles have a diameter less than 0.002 mm. Silt
particles lie in the range of 0.002 – 0.05 mm. Sand lies in the range of 0.05 –
2.0 mm. Soil particles larger than 2.0 mm are called as pebbles, gravels or
rocks. Scientists use this system of soil classification globally. The presence
of various soil particles in different proportions determines the texture of the
soil. A triangular graph, as can be seen from the figure 6, assists in
identifying the soil texture depending upon the presence of different soil
particles (silt, sand or clay). The central regions of the triangular graph show
soils with a mixture of the three different soil particles in relatively equal
proportions and are called as loam soils. They are considered to be the most
supportive of growth of vegetation.
Table 1: Particle size of clay, silt, and sand in millimeters (Source-United
States Department of Agriculture System.)

Texture Size Class Particle Diameter (mm)

Very coarse sand (vcos) 1.0 - 2.0
Coarse sand (cos) 0.5 - 1.0
Medium sand (s) 0.25 - 0.5
Fine sand (fs) 0.1 - 0.25
Very fine sand (vfs) 0.05 - 0.1
Silt (si) 0.002 - 0.05
Clay (c) < 0.002

The soil texture triangle as given in figure 6 can be better understood by an

example. A silty clay soil would be identified by the area having
compositions of 5% sand, 50% silt, and 45% clay.

78
 Soil Quality and
Its Pollution

Figure 6: Soil texture triangle (Source-www. http://lagardennotes.blogspot.com)

Soil texture assists in determining the capacity of soil in moisture and air
retention which is essential for the growth of the plant. Soils rich in larger
soil particles are well aerated. They assist water to percolate downwards
quickly. Sometimes, the percolation is so quick that plants are unable to
capture the water. Soils rich in clay particles do not assist in water
percolation as a result of which get waterlogged and lacks soil air. Soil air is
an essential component for plant growth, therefore soils must regularly be
ploughed to increase its access to air. Soil texture is measured by methods
such as hydrometer method or ‘feel method’
Soil Structure
Arrangement of soil particles is called as soil structure. Soil particles get
clumped into masses called soil peds. It gives a distinct structure to the soil.
Soil structure affects soil porosity and permeability. Clayey soils are richly
porous while sandy soils are highly permeable. These factors influence the
moisture available in soil and soil drainage. Soil structure is affected by
external agents such as human beings or biogeochemical nutrient cycles.
Agricultural practices of irrigation and fertilizer addition affect the soil
structure. Fertilizers enhance clumping in the soil while an excess of
magnesium or sodium makes clay sticky when wet and cement-like when
dry. For the development of proper soil structure, there must be the
availability of smaller soil particles.
Scientists classify soil structure by their form. They include granules,
crumbs, spheroids, prisms, columns, blocks and plates. Soils with
intermediate size allow better aeration and drainage which makes them more
useful.
79
Introduction to • Granular – It contains small round peds commonly found near the
Environmental
Pollution surface where root activity is present.
• Platy – It contains flat and thin plate-like peds which are horizontally
oriented. It is common in E horizon or highly compacted soil.
• Blocky – It contains sharp-edged peds arranged in angular or square
blocks. It is common in the subsoil in humid regions.
• Prismatic – It contains peds vertically longer than horizontally. They are
known to have flat tops. Columnar is similar to prismatic having rounded
tops. They are common in arid and semi-arid soils.
Various shapes of soil structure and the associated infiltration rates are shown
in figure 7.

Figure 7: Soil structure shapes and associated infiltration rates (Source: USDA;
adapted)
80
 Soil Quality and
Its Pollution

Figure 8: Water movement through soils with differing soil structure (Source: USDA
NRCS)

Figure 9: Soil structure shapes (Source-www.soils.usda.gov)

Bulk Density
It refers to the mass of soil in a known volume of soil. It increases with soil
compaction. With an increase in soil compaction, the plant roots find it
difficult to penetrate the soil profile. A bulk density of more than 1.6 g/cm3
restricts the growth of plant roots. For clayey soils, ideal bulk density to
support plant growth lies in a range < 1.10 g/cm3. However, for sandy soils,
ideal bulk density is <1.6 g/cm3 to support plant growth. With an increase in
soil porosity, the bulk density decreases. Coarse-textured soils have a greater
bulk density in comparison to fine textured soils because of the decrease in
pore space in soil aggregates (figure 10). However, if sandy soils are packed
81
Introduction to loosely, porosity increases and bulk density decreases. Daddow and
Environmental
Pollution Warrington (1983) found that higher clay percentages in soil decrease soil
bulk density caused because of increased pore space. They also reported that
a bulk density of 1.4 g/cm3 is growth limiting for soils with 80% of clay
while a bulk density of 1.7 g/cm3 is growth limiting for soils with 20% clay
content. Additionally, bulk densities are also affected by land cover and
management. Bulk density values are much less for a forest than compared to
bulk density values in an agricultural field. This is caused because of the fact
that soils in a forest are highly porous caused because of tree roots, enriched
biotic activity and diminished human activity. Bulk density can be measured
by various methods such as clod (or ped) method and core method.

Figure 10: Demonstration of bulk density calculation (Source-www.passel.unl.edu)

Water Holding Capacity

It is the amount of water that a soil can hold. It is dependent upon the
arrangement of soil pores, soil structure, soil texture, and organic matter
content. The presence of organic matter helps the soil retain more water as it
has a high degree of microporosity. As a result, soils with more organic
matter and a larger number of micropores enhance the water holding capacity
of the soil. Soil compaction reduces the pores and weakens soil structure,
therefore results in negatively affecting water holding capacity (Figure 12). A
few terms related to water holding capacity are: Available water (water
available for plant uptake), unavailable water, gravitational water
(percolating water directed towards water table), field capacity (water held
by soil and available for plant uptake, after 48 hours of free drainage),
permanent wilting point (point at which there is irrecoverable loss of
rigidity in plants due to lack of availability of water) and saturation (pores
filled up with water) (Figure 11).

82
 Soil Quality and
Its Pollution

Figure 11: Water holding capacity of soil (Source-http://bettersoils.soilwater.com.au)

Figure 12: Water holding capacity of coarse sand and silty clay loam (Source-
www.slideshare.net)

Soil porosity
The spaces between soil particles occupied by air and water in a given soil
volume are known as pore spaces. Pore space occupies a certain percentage
of soil volume. It is called as soil porosity. It is dependent upon soil texture,
compactness of soil, soil structure, and organic content present in the soil.
With an increase in the percentage of organic content, the porosity of soil
increases. With a decrease in the dimension of soil particles, pore spaces
reduce as a consequence of which porosity decreases. Porosity decreases with
depth since there is an accompanied increase in soil compactness. Higher
porosity helps plants in their growth as the pore spaces contain soil air and
moisture. Pore spaces can be classified into micro-pore spaces (capillary
pore spaces) and macro-pore spaces (non-capillary pore spaces) depending
upon the pore size (Figure 13). Micro-pore spaces have a higher water
holding capacity and it decreases free air and water movement in the soil. On
the contrary, macro-pore spaces can hold less water they allow free air and
water movement.
83
Introduction to
Environmental
Pollution

Figure 13: Soil porosity (Source- www.socratic.org)

Soil Temperature
Soil gets heated mainly because of solar radiation and the heat generated
upon dead organic matter decomposition in the soil. The heat from the
interior of the Earth also adds up to soil temperature. Soil temperature has a
huge impact on the physicochemical phenomena occurring in soil and the
biological processes existing in the soil. Further, soil temperature is
dependent upon atmospheric air temperature and moisture content. It is also
regulated by vegetation cover of the soil the slope of the land and the altitude
at which the soil is located. The mean annual temperature of the soil is more
than the atmosphere in which it is located. Surface soil temperature can
fluctuate but soil temperature is constant below a certain depth.
The chemical properties of soil are described below:
Cation Exchange Capacity
It refers to the total amount of exchangeable cations which can be adsorbed
by soil. Soil has clay and organic matter which are charged negatively i.e.
they are anionic. Consequentially, they possess the capacity to hold positively
charged ions i.e. cations, such as Na+, K+ and Ca++. They are adsorbed by soil
which prevents them from getting leached and makes them available to be
used up by plants (Figure 14).

Figure 14: Cation exchange capacity of soils (Source- www.tankonyvtar.hu)

84
Soils rich in organic matter and clay have more cation exchange capacity Soil Quality and
Its Pollution
than soils which have less humus and clay content. Cations could be arranged
in following sequence in terms of its cation exchange capacity: Ca++ > K+ >
Na+. Factors affecting cation exchange capacity are as follows: relative
concentration of cations in the soil, the number of cations available in the
soil, the number of charges on the ions, and the replacing capacity of the
ions.
Anion Exchange
Soils also show anion exchange when they are rich in organic colloids. Here,
the negatively charged ions get replaced by sulphate, hydroxide, nitrate and
phosphate ions. The comparative exchange order is: OH–> H2PO4– > SO4– >
NO3–. Sulphates and nitrates are available for a very short time span and are
therefore less available for ionic exchange. Phosphate ions are the most
readily available and therefore are most important among them.
Cationic and anionic exchange reactions are highly significant in agriculture
because they are the best index of soil fertility. Their knowledge is helpful in
the reclamation of acidic, saline or alkaline soils.
Acidity and Alkalinity
They are measured on pH scale and range from 0-14. The reading on pH
scale shows the hydrogen ion concentrations present. pH scale is logarithmic
which means that a rise in pH value of 1 indicates a tenfold decrease in
hydrogen ion concentration. Low pH shows more acidic soil while high pH
shows more alkaline soil. Plants take up the nutrients from the soil in
dissolved forms (Figure 15).

Figure 15: Acidity and alkalinity of soil (Source-http://soilquality.org.au)

Less acidic soil water shows a lesser ability to dissolve the nutrients, thereby
decreasing their access to plants. Although plants grow differently in
different pH ranges, a pH range of 6-8 is found to be most suitable for most
of the plants. A few plant species thrive in alkaline soils while others tolerate
acidic soils. Precipitation absorbs carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
making it slightly acidic. As a result, soils present in humid regions are acidic
85
Introduction to and soils in drier regions tend to be alkaline. Additionally, humus enhances
Environmental
Pollution the acidity of humid soils. Interestingly, pH of soil i.e. acidity or alkalinity,
affects the soil microorganisms. A few are thriving better in acidic soil while
others live better in alkaline soils. To increase the productivity of alkaline
soils, it is flushed with water. On the contrary, the productivity of acidic soils
is enhanced by the addition of lime (Figure 16).

Figure 16: Acidic (red), alkaline (blue) and neutral (yellow) soils across the world
(Source- www.wikipedia.org)

Nutrients
Plants need a number of elements that are essential for their growth.
Depending upon their quantities needed, they are classified as micro- or
macro- nutrients. Macronutrients are needed in greater quantities and include
nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sulphur, magnesium and calcium.
Micronutrients are needed in smaller quantities and include iron, manganese,
cobalt, molybdenum, copper, nickel, zinc, etc. Nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium are primary nutrients among macronutrients while sulphur,
magnesium and calcium are secondary nutrients. Nutrient deficiency in plants
can lead to several colour changes in leaf (Figure 17). The primary nutrients
have been discussed further.

Figure 17: Nutrient deficiency in a plant leaf (Source-www.nrcca.cals.cornell.edu)

86
Nitrogen Soil Quality and
Its Pollution
It is needed in the greatest amount and its unavailability makes it the most
limiting to plant growth. Although the atmosphere contains nearly 79% of
nitrogen, it largely remains unavailable to be utilised by plants. The nitrogen
that is available in soil is in organic form, while plants can take them up in
inorganic forms such as nitrate and ammonium ions. Nitrate is readily
available for plant uptake since it is available in solution, while ammonium is
held by the soil in cation exchange complex. Fortunately, the microbes
present in the soil, convert organic nitrogen via nitrogen mineralization into
forms usable by plants. Simultaneously, immobilization could occur when
inorganic forms are converted into organic forms. Biological fixation is
responsible for major nitrogen inputs in most ecosystems. There is a
symbiotic relationship between Rhizobium bacteria and the roots of legumes.
Nitrate is highly mobile and can get leached if remain unutilised. High nitrate
concentrations in water are toxic to human health. Nitrogen can be converted
to nitrous oxide via denitrification.
Phosphorus
It is the second largest amount of nutrient needed for plant growth. It is
majorly derived from weathering and decomposition of organic matter in the
soil. Phosphorus is available in very low concentrations in soil. Most of the
soil phosphorus is in an insoluble form which not available to be used up by
plants. Soluble forms of phosphorus are added via fertilization. However, the
soluble forms get converted into insoluble forms with time. Decomposition
returns the phosphorus back to the soil. If the plants are removed, phosphorus
also gets removed from the system. Since there is little availability of
phosphorus by weathering and there is loss of phosphorus on the harvest of
crops, phosphorus must be added to soils via fertilization to prevent
deficiency of phosphorus in plants. This also leads to cases of over-
fertilization and phosphorus accumulation in soil. They are easily transferred
to a nearby water body and causes eutrophication. It causes a boom in algal
population simultaneously decreasing the dissolved oxygen levels. It kills the
organisms living in such water bodies. Therefore, the addition of phosphorus
must be properly regulated.
Potassium
It is available in more quantity when compared to other macronutrients. It is
essential as it provides protection to plants against diseases. Potassium exists
in the soil in mineral form and is not easily available for plant uptake. The
minerals containing potassium, such as mica and feldspar, are weathering
resistant, as a result of which their availability reduces. Nearly 2% of soil
potassium is available for plant uptake in solution or exchangeable form.
Potassium in solution form is readily available to be utilised by plants. The
exchangeable form is adsorbed on soil colloids. The concentrations of
exchangeable and dissolved forms of potassium are in equilibrium to each
other. Potassium also exists in fixed (nonexchangeable) form. It is trapped in
the clay particles and is available only after getting converted into
exchangeable form. This conversion generally requires more than one
87
Introduction to growing season. A large amount of potassium uptake occurs in their
Environmental
Pollution aboveground biomass. It being absorbed in excess, the removal of plants
upon harvest removes huge amounts of potassium from the soil. Potassium is
prone to getting lost readily via leaching because of its high mobility, similar
to nitrate. Deficiency of potassium can be tackled by potassium fertilization.
Correspondingly, leaving the plant residues on soil returns a large quantity of
potassium to the soil.
Factors affecting soil formation

Figure 18: Soil forming factors (Source- www.sciencesamhita.com)

Figure 19: Soil formation (Source-

www.images.encarta.msn.com/xrefmedia/aencmed/targets/illus/ilt/T045308)

The various factors affecting the formation of soil are:

1) Parent Material
The weathered rock fragments which have accumulated at a particular
88 site, after the physical and chemical breakdown of bedrocks, are called as
 residual parent material. The rock fragments could have been carried to Soil Quality and
Its Pollution
the site by wind, waves, glaciers, or gravity and got deposited, and are
called as transported parent material. The organic matter has a direct
effect on parent material through climatic conditions and life cycles of
organisms.
Parent material affects the soil properties in varying degrees (Figure 18
and 19). Parent materials having resistant and hard fragments, such as
sandstone, are less affected by weathering. Soils developing from such
weathering-resistant rocks are highly similar to the parent materials.
Globally, climate and the associated flora influences soil characteristics
more than parent materials. The effect of parent material on its properties
decrease with an increase in the time associated with the development of
soil. Recently developed soils show greater similarity to the parent
material. The nutrients and chemicals in the soil are a reflection of the
parent material composition. Soils produced from calcium-deficient
parent materials will low in calcium, and the associated plant cover will
be those needing little calcium for growth. Further, parent materials affect
the water and air availability to a soil’s biota.
2) Organic Activity
The flora and fauna affect the development of soil in different ways.
Generally, when the vegetative cover is dense, it protects the soil from
getting eroded. Forests form a protective canopy. These forests generate
litter, preventing rain from directly affecting the soil. It also decreases
runoff and enhances rainwater percolation into the soil. The dense
vegetation also influences the evapotranspiration rates. Sparse vegetation
increases soil moisture evaporation while dense vegetation maintains the
soil moisture. The plants also affect the nutrient cycles involved in the
development of soil. Nutrients are returned to soil with death and
decomposition of plants. However, nutrients may get leached away if
unutilised by plants. Plant roots aid in breaking the soil structure,
enhancing its porosity, thereby increasing water and nutrient absorption
by roots. Plant life associated with soil affects the organic matter entering
the soil. For example, prairies are covered by tall grasses which supply
greater organic matter to the soil in comparison to deserts having a thin
vegetative cover. Therefore, most of the grasslands across the world, such
as prairies of North America, provide the most fertile soils of the world.
The microorganisms living in the soil also affects the soil development,
bacteria being the most important among them. They break down humus
and organic matter into smaller compounds, which are essential for
promoting plant growth. This simultaneously alters the development of
soil. The annelids, arthropods and mammals living in the soil mix the
minerals from lower portions of the soil with the upper portions.
Earthworms have a great role in soil development. It not only helps mix
the soil but also helps in changing soil texture and soil structure.
3) Climate
It is a major factor in the formation and development of soil. Temperature
has a direct effect on biotic activity in the soil. This affects the rate of
89
Introduction to decomposition of organic matter in the soil. For example, in hot
Environmental
Pollution equatorial regions, there is intense biotic (microorganism) activity prior to
the accumulation of organic debris. The amounts of organic matter in soil
increases near the middle latitudes and decreases towards the poles and
the tropics. Temperatures decrease going towards poles and increase
towards equator affecting the microorganism activity. The plant growth
gets limited leading to thin accumulation of organic matter. These are a
result of a direct change in chemical activity with temperature.
Consequentially, parent materials of soil in equatorial regions (hot and
humid) get modified to a larger extent via chemical means than the parent
materials of soil in cooler regions. Further, temperature has an indirect
effect on soil development via its influence on associated vegetation. The
combined effect of climate and vegetation develops a soil profile which
may be similar to a soil profile with similar climate and vegetation in a
completely different region. Moisture is significant because it supports
plant growth. Adequate amount of rainfall can, therefore, help in
increasing the organic matter and thereby the soil fertility. However,
excess of rainfall causes leaching and leads to the development of
relatively infertile soil. The rate of evaporation is also important as well
since it affects the distribution of mineral deposits in soil profile. For
example, with an increase in evaporation rate salt and gypsum deposits
are seen more prominently in hot dry regions in contrast to cold dry
regions.
4) Land Surface Configuration
Land slope, its relief and its orientation influence soil development. There
is better drainage in steep slopes in comparison to gentler ones. Further,
they are prone to rapid surface water runoff. Consequentially, there is less
water percolation in steeper slopes, which has a negative impact on soil
development. Additionally, rapid surface water runoff can erode surfaces
on steep slopes quicker than the pace of soil development. In the case of
gentler slopes, there is lesser surface water runoff and more percolation
thereby increasing water availability for soil development. Further, it aids
vegetation growth, so that erosive forces diminish. Typically, well-
developed soils form on land with a gentle slope. Slope orientation is also
significant in soil development. For example, north-facing slopes in
Northern Hemisphere in areas lying between middle and high latitudes
have cooler and wetter microclimates in comparison to south-facing
slopes, where insolation is at a steeper angle thereby making them
warmer and drier. Topography indirectly affects soil development, via its
effects on vegetation. Steep slopes restrict the formation of soil
supportive of lush vegetation and favour a modest plant cover generating
diminished organic matter for the soil.
5) Time
Soils are inclined to developing towards a state of equilibrium with the
surroundings. A soil is “mature” on the attainment of equilibrium. Young
soils are thriving to reach a state of equilibrium with their environment.
Horizons are well-developed in mature soils while young or “immature”
90 soils have undeveloped or poorly developed horizons. The influence of
 parent material decreases with time and they increasingly show the effect Soil Quality and
Its Pollution
of climate and vegetative environment on soil development. The
significance of time for soil development can be clearly seen in soils
developed from transported parent materials. Such soils formed from
deposition are very recent in geologic terms, and there is minimal impact
of weathering restricting maturation of soils. For example, alluvium
which is deposition occurring on river floodplains and loess which are
wind-deposited silts in dry areas. Interestingly, it is impossible to predict
the time taken for soil to become mature.
Weathering
Physical disintegration and chemical decomposition of rocks (Figure 20),
caused because of its exposure to the surface, is called as weathering.
Weathering of rock fragments and their deposition can lead to the formation
and development of soil and the various landforms associated with it. Such
landforms include floodplains, beaches or sand dunes. Interestingly,
weathering is the major source of inorganic components of soil which helps
in the growth of vegetation. Various types of weathering are classified as
follows:
1) Physical weathering

Figure 20: Physical weathering (Source- www.teach.albion.edu)

It is also called as mechanical weathering. There is mechanical disintegration

of larger rocks into smaller fragments. The smaller fragments are easily
eroded and transported in comparison to larger fragments. The breakdown of
rocks into smaller fragments assists additional weathering caused because of
the increase in surface area. The different modes of physical weathering are:
• Unloading
Rocks are formed under very high pressure and they are uplifted to
surface through tectonic processes of mountain building. The erosional
stripping of these uplifted rocks is called as unloading (Figure 21). It
removes the incumbent load. As a matter of fact, when the rocks are
exposed to the surface, there is a situation of pressure difference (low
91
Introduction to atmospheric pressure and high pressure beneath the earth’s surface),
Environmental
Pollution which causes an expansion in rock outwards. This expansion leads to the
formation of a crack such expansion cracks are joints and are not to be
confused with faults. Concentric sheets of massive rocks, such as granite,
break and get separated by these joints. The reduction of the load from
the underlying rocks causes the formation of additional joints. The
successive removal of sheets of outer rocks is called as exfoliation. Each
of the concentric broken rock sheets is called as exfoliation sheet.
Unloaded granite rock mass often has a structure resembling a dome,
which is called as exfoliation dome.

Figure 21: Unloading (Source- www.teach.albion.edu)

• Thermal expansion and contraction

There is a difference in temperature in a period of 24 hours. The
temperature is higher during the day and lesser during the night. This
causes differential expansion and contraction in the individual mineral
grains in rocks. This leads to granular disintegration of individual
mineral grains from the rocks. Therefore, expansion and contraction
contribute to physical weathering.
• Freeze-thaw weathering
It is also called as frost weathering or ice wedging (Figure 22). It is
caused because of the ability of water to freeze and thaw because of the
accompanying changes in temperatures. Water upon freezing can expand
up to 9%. Water gets caught up in the cracks of various rocks. Expansion
of water exerts large pressure on the walls and bottom of cracks. The
cracks get widened up and eventually break away from the rocks.
Freeze-thaw weathering is dominant in areas lying in upper-middle and
lower-high latitudes.

92 Figure 22: Frost wedging (Source- www.teach.albion.edu)

• Salt crystal growth Soil Quality and
Its Pollution
There is a presence of dissolved salts in water which can fill up the
cracks. Upon filling up the cracks and the consequential evaporation, the
salt crystals begin accumulating in these cracks. They eventually break
apart the rocks. Salt crystal growth is the most common phenomenon of
physical weathering in arid areas and rocky coastal regions, where there
is an abundance of dissolved salts in water.
• Hydration
In this process, water molecule attaches itself to the crystalline structure
of minerals without an associated change in mineral composition.
Mineral expands upon hydration and shrinks on dehydration. Such
hydration and dehydration expands and contracts the cracks in the rocks
resulting in the disintegration of rocks. Salt and clay minerals are prone
to the processes of hydration and dehydration.
Chemical weathering
It involves chemical processes where ions from rock minerals form new
materials upon combining with other materials and could be released into the
water. These new materials are more stable in comparison to the original
rocks. The processes of chemical weathering include-
• Oxidation
Various minerals in rocks can be oxidised upon their contact with
oxygen present in water and forms oxides of the mineral (Figure 23).
Interestingly, water is rich in oxygen content. Metals including
aluminium and iron are most commonly oxidised causing the formation
of aluminium and iron oxides as new products. These oxides are
chemically more stable in comparison to the original rocks and they
provide a distinctive colour to the new products. Further, they are less
hard and larger in volume. Iron oxides could provide orange, red or
yellow colour to the rocks, while the aluminium oxides appear yellowish
in rocks. Oxidation is a very common phenomenon commonly seen as
rust in various equipment made of iron.

Figure 23: Chemical weathering by oxidation (Source- www.teach.albion.edu)

93
Introduction to • Carbonation and solution
Environmental
Pollution Water contains a huge amount of dissolved carbon dioxide in addition to
dissolved oxygen. Such dissolved carbon dioxide is obtained from
atmosphere or decaying organic matter. Weathering can be caused
because of carbonation when carbon dioxide dissolved in water
chemically reacts with rock minerals producing carbonates and
bicarbonates depending upon the composition of minerals (Figure 24).
The effect of carbonation weathering is best seen in the case of carbonate
rocks particularly limestone. During the process of carbonation, when
water containing dissolved carbon dioxide comes into contact with
limestone, the calcium and carbonate in limestone separate from each
other. Water carries away the calcium and bicarbonate ions produced in
the chemical reaction. Since the role of water is highly significant,
carbonation weathering is seen maximum in humid regions. They form
cliff in arid climates.

Figure 24: Chemical weathering by carbonation and solution (Source- www.teach.albion.edu)

Carbonation leads to solution where the rock matter is dissolved in water. For
example, rock salt (mineral- halite/ NaCl) is highly susceptible to solution in
water, even without involving the process of carbonation. Minerals that are
insoluble or slightly soluble in water dissolves better in water which is acidic.
Carbon dioxide creates acidic conditions in water (forms carbonic acid) and
therefore assists chemical weathering via carbonation and solution. Other
acids can also be present which have been derived from decaying organic
matter. They can also facilitate the solution of minerals. This can be seen in
cases of exposed rocks where there is a growth of lichens and mosses. They
secrete different kinds of acids which eventually mix with water and aids in
chemical weathering.
• Hydrolysis
It is different from hydration seen in case of physical weathering. In
hydrolysis, water reacts with chemical components of minerals in rocks
producing new compounds. Here the dissolved oxygen or carbon dioxide
does not participate. There is a reaction between the hydrogen ions, the
hydroxide ions and the minerals in rocks. Mostly the silicate minerals are
susceptible to hydrolysis. It produces clay minerals. Interestingly, clay
minerals are also affected by hydration. Water being a weathering agent,
hydrolysis is not limited to exposed portions of rocks but also affects the
subsurface in rocks (Figure 25).
94
 Soil Quality and
Its Pollution

Figure 25: Chemical weathering by hydrolysis (Source- www.teach.albion.edu)

Biotic weathering-
It involves weathering caused because of fauna and flora. Various animals or
plants could be involved in assisting the process of weathering. Plant roots
can develop in cracks of the rocks breaking it apart. Animals, large or small,
could be involved in enlarging the cracks and breaking the rocks apart
(Figure 26). Recently, anthropogenic activities have turned out to be the
biggest contributor of biotic weathering. Such activities include agriculture,
mining, transportation, construction, industrialization, urbanisation, etc.

Figure 26: Biological weathering

There are various factors that affect the process of weathering. They include-
• Climate
Chemical weathering is enhanced by humid climatic conditions and
diminished by arid climate. Arid regions see more of physical weathering
such as salt crystal growth or hydration. Salt crystal growth is also
effective in marine coastal regions where there is an abundance of salts.
Temperature is also known to affect weathering. Chemical weathering is
enhanced in high temperatures because of increased chemical reactions.
Tropical rainforests see a significant amount of chemical weathering.
Physical weathering dominates in rocks of arid and cold climate.
Recently, air pollution has been on the rise. It increases the acidity of
atmospheric moisture consequentially increasing weathering rate. The
great monuments have been getting rotten away because of such rise in
air pollution levels. These monuments include Taj Mahal of India and
the Great Sphinx of Egypt.
95
Introduction to • Rock type
Environmental
Pollution Weathering is affected by the type of bedrock (hard/soft,
broken/unbroken, or soluble/insoluble). A rock strong for a particular
environment could be weak for another. For example, limestone is
resistant in arid regions but susceptible to carbonation in humid regions.
Quartzite is chemically least reactive and hard but brittle and prone to
physical weathering.
• Structural weakness of rocks
There could be the presence of cracks, joints, faults, etc. which affects
the processes of weathering. They can increase the surface area exposed
to processes of weathering.
• Slope orientation
The exposure of slope to sun, wind and precipitation is affected by the
orientation of the slope. This, in turn, influences the process of
weathering.
• Vegetation
They can provide a protective covering from agents of weathering but
the organic acids produced by their rocks aids the process of chemical
weathering. Additionally, plant roots are responsible for breaking the
rocks via enlargement of cracks.
Development of Soil Horizons
The process of soil development begins when flora and fauna colonize the
rocks or the parent material on which soil is bound to form. The onset of
organic processes in the rock fragments or mineral particles initiates the
development of differences from the surface downwards through the regolith
i.e. the parent material. In the beginning, vertical differences arise due to the
accumulation of organic matter and removal of dissolved minerals and finer
particles from upper layers by water percolating downwards which deposits
them at lower levels.
The vertical cross-section of soil in a given region from the surface and upper
layers down to the regolith or parent material is called as soil profile.
Analysis of soil profile helps in recognizing different soil types and their
development. With time, the vertical differentiation becomes more prominent
incorporating the effects of climate, vegetation, fauna, topography, slope
orientation etc.
Soil Horizons
Several distinct layers, differentiated by their physical and chemical
properties, as seen in well-developed soils within their soil profiles are called
soil horizons (Figure 27 and 28 and 29). The differences in these horizons
and the various processes behind these differences help in classifying the
soils. Various alphabets are used to designate the soil horizons. It refers to
horizon’s composition and the position in the soil profile.
There is an O horizon at the surface mostly in places where there is an
abundance of litter i.e. decomposed vegetation. It is a layer consisting of
96 humus and organic debris; the letter ‘O’ indicating high organic content in
this horizon. A horizon is located below the ‘O’ horizon. It is commonly Soil Quality and
Its Pollution
called as topsoil. Generally, the A horizon contains decomposed organic
matter as a result of which is dark in colour. E horizon is placed beneath the
A horizon. It is named after the strong eluvial processes existing in this zone.
These are lighter-coloured. The B horizon is located beneath this E horizon.
It is a zone of accumulation. The materials which are removed from the A and
E horizons are getting deposited in B horizon. Soils in the B horizon have
little humus, except soils with surplus organic debris well mixed vertically. C
horizon is located beneath the B horizon. It consists of the weathered parent
material or regolith from which the soil has developed. It could be formed of
deposits of rock materials transported by water, wind, etc. or fragmented
bedrock. The lowest layer is called as R horizon. It is the unchanged parent
material.
Soils can develop different horizons distinctly depending upon the processes
involved in soil formation and development. Some horizons could be missing
altogether. The horizon boundaries could be sharp or gradual depending upon
various processes involved. There could be variations in texture and colour
even within a horizon.
Distinct soil profiles could be seen in different types of soils. For example, a
laterite soil does not have an ‘O’ horizon because of the rapid decomposition
of plant litter. It is found in regions of humid tropical and subtropical climate.
There is heavy precipitation and the temperatures are high. In the case of
podzol soils, there is a distinct ash-grey coloured sub-layer of silica in ‘A’
horizon. It is found in cold mid-latitude climatic conditions which are humid.
In case of calcified soils, there is a layer of calcium carbonate, also called as
caliche. It is very hard because of these depositions. It is found in prairie
grasslands. They are humus rich and considered most productive soils for
agriculture. These have been shown in figure 30.

Figure 27: Soil profile (Source- Physical geography, Gabler, Peterson, Trapasso and Sack)
97
Introduction to
Environmental
Pollution

Figure 28: Different horizons in mature and immature soils (Source- Physical
geography, Gabler, Peterson, Trapasso and Sack)

98
 Soil Quality and
Its Pollution

Figure 29: Five different soil profiles shown in ideal conditions (Source- Physical
geography, Gabler, Peterson, Trapasso and Sack)

Figure 30: (a) laterite soil (b) podzol (c) calcified soil

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

Note a) Write your answer in about 50 words
b) Check your answer with possible answers given at the end of
the unit.
1) Discuss the important properties of soil.
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
2) “Weathering plays an important role in the development of soil profile
and influence soil properties too”-justify with proper clarification.
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
99
Introduction to
Environmental 4.4 DIFFERENT KINDS OF SOIL
Pollution
Soil classification
Soils have been classified into three orders depending upon the soil forming
factors. They are:
(1) Azonal soils (2) Intra-zonal soils and (3) Zonal soils
1) Azonal soils
They are immature soils i.e. they lack well-developed soil profiles.
Distinct soil horizons cannot be seen in the case of azonal soils. This is as
a result of non-availability of ample time necessary for the development
of soil profile. There could also be the presence of steep slopes which
might have restricted development of soil profile. The impact of climate
is absent in azonal soils. Examples of azonal soils include alluvial soils
(in river plains), lithosols (mountain soils such as soils on the Himalayas),
etc.
2) Intra-zonal soils
They can be located within various zonal soils. There is the development
of soil profile which is more or less well defined. They are further divided
into:
• Calcimorphic or calcareous soils- These soils develop from calcium-
rich rocks such as limestone. They are further divided into-
• Rendzina soils- These soils are thin in volume and have less water
retention capacity.
• Terra Rossa soils- These soils are deep red in appearance and are found
in areas receiving high rainfall.
• Hydromorphic soils- These soils develop in wetlands. They are divided
into-
• Gley soils- Pore spaces in these soils get saturated with water and there
is an absence of soil air. This causes the development of anaerobic
conditions which reduces the iron contents in parent rocks. Therefore,
there is an appearance of grey/blue colour with small red patches.
• Peat soils- These soils develop in conditions preventing complete
breakdown of vegetation.
• Halomorphic soils- These soils develop when soil becomes salinized.
The concentrations of salts elevate to very high levels.
3) Zonal soils
These soils have distinct soil horizons. The soil profile is well-developed.
Therefore, these soils are ‘mature’. They have developed over long
periods of time in stable conditions. There is an extensive feffect of
climate and the associated vegetation on the development of soil
horizons. The impact or rock type on soil development is limited. Zonal
soils are classified as:

100
• Laterite soils- They are found in areas receiving high precipitation such Soil Quality and
Its Pollution
as equatorial Rain forests. The climatic conditions are hot and humid.
The phenomenon of leaching is dominant in these soils. Oxides of iron
get deposited giving the laterite soils are reddish appearance. Laterite
soils are also rich in aluminium.

• Red soils- They are found in tropical areas which receive high amounts
of rainfall. Leaching is very high in these soils. Depositions of iron and
aluminium oxides are found. The fertility of these soils is very less.
• Red and yellow soils- They are found in areas with an abundance of
precipitation and high temperature. Soil is prone to leaching. Although
these soils are susceptible to erosion, they have well-developed soil
horizon. It becomes good for agricultural practices on the addition of
fertilizers.

• Black soils- They have their origin from lava flows. They get formed
and developed on basaltic bedrocks. They have very high water retention
capacity. They are well suited for the production of dry crops.
• Red desert soils- They are found in tropical areas devoid of ample
precipitation, i.e. in arid areas. The horizons are underdeveloped, the
texture is coarse, and the fertility ranges from moderate to high.
Application of irrigation and rationalization of salt content makes the soil
productive. Their most important feature is the saline nature. Lime gets
brought up to the surface because of excessive dryness.

• Chernozems- These soils are found in grasslands in the temperate

regions of the world, receiving little precipitation. It is distinctively black
in colour because of a thick layer of humus. It is also called as
Black Earth. There is a balance of leaching and evaporation because of
the moderate levels of precipitation. Humus does not percolate and get
leached away. The texture of these soils is clayey. It is basic in nature
and is high in fertility.

• Chestnut- They are found in the outer areas of chernozem belt which are
arid. They have low humus content. They are light coloured and their
fertility is considered to be better than chernozems.
• Seirozems- They are found in continental deserts of the middle latitude
regions of the world including Central Asia and North America. There is
poor development of soil profile. Humus content is very low and lime is
found in good concentrations. They are greyish in appearance. They
become fertile when provided with irrigation.

• Podzols- They are found in forests of mid-latitude regions which are

humid. They are also found in coniferous forests which receive moderate
or low precipitation. In these regions, melting of snow accounts for the
flow of water, supporting the process of leaching. This causes high
acidity. There is a slow decomposition of organic matter because of the
presence of thick forests. Their fertility is low which can be improved by
adding lime and fertilizers.
101
Introduction to • Tundra soils- They are found along polar margins of Tundra belt. They
Environmental
Pollution show slow chemical and organic changes and associated acidic reactions.
The soil profile is very homogenous and fertility is very low. These
regions are also called as permafrost regions.

Apart from this classification, zonal soils are also divided into three types:
pedocal, pedalfer and laterite soils.

• Pedalfers- They contain oxides of iron (in ferrous form) and aluminium.
The oxides are greater in concentration in comparison to silica. They are
found in humid regions.

• Pedocals- They are found in arid and semiarid regions of the world.
They have little organic matter and are rich in calcium carbonate. The
‘A’ layer i.e. the topsoil is thin. The minerals soluble in the water get
accumulated in ‘B’ layer when the water percolates down. There is the
development of a layer of calcium carbonate called as caliche.

United States soil classification system

The Natural Resources Conservation Service of United States of America
divides the soil into 12 distinct soil orders (Figure 31 to 34).

4) Oxisols- They develop in areas receiving high temperature and rainfall,

basically referring to the tropical and subtropical regions of the world.
There is a mixture of oxides of iron and aluminium, quartz, kaolin clay
and organic matter. The soil profile is not very distinct with improperly
marked horizons. There is heavy leaching and chemical weathering of
soil. They may also contain laterite layers.

5) Ultisols- They are found in areas receiving surplus precipitation brought

by the thunderstorms and cyclones. Weathering gets enhanced because of
the abundance of humidity and warm temperatures. This also boosts the
process of leaching, which in turn reduces the concentration of base
cations. There is a dominance of oxides of iron and aluminium. They
provide reddish appearance to these soils.

6) Spodsols- They are found in areas with coniferous vegetation. This

causes them to be modified by podsolization. Parent materials are sand
rich. The plant litter contains little base cations and are responsible for
acidic accumulations in the spodsols. A mixture of organic debris and
aluminium is seen deposited in ‘B’ horizon. They may be devoid of iron.
There is an alluvial layer in ‘A’ horizon the colour of which is similar to
quartz sand. There are little silicate clay and humus in the ‘A’ horizon of
these soils.

102
 Soil Quality and
Its Pollution

Figure 31: (a) Spodosols (b) Ultisols and (c) Oxisols (Source- Physical geography,
Gabler, Peterson, Trapasso and Sack)

7) Vertisols- They are found in clayey soils in areas of strong seasonality of

rainfall (e.g. tropical wet and dry climate). They can show contraction
and expansion depending upon the absence or presence of moisture. This
constantly shrinking and swelling causes disruption in soil profile
development. They are also referred to as “self-ploughing” soils. They are
found in regions containing shale as its parent material.
8) Mollisols- They are found in the grasslands. They have dark coloured
topsoil caused because of the deposition of humus and organic litter.
They are highly productive and are basic in nature. Mollisols found in
arid dry areas show calcification.
9) Alfisols- They are found in forests where the parent material has been
significantly weathered. The distinct feature of these soils is illuviation of
clay in B horizon. The surface horizons are lightly coloured. Further, base
cations are found in high concentrations.

Figure 32: (a) Vertisols (b) Mollisols and (c) Alfisols (Source- Physical
geography, Gabler, Peterson, Trapasso and Sack)
10) Entisols- They are immature soils. The soil profile, and the associated
horizons, is not well developed. Recently deposited sediments can be 103
Introduction to seen which have been carried by agents of erosion such as wind, water
Environmental
Pollution and glacier. They can develop into other soil types with the passage of
time.
11) Inceptisols- They are young soils which are better developed in
comparison to entisols. They are found in the arctic tundra type of
climate. They are characterised by glacial deposits and stream alluvium
deposits. The soil profile is relatively immaturely developed and the
parent materials can be seen getting weathered.
12) Histosols- They are found in poorly drained places such as swamps,
bogs, or meadows. There is a thick accumulation and deposition of
organic matter. Excess of water prohibits bacterial decomposition. These
soils are source of peat.

Figure 33: (a) Entisols (b) Inceptisols and (c) Histosols (Source- Physical geography,
Gabler, Peterson, Trapasso and Sack)

13) Andisols- They are developed from volcanic parent material. The process
of weathering is unique in these volcanic deposits. There is an
accumulation of iron oxides, aluminium oxides and allophane. These
soils are mostly fertile in nature.
14) Gelisols- They are found in areas with very cold climatic conditions.
There is the presence of permafrost in these soils.
15) Aridsols- As the name suggests, they are found in arid areas which have
a very dry climate. There is poor development of soil profile. Horizons
are not very distinct. They are light-coloured because of the little
presence of humus and organic debris. The vegetation growth is very
restricted. There is an excess of evaporation causing movement of soil
water in an upward direction. This is accompanied by salt deposition near
the ground surface. It is referred to as salinization.

104
 Soil Quality and
Its Pollution

Figure 34: (a) Andisols (b) Gelisols and (c) Aridisols (Source- Physical geography,
Gabler, Peterson, Trapasso and Sack)

Alkaline soil
Soils having pH above 7 are called as alkaline soils. They have high
concentrations of sodium, calcium and magnesium. Nutrient is limited in its
availability in these soils resulting in stunted plants. Alkaline soils are also
called as sweet soil. These soils can occur naturally in areas with little
precipitation such as sandy desert soils. Soils high in certain minerals, soils in
peat bogs and dense forests are highly alkaline soils. Hard water and water
containing lime can elevate the soil pH to alkaline levels. Therefore, peat
moss or lime can be added to increase the alkalinity of soils. Plants surviving
well in alkaline soil include geraniums, lilies and maiden hair fern. Alkaline
soils can be treated by addition of gypsum. Simultaneously, these soils must
be flushed with huge amounts of water. Alternatively, acidifying minerals
like pyrite could be added to deal with alkalinity of soils. Further, alum,
calcium chloride or urea could be added as well to treat alkaline soils (Figure
35).

Figure 35: Alkaline soils (Source- http://soil-environment.blogspot.com)

105
Introduction to Saline soil
Environmental
Pollution
Soils having high concentration of salts, added naturally by weathering or
artificially by agricultural processes, are called as saline soils. Salts are found
naturally in soil and water. These salts include ions such as sodium, calcium,
potassium, magnesium and chloride. Sodium ion-rich salts are called as sodic
soils (Figure 36). Precipitation helps in removing these salts on a regular
basis. Drier climate causes accumulation of these salts. Salts through
irrigation water may also get added to soils making them saline. Plants utilize
the water given via irrigation, leaving behind the salts. This makes the soil
saline. The consequences of salinity include deterioration of soil quality,
detrimental effects on plant growth, damage to infrastructure and ultimately
soil erosion. Saline soils can be reclaimed by improving drainage. It includes
both surface and subsurface drainage. Drainage ditches can be made. Salinity
can also be treated by the process of leaching. Organic amendments have
been proposed in the recent past to reclaim saline soils. Manure from
farmyard, sugar factory molasses, crop residues and green manures could be
added to solubilize the salts causing salinity. Chemical amendments have
also been proposed including addition of gypsum to saline soils.
Interestingly, plant species can tolerate salinity when grown in saline soils.
They are called as halophytes. For example, cereals, alfalfa, cotton, etc.

Figure 36: Saline soil (Source- www.parksandrecbusiness.com)

4.5 SOIL POLLUTION

The presence of a chemical or substance out of place and/or present at a
higher-than-normal concentration that has adverse effects on any non-
targeted organism is referred as “Soil pollution” (FAO and ITPS, 2015). It
has been identified as a major soil threat affecting global soils and
ecosystems by Status of the World’s Soil Resources Report (SWSR) (FAO
UN, 2018). The pollutants can be both natural and anthropogenic. Natural
components of minerals when present in higher concentrations can become
toxic. Anthropogenic sources of soil pollution can vary from industrial,
agrochemical and other synthetic products, industrial activities, tourism,
urban and industrial sprawl, and construction works. The influence of
population and human activities have created increased pressures to soil
pollution.
106
Causes Soil Quality and
Its Pollution
Anthropogenic:- industrial, domestic, livestock, municipal wastes,
agrochemicals, petroleum-derived products, oil-spill, landfill leaching,
atmospheric deposition from smelting, transportation, spray drift from
pesticides, incomplete combustion of substances, radionuclide deposition,
atmospheric weapon testing and nuclear accidents. Several methods and
practices contributing to soil pollution are listed in Table 2.
Natural:- Original rocks and the weathering processes can release metals and
other contaminants in the soil. Numerous soil parent resources are natural
sources of heavy metals and other elements, such as radionuclides, and these
can cause a hazard to the environment and human health at high
concentrations. Arsenic (As) pollution is one of the main environmental
problems around the world. Natural sources of Arsenic comprise volcanic
eruption and weathering of As‑bearing minerals and Ores, and zones of
arsenopyrite (gossans), formed by weathering. Arsenic is more bioaccessible
when it comes from natural sources.
Soils and rocks are also natural causes of the radioactive gas Radon (Rn).
Radon gas diffuses from deeper layers of the earth to the surface by soil
which depends on structure and its. High natural radioactivity has been
reported in acidic igneous rocks, in feldspar-rich rocks and illite-rich rocks
and in soils containing carbonates. Natural hazards like volcanic eruptions or
forest fires releases many toxic elements into the environment. These toxic
elements contain dioxin-like compounds and polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs). High concentration of heavy metals like copper (Cu),
nickel (Ni), mercury (Hg), chromium (Cr), and zinc (Zn) in volcanic soils or
with the weathering of the parent material, are well reported by many
researchers.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) can also occur naturally in soils.
They are generally of cosmogenic origin, being quite common in cosmic dust
samples and meteorites or derived from the diagenetic modification
progressions of waxes contained in soil organic matter.
Asbestos (NOA) occur naturally in soils formed from ultramafic igneous
rock.
Other than the above-mentioned pollutants, emerging pollutants, pathogens
and microbial pollutants are also considered as soil pollutants. A breief listing
of all the pollutants aare given in Table 3.
Table 2: Methods and practices contributing to Soil Pollution

Sources Methods
Agriculture • Accumulation of animal manures
• Excessive input of chemical
fertilisers
• Illicit dumping of tainted crops on
land
Mining and Quarrying • Use of explosives to blow up 107
Introduction to mines
Environmental
Pollution • Machineries emitting toxic
byproducts or leaking
Sewage sludge • Improper sanitation causes sludge
to leak at surrounding soil
Dredge spoils • Improper dredging at fertile land
causes external pollution
Household • Improper waste disposal or
sanitation
Demolition and construction • Non-biodegradable debris which
increase toxicity by undergoing
chemical reactions
Industrial • Poisonous emissions or liquid
discharges which are not filtered
or neutralized
Physical Agents • High intensity and amount of
rainfall, temperature and wind
• Topographic factors, lithological
factors, vegetation and soil
characteristics
Biological Agents • Pathogenic micro-organisms
excreted by human beings,
domestic animals and those
already present in soil; enteric
bacteria and protozoa
Air-borne sources • Emissions from factory, thermal
power plants, automobile and
domestic chimney, mica flakes
and chips from mines

Table 3: Class of pollutants in soil

Category Example Sources

Heavy Metals, Pb, Cd, Cu, Hg, Sn, Zn Mine tailings, paints,
Metalloids (>4.5g.cm3) leaded gasoline,
pesticides,
Nonmetals As, Sb, Se
petrochemicals
Nitogen, Phosphorus NPK Fertilisers Synthetic Fertilisers
Pesticides Organophosphorus Agricultural
compounds, carbamates, fertilisers
pyrethroids,
benzimidizole
Poly Aromatic Anthracene, fluoranthene, Longterm wastewater
Hydrocarbons (PAHs) Napthalene, Pyrene, irrigation, reused
108
 Soil Quality and
Benzopyrene, sewage sludge,
Its Pollution
Phenantrene fertilisers, coal strip
mining
Persistent Organic Polychlorinatedbiphenyls, Fertilisers, Chemicals
Pollutants DDT, Dioxins, Furans,
Per- and polyfluorinated
alkyl substances (PFAS)
Radionuclides U238, Th232, Sr90, Cs137, Atmospheric Nuclear
K40 Weapons, Coal fire
power plants, mining
radionuclides
Emerging Pollutants Pharmaceutical and Miconazole
personal care products (fungicide), Fluoxetin
(PPCPs) (antidepressants)
Pathogenic Eudaphic pathogenic Animal faeces,
Microorganisms organisms, soil irrigation with
transmitted pathogens, untreated domestic
Enteric pathogens wastewater
Antimicrobial Antibiotics in human and Domestic or wild
Resistant Bacteria and veterinary medicine, animal faecal
Genes agriculture. droppings

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

Note a) Write your answer in about 50 words
b) Check your answer with possible answers given at the end of
the unit.
1) Enlist and discuss different types of soils.
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
2) Identify the natural and anthropogenic soil pollutants.
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..

4.6 SOIL POLLUTION AND AGRICULTURE

Excessive use of chemical fertilisers to boost agricultural production causes
alteration in physical and chemical properties of soil, although they act as
inorganic plant nutrients. Most dangerous pollutants are different kinds of
biocides, which destroy microorganisms including useful bacteria and thus
lower the quality of soils significantly. Biocides reach the food chains in
109
Introduction to toxic forms and enter the bodies of humans and animals through the food
Environmental
Pollution they eat. Biocides first kill germs, unwanted plants and then degrade the
quality of soils and reach the plants through their roots. Theses toxic
elements are finally transferred to human bodies, and thus kill people through
fatal diseases. Biocides are thus called creeping deaths.
Chemical Pollution
The use of biocides gained momentum in India with the Green Revolution
since 1960s. According, an estimate about 100,000 tonnes of biocides are
used annually. As per WHO report, 500,000 persons become the casualties of
biocides in one or the other way every year. The annual production of various
biocides in India has increased from 2,350 tonnes in 1955 to 149,795 tonnes
in 1983, thus registering more than 63 times increase in their production. The
following types of biocides (pesticides, insecticides, herbicides etc.) are
generally used to get rid off unwanted plants and to kill harmful insects and
destroy pests to boost agricultural production.
i) Organo-phosphate compounds
Eg; Malathion
These are used to kill insects by damaging their nervous system. Frequent
use of these chemicals results in accumulation of acetylchlorine in the
soils and ultimately these are transported to plant tissues. The mammals
dependin g on these plants are thus adversely affected.
ii) Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
Eg; DDT, Dieldrin, Aldrin
These insecticides are generally used to kill insects and micro-organisms.
The following two characteristics made the more popular: -
a) These chemicals are toxic to a large number of plants,
microorganisms and insects, and thus they can destroy many
unwanted plants simultaneously.
b) These chemicals stay for a relatively longer period in the soils and
other components of physical environment and are not required to be
used frequently.
Besides, they are less toxic to humans
D.D.T, proved as a boon to human society in the beginning because its
use helped in killing a host of disease carrier insects such as mosquitoes
and millions of people will be saved from typhoid, malaria etc. D.D.T
proved successful in eradicating malaria, encephalitis, dengue fever etc.
D.D.T was used world over to kill insects and germs upto 1971, without
any suspicion but in 1972 its dangerous effects on humans and animals
were brought to notice in the USA and hence its use was banned in the
US government. It has been found out that D.D.T may persist in soils for
20 to 25 years and thus reach the food chains through the plants.

110
 a) Arsenic containing pesticides Soil Quality and
Its Pollution
They reach the soils and are transported to plants and thus to food
grains. These chemicals cause gastric and digestive problem in
humans.
b) Sodium fluoroacetates
These are used to kill rodents and accumulate in the soils to reach the
food chains.
Metal Pollution
Metals present in air can accumulate upto 1-2 inches of soil and tend to stay,
due to their persistent nature. Old orchards and agricultural lands may have
more lead and arsenic in the soil because of old insecticide residues.
Likewise, soil next to heavy traffic may have higher lead levels because of
exhaust from non-banned leaded gasoline.

4.7 MINING AND SOIL POLLUTION

Environmental effects of mining are numerous, occurring at local, regional
and global scales through direct and indirect mining practices. The mining
wastes when dumped onto open grounds, adversely affect by contaminating
soil or groundwater, erosion and creation of sinkholes. First and foremost,
every mining practice starts with large scale deforestation therefore the fertile
topsoil which was held by plant roots becomes exposed to soil erosion. Then
due to blasting and excavation activities soil contaminants are released and
exposed.

4.8 EFFECTS OF SOIL POLLUTION

Soil pollution is a global problem, causing harmful effect on soil and
environment at large. Pollution of soil will decrease the agricultural output of
a land. Major soil pollution effects are:-
Inferior Crop Quality
Regular unabated use of chemical fertilisers and pesticides can decline the
fertility of soil at a rapid rate and alter the structure of soil. In due course of
time, soil becomes less productive and toxic chemicals accumulate in large
quantity. Also, continued cropping on these soils will eventually lead to poor
quality of crops too.
Health Effects
Human exposure to a soil pollutant will depend on the pollutant itself and on
the environments and activities at a particular site. Usually, humans can be
exposed to pollutants present in soil through ingestion or through the edible
plants or animals that have accumulated large amounts of soil pollutants
which is known as bioaccumulation; and also by dermal exposure, from parks
and gardens; or by inhaling soil pollutants which are present in vapour form.
Humans may also be exposed to secondary contamination of water supplies
111
Introduction to and from deposition of air contaminants; in some situations, soils play an
Environmental
Pollution important role as the source of contaminants in these two processes. Once
these contaminants are bioaccumulated they tend to bio magnify as humans
and other animals tend to consume contaminated food from different sources.
The ten chemicals or groups of chemicals as per WHO include soil pollutants
such as, Cd, Pb and Hg; dioxin and dioxin-like substances and highly
hazardous pesticides (HHP). “Pesticides that appear to cause severe or
irreversible harm to health or the environment under conditions of use in a
country may be considered to be and treated as highly hazardous “(FAO and
WHO, 2016). All these have chronic effects owing to long-term exposure and
specially children, pregnant women and undernourished people are more
vulnerable to pesticide exposure. Pathogens existing in soil may also pollute
food, posing hazards to human health.
The absorption by plant roots is one of the chief routes of entering heavy
metals into the food chain and varies according to the level of consumption.
Cadmium and lead are the most toxic metals for human. Food is the main
source of Cd intake by humans. Cadmium via food ingestion can enter
through the placenta during pregnancy, damaging cell membranes and DNA
and damage the endocrine systems, and can bring kidney, liver and bone
damage.
Pb affect some organs like liver, kidneys, spleen and lungs, instigating
biochemical imbalance, and triggering neurotoxicity, mostly in infants and
children. Organomercuric compounds, e.g. methylmercury, are highly toxic.
Mercury may make changes in human gastric and neural systems and can
cause death. Arsenic also enters in the body orally or by inhalation and is
stored mainly in the liver, lungs, kidneys, and heart, and small quantities
accumulating in muscle and nerve tissue and can lead to cancer. It can also
cause nervous systems disorders, liver and kidney failure as well as anemia
and skin cancer. Nickel can cause kidney, gastric, and liver, defects and
neurological effects. Zinc is related with anemia and tissue lesions, and while
the adverse effects of copper are liver and kidney damage in infants is likely
if exposure is long. A growing consciousness in terms of the importance of
vegetables and fruits to diet recommend that the monitoring of heavy metals
in food crops must be carried out regularly. The WHO and FAO established
the Codex Alimentarius (WHO and FAO, 1995), which recognizes safe limits
for contaminants in fruits, vegetables, fish products, and in animal feed.
Effect on Waterbodies
When water comes in contact with any polluted site, it dissolves some
amount of soil contaminant. The dissolved amount of contaminant can
infiltrate into permeable portions of land surface and can contaminate the
underlying ground water. This can also contaminate other neighbouring
waterbodies. This water will not be fit for human or animal consumption, due
to the presence of toxic chemicals. Even if the pollutant doesn’t get
dissolved, it can be carried up in solid form from one place to other.

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Impact on Ecosystem and Biodiversity Soil Quality and
Its Pollution
Soil is an important habitat of microorganisms, animals, reptiles, mammals,
birds and insects. Soil pollution can negatively impact the lives of the living
organisms and may result in their gradual death. Health threats to animals
grazing in polluted soil or microorganisms residing in the soil.
Pesticides
Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloroethylene, also known as DDT, was found useful
in controlling malaria and pests, during World War II. However, later after
knowing its adverse effects, the use of this chemical was banned. Overtime,
pests also became resistant to DDT, due to its regular use. Pesticides are
mostly, water - insoluble and non- biodegradable. This leads into their very
slow degradation and accumulation. Thus, the concentration of these
chemicals will increase, along the trophic levels. It causes many metabolic
and physiological disorders in humans as well.
https://www.toppr.com/guides/chemistry/environmental-chemistry/soil-
pollution/
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
Note a) Write your answer in about 50 words
b) Check your answer with possible answers given at the end of
the unit
1) Discuss the health effects of soil pollution.
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2) What are the effects of mining and agriculture on soil pollution?
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4.9 LET US SUM UP

While, by air and water circulation, the dilution and purification is rendered
possible, but in case of soil these processes cannot reduce the danger of
damage. Fertile soil is an important component of the habitat, which
contributes to the co-existence of flora-fauna and humanity. Rocks undergo
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Introduction to different processes of weathering and erosion, getting churned into small
Environmental
Pollution particles. They get mixed up with the organic residues and form a complex
mixture, commonly called as soil. Soil is a dynamic body, as its composition
varies from place to place. Soil majorly contains organic and inorganic
materials coupled with soil air and water. The presence of a chemical or
substance out of place and/or present at a higher-than-normal concentration
that has adverse effects on any non-targeted organism is referred as “Soil
pollution”. Soil pollution is a global problem, causing harmful effect on soil
and environment at large.

4.10 KEY WORDS

Soil fertilization: When nutrients are added to suffice the proper soil,
conditions needed for plant growth.
Humus: The plants and animals’ decay upon their death, and are acted upon
by soil micro-organisms, leading to the formation of an essential component
of soil.
Soil peds: Soil particles get clumped into masses.
Weathering: Physical disintegration and chemical decomposition of rocks.

4.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

Physical Geography. Robert E. Gabler, James F. Petersen, L. Michael
Trapasso, Dorothy Sack. Cengage Learning, 2008.
The Nature and Properties of Soils. 15th edition. Raymond R Weil and Nyle
C Brady. Pearson Education, 2017.
Soil Science: An Introduction by Indian Society of Soil Science (ISSS),
2015.

4.12 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Exercise 1.
1) Hint: Refer to section 4.3.
2) Hint: Refer to section 4.4.
Exercise 2.
1) Hint: Refer to section 4.8.
2) Hint: Refer to section 4.6 and 4.7.

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